["","300 JOHN RAWLS The key to a fair society is a just social contract between the state and individuals. IN CONTEXT For a social contract to be just, the needs of all IDEOLOGY individuals party to it must be treated equally. Liberalism To ensure equal treatment, social institutions FOCUS must be just: they must be accessible to all and Social justice redistribute where necessary. BEFORE 1762 Jean-Jacques Rousseau\u2019s Only just institutions can produce treatise Of The Social Contract a fair society. discusses the legitimacy of authority. Justice is the \ufb01rst virtue of social institutions. 1935 American economist Frank Knight\u2019s essay Economic Theory and Nationalism lays the basis for Rawls\u2019s understanding of the deliberative procedure. AFTER 1974 Robert Nozick publishes a critique of Rawls\u2019s A Theory of Justice under the title Anarchy, State, and Utopia. 1995 Gerald Cohen publishes a Marxist critique of Rawls. 2009 Amartya Sen publishes The Idea of Justice, which he dedicates to Rawls. A merican philosopher reaching decisions. Such steps are such as the education system, John Rawls\u2019s lifelong key to the process of democracy\u2014 the healthcare system, the tax preoccupation with ideas Rawls thought that it was the collection system, and the electoral to do with justice, fairness, and process of debate and deliberation system. Rawls was particularly inequality were shaped by his before an election, rather than the concerned with the process experience of growing up in racially act of voting itself, that gives by which wealth inequalities segregated Baltimore and serving democracy its true worth. translated into different levels of in the US Army. Rawls was political in\ufb02uence, with the result concerned with identifying a The inequality of wealth that the structure of social and framework of moral principles Rawls attempted to show that political institutions was inherently within which it is possible to make principles of justice cannot be biased in favor of wealthy individual moral judgments. For based solely on an individual\u2019s individuals and corporations. Rawls, these general moral moral framework. Rather, they are principles could only be justi\ufb01ed based on the way the individual\u2019s Writing at the time of the and agreed upon through the use of sense of morality is expressed and Vietnam War, which he considered commonly accepted procedures for preserved in social institutions\u2014 an unjust war, Rawls argued that civil disobedience needs to be","POSTWAR POLITICS 301 See also: John Locke 104\u201309 \u25a0 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 118\u201325 \u25a0 Immanuel Kant 126\u201329 \u25a0 John Stuart Mill 174\u201381 \u25a0 Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Robert Nozick 326\u201327 Principles of justice must be based on more than just individual morality, according to Rawls. The entire framework of society must be taken into account when formulating a system of justice. Economic and social This imbalance must be inequalities can lead to injustices corrected by the rules that govern our social institutions, such as the that favor rich, privileged healthcare system, the electoral system, individuals or corporations over and the education system. the less advantaged. understood as the necessary action into discriminatory institutions by arguing that, as economic of a just minority appealing to the such as conscription was deeply conditions improve due to conscience of the majority. He troubling to him, particularly when civilization\u2019s advancement, argued against the government\u2019s those institutions were the very questions of liberty become more policies of conscription, which bodies that purported to implement important. There are few, if any, allowed wealthy students to dodge or act on behalf of justice. instances where it is to an the draft while poorer students individual\u2019s or a group\u2019s advantage were often taken into the army Principles of justice to accept a lesser liberty for the because of one failed grade. The To Rawls, for justice to exist, it has sake of greater material means. translation of economic inequalities to be considered \u201cfair\u201d according to certain principles of equality. In his Rawls identi\ufb01es certain social In justice as fairness, theory of justice-as-fairness, Rawls and economic privileges as \u201cthreat the concept of right is develops two main principles of advantages.\u201d He calls these \u201cde prior to that of the good. justice. The \ufb01rst is that everyone facto political power, or wealth, or has an equal claim to basic native endowments,\u201d and they John Rawls liberties. The second is that \u201csocial allow certain people to take more and economic inequalities are to than a just share, much as a school be arranged so that they are both bully might take lunch money from reasonably expected to be to other students by virtue of being everyone\u2019s advantage, and attached bigger than them. Inequality\u2014 to positions and of\ufb01ces open to all.\u201d and the advantages based on this The \ufb01rst principle\u2014the principle inequality\u2014could not lie at the of liberty\u2014takes priority over the basis of any principle or theory of second principle\u2014the principle justice. Since inequalities are part of difference. He justi\ufb01es this of the reality of any society, Rawls concludes that \u201cthe arbitrariness \u276f\u276f","302 JOHN RAWLS of the world must be corrected for outcomes left on its own, social Envy tends to make by adjusting the circumstances of institutions imbued with a strong everyone worse off. the initial contractual situation.\u201d sense of justice can correct it. By \u201ccontractual situation,\u201d he John Rawls means a social contract between Multicultural society individuals\u2014both with each other Rawls sees a further role for just will be. The \u201cveil of ignorance\u201d and with all the institutions of the institutions in binding society means that nobody knows the state, even including the family. together. He believes that one of social position, personal doctrine, However, this social contract the most important lessons of or intellectual or physical attributes involves agreements between modernity is that it is possible to they themselves will have. They individuals on an unequal footing. live together under common rules might belong to any gender, sexual Since the state has an equal without necessarily sharing a orientation, race, or class. In this responsibility toward each citizen, common moral code\u2014as long way, the veil of ignorance ensures justice can only be secured if this as all individuals share a moral that everyone\u2014independent of inequality is corrected at its root. commitment to the structure of social position and individual society. If people agree that the characteristics\u2014is granted For Rawls, social institutions structure of society is fair, they justice: those deciding on their are key to making this correction\u2014 will be satis\ufb01ed, despite living circumstances must, after all, be by ensuring that all individuals among people who might possess happy to put themselves in their have equal access to them, and signi\ufb01cantly different moral codes. position. Rawls assumed that, from by developing a redistribution This, for Rawls, is the basis of behind the veil of ignorance, the mechanism that makes everyone pluralist, multicultural societies, social contract would necessarily better off. Rawls considers and social institutions are key be constructed to help the least liberalism and liberal democracies to ensuring fairness in such well-off members of society, since to be the political systems best complex social systems. everyone is ultimately afraid of suited to ensuring that this becoming poor and will want to redistribution is done fairly. The veil of ignorance construct social institutions that He believed that communist Rawls argues that, initially, protect against this. systems focus too much on the principles underpinning complete equality without redistribution need to be decided Rawls accepts that differences considering whether that equality behind what he calls \u201ca veil of in society are likely to persist, but produces the most good for ignorance.\u201d He imagines a situation argues that a fair principle of everyone. He thought that a in which the structure of an ideal justice would offer the greatest capitalist system with strong social society is being decided, but none bene\ufb01t to the least advantaged institutions is more likely to secure of those deciding on that structure members of society. Other scholars, a fair system of justice. Where knows what their place in the society including Indian theorist Amartya capitalism would produce unfair For Rawls, equal access for all to institutions such as public libraries is essential for a fair society, allowing everyone the same life chances regardless of their place in society.","POSTWAR POLITICS 303 Sen and Canadian Marxist Gerald Sen further argues that the social The Bengal famine was caused by Cohen, have questioned Rawls\u2019s contract in Rawls\u2019s de\ufb01nition is unequal economic relations between belief in the potential of a liberal \ufb02awed, since it assumes that people. Rawls\u2019s system, centered on capitalist regime to ensure these the contract only occurs at an political rather than economic structures, principles are adhered to. They also interpersonal level. He argues appears not to explain such disasters. question the bene\ufb01t of the \u201cveil of that the social contract is instead ignorance\u201d in modern societies, negotiated through the interests University Press. His ideas have where inequalities are deeply of a number of groups not directly spurred a series of debates on the embedded in social institutions. party to the contract, such as restructuring of the modern welfare A veil of ignorance is only of value, foreigners, future generations, system, both in the US and across many argue, if you are in the and even nature itself. the world. Many of his former position of starting from scratch. students, including Sen, are at Intrinsic inequality the core of these debates. In Criticisms of Rawls Gerald Cohen questions the trust recognition of his contribution to Sen believes that Rawls makes a Rawls places in liberalism. Cohen social and political theory, Rawls false distinction between political argues that liberalism\u2019s obsession was presented with the National and economic rights. For Sen, with self-interest maximization is Humanities Medal in 1999 by inequalities and deprivation are not compatible with the egalitarian President Bill Clinton, who stated largely a result of the absence of an intentions of the redistributive that his work had helped to revive entitlement to some goods, rather state policy that Rawls argues for. faith in democracy itself. \u25a0 than the absence of the goods He sees inequality as intrinsic to themselves. He uses the example of capitalism, and not simply a result the Bengal famine of 1943, which of an unfair state-redistribution was caused by a rise in food prices system. Capitalism and liberalism, brought about by urbanization, for Cohen, can never provide rather than an actual lack of food. the \u201cfair\u201d solution that Rawls The goods\u2014in this case food\u2014do was looking for. not represent an advantage in themselves. Instead, the advantage Despite these criticisms, is de\ufb01ned by the relationship Rawls\u2019s Theory of Justice remains between people and goods\u2014those one of the most in\ufb02uential who could afford food at the higher contemporary works of political price versus those who could not. theory, and is still the bestselling book published by Harvard John Rawls Rawls was born in Baltimore, the thesis on moral principles for son of prominent lawyer William individual moral judgments. Lee Rawls and Anna Abell Stump Rawls spent a year at the Rawls, president of the Baltimore University of Oxford, UK, where League of Women Voters. His he established close relations childhood was marked by the loss with legal philosopher H.L.A. of his two brothers to contagious Hart and political theorist Isaiah illnesses, which he had passed on Berlin. Over a long career, Rawls to them unknowingly. A shy man trained many leading \ufb01gures in with a stutter, Rawls studied political philosophy. philosophy at Princeton University. After completing his B.A., he Key works enlisted in the US Army and served in the Paci\ufb01c, touring the 1971 A Theory of Justice Philippines, and occupied Japan. 1999 The Law of Peoples He then returned to Princeton, 2001 Justice as Fairness: earning his Ph.D. in 1950 with a A Restatement","304 IN CONTEXT COLONIALISM IS IDEOLOGY VIOLENCE IN ITS Anti-colonialism NATURAL STATE FOCUS FRANTZ FANON (1925\u20131961) Decolonization BEFORE 1813 Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar is called \u201cThe Liberator\u201d when Caracas in Venezuela is taken from the Spanish. 1947 Gandhi\u2019s nonviolent protests eventually achieve independence for India from British rule. 1954 The Algerian War of Independence against French colonial rule begins. AFTER 1964 At a meeting of the UN, Che Guevara argues that Latin America has yet to obtain true independence. 1965 Malcolm X speaks of obtaining rights for black people \u201cby any means necessary.\u201d B y the middle of the 20th century, European colonialism was in fast decline. Exhausted by two world wars and challenged by the social changes that accompanied industrialization, the grip of many colonial powers on their territories had loosened. Grassroots movements demanding independence emerged with growing speed in the postwar era. The UK\u2019s hold over Kenya was shaken by the growth of the Kenyan African National Union, while India secured independence in 1947 after a long struggle. In South Africa, the \ufb01ght against colonial rule was entrenched in","POSTWAR POLITICS 305 See also: Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar 162\u201363 \u25a0 Mahatma Gandhi 220\u201325 \u25a0 Manabendra Nath Roy 253 \u25a0 Jomo Kenyatta 258 \u25a0 Nelson Mandela 294\u201395 \u25a0 Paulo Freire 297 \u25a0 Malcolm X 308\u201309 Colonialism involves Sometimes it is repression and loss necessary to respond to the violence of colonialism of dignity. with armed struggle. Violence underpins Colonialism is the repression of violence in its colonial rule. natural state. the far longer battle against impact on anti-imperialist thinking, The Algerian War raged from 1954\u2013 apartheid oppression. Yet questions and his work inspires activists and 1962 as French colonial forces tried to began to emerge about exactly politicians to this day. quell the Algerian independence what form postcolonial nations movement. Fanon became a passionate should take, and how best to deal Fanon examined the impact spokesman for the Algerian cause. with the legacy of violence and and legacy of colonialism. His view repression left behind by years of colonialism was closely tied up from French colonial rule, detailing of colonial rule. with white domination, and linked the course of the armed con\ufb02ict with a strong egalitarianism, and the way it led to the emergence Postcolonial thinking rejecting the human oppression of an independent nation. The Frantz Fanon was a French- and loss of dignity that colonial rule strategy and ideology of the armed Algerian thinker whose work deals entails. In part, this re\ufb02ects Fanon\u2019s anticolonial struggle are presented with the effects of colonialism, role as a participant in the \ufb01ght in their entirety, and he carries out and the response of oppressed against oppression. In his book a detailed analysis of the tactics peoples to the end of European rule. A Dying Colonialism, he puts used by both sides. Drawing on the earlier perspectives forward an eyewitness view of the of Marx and Hegel, Fanon takes Algerian struggle for independence Framework of oppression an idiosyncratic approach to the Fundamentally, however, Fanon\u2019s analysis of racism and colonialism. What matters is not contribution was theoretical rather His writing is concerned as much to know the world than practical, exposing the with language and culture as with but to change it. structures of oppression at work politics, and frequently explores Frantz Fanon within colonial systems. He the relations between these examined the hierarchies of different areas of enquiry, ethnicity that provided the showing how language and backbone of colonial oppression, culture are shaped by racism showing how they ensure not and other prejudices. Perhaps only a strictly ordered system of the most in\ufb02uential theorist of privilege, but also an expression decolonization\u2014the process of of difference that is cultural as emancipation from colonial well as political. In Algeria\u2014and oppression\u2014Fanon has had a major in other countries, such as Haiti\u2014 a postcolonial political order \u276f\u276f","306 FRANTZ FANON The Mau Mau uprising against colonial rule in Kenya was violently suppressed by British forces, causing divisions among the majority Kikuyu, some of whom fought for the British. was created with the explicit Colonialism was indeed violence in Any response to colonialism intention of avoiding this kind its natural state, but a violence that needed to be developed in of domination. manifested itself in a number of opposition to the assumptions of different ways. It might be colonial rule, but also independently Fanon\u2019s vision of decolonization expressed in brute force, but of it, in order to shape new has an ambivalent relationship with also within the stereotypes and identities and values that were violence. Famously, his work The social divisions associated with not de\ufb01ned by Europe. Armed Wretched of the Earth is introduced the racist worldview that Fanon struggle and violent revolution by Jean-Paul Sartre in a preface identi\ufb01ed as de\ufb01ning colonial life. might be necessary, but it would be that emphasizes the position of The dominance of white culture doomed to failure unless a genuine violence in the struggle against under colonial rule meant that any decolonization could take place. colonialism. Sartre presents the forms of identity other than those piece as a call to arms, suggesting of white Europeans were viewed Toward decolonization that the \u201cmad impulse to murder\u201d negatively. Divisions existed The Wretched of the Earth is an expression of the \u201ccollective between colonizers and the remains Fanon\u2019s most signi\ufb01cant unconsciousness\u201d of the oppressed, people they ruled on the basis publication, and provides a brought about as a direct response of the presumed inferiority of theoretical framework for the to years of tyranny. As a result their culture. emergence of individuals and of this, it would be easy to read nations from the indignity of Fanon\u2019s work as a clarion call to Fanon believed that violence colonial rule. Exploring in depth the armed revolution. was part and parcel of colonial assumptions of cultural superiority rule, and his work is a damning identi\ufb01ed elsewhere in his work, Colonial racism indictment of the violence meted Fanon develops an understanding However, concentrating on the out by colonial powers. He argues of white cultural oppression revolutionary aspect of Fanon\u2019s that the legitimacy of colonial through a forensic analysis of the work does a disservice to the oppression is supported only by way it functioned: forcing the white complexity of his thought. For him, military might, and this violence\u2014 minority\u2019s values onto the whole of the violence of colonialism lay on as its solitary foundation\u2014is society. Nevertheless, he prescribes the part of the oppressors. focused on the colonized as an inclusive approach to the a means of ensuring their dif\ufb01cult process of decolonization. The settler keeps alive in acquiescence. Oppressed peoples Fanon\u2019s ideas are based on the the native an anger which face a stark choice between dignity and value of all people, accepting a life of subjugation irrespective of their race or he deprives of an outlet; and confronting such persecution. the native is trapped in the tight links of colonialism. Frantz Fanon","POSTWAR POLITICS 307 I am not the slave of the is particularly prevalent in the In France, colonizers were portrayed slavery that dehumanized middle and upper classes, who as civilized Europeans bringing are able\u2014through their education order to savage natives. Such racist my ancestors. and relative wealth\u2014to present attitudes were used to justify the Frantz Fanon themselves as culturally similar use of oppression and violence. to the colonialists. background. He stresses that all a lasting legacy. His insightful races and classes can potentially By contrast, a genuine transition perspectives on the racist be involved in\u2014and bene\ufb01t from from colonialism would involve the underpinnings of colonialism, \u2014decolonization. Moreover, for masses, and represent a sustained and, in particular, his theories Fanon, any attempt at reform move towards the creation of a concerning the conditions for based on negotiations between national identity. A successful a successful decolonization, a privileged elite leading the decolonization movement would have been hugely in\ufb02uential decolonization process and colonial develop a national consciousness, in the study of poverty and the rulers would simply reproduce the generating new approaches to art phenomenon of globalization. \u25a0 injustices of the previous regime. and literature in order to articulate Such an attempt would be rooted a culture that was simultaneously in assumptions of privilege and, in resistance to, and separate from, more signi\ufb01cantly, would fail, the tyranny of colonial power. because there is a tendency of oppressed peoples to mimic the Fanon\u2019s in\ufb02uence behavior and attitudes of the These ideas about the violence of ruling elites. This phenomenon colonialism, and the importance of identity in shaping the future political and social direction of a nation, have had a direct impact on the way activists and revolutionary leaders treat the struggle against colonial power\u2014The Wretched of the Earth is, in essence, a blueprint for armed revolution. Beyond this, Fanon\u2019s role in shaping the understanding of colonialism\u2019s workings and effects has left Frantz Fanon Frantz Fanon was born in Fanon worked to support the Martinique in 1925 to a rebels until he was expelled comfortably well-off family. After from the country. He was \ufb01ghting for the Free French Army appointed ambassador to Ghana during World War II he studied by the provisional government medicine and psychiatry in Lyon. toward the end of the struggle, Here, he encountered the racist but fell ill soon afterward. Fanon attitudes that were to inspire died of leukemia in 1961 at the much of his early work. age of just 35, managing to complete The Wretched of the On completing his studies, Earth shortly before his death. he moved to Algeria to work as a psychiatrist, and became a leading Key works activist and spokesman for the revolution. He trained nurses for 1952 Black Skin, White Masks the National Liberation Front, and 1959 A Dying Colonialism published his accounts of the 1961 The Wretched of the Earth revolution in sympathetic journals.","308 THE BALLOT OR THE BULLET MALCOLM X (1925\u20131965) IN CONTEXT Black Americans should T he civil rights movement participate in elections. in postwar America was IDEOLOGY a focal point for the long- Civil rights and equality Black voters should only vote running struggle to establish for candidates who promise to social and political equality across FOCUS society. The means by which this Self-determination stand up for their rights. should be achieved, however, was far from certain. Civil rights leaders BEFORE However, politicians often such as Martin Luther King took 1947 The British are forced renege on promises made inspiration from the nonviolent to leave India as a result of protest of Mahatma Gandhi in Mahatma Gandhi\u2019s campaign during elections when India, and built a similar movement for independence. they assume office. that began to gain sympathy from all areas of society. However, the 1955 Black American Rosa If politicians do not deliver slow pace of change and the Parks refuses to give up her the equality they promise in continued oppression of black seat in the \u201cwhite section\u201d of a elections, black Americans people in America led many to bus, sparking Martin Luther contest this approach. King to organize direct action. should turn to violence to achieve their aims. Malcolm X was one of the leading AFTER \ufb01gures in the Nation of Islam, an 1965 The assassination The ballot organization that advocated ideas of Malcolm X leads to the or the bullet. of racial separatism and black formation of the Black Panther nationalism. In this capacity he Party for Self-Defense, a articulated a view of the civil rights militant black power movement. struggle that was very different from the mainstream represented 1965 The Voting Rights Act is by King. Rather than concentrate passed in the US, restoring on nonviolence, Malcolm believed equal voting rights to all the struggle for equality was closely citizens and overturning bound up with people\u2019s ability to an earlier law that required determine their lives for themselves, citizens to pass a literacy test. and therefore any attempt to restrict those rights should be met with direct action and, if necessary, force.","POSTWAR POLITICS 309 See also: Jos\u00e9 Mart\u00ed 204\u201305 \u25a0 Emmeline Pankhurst 207 \u25a0 Emiliano Zapata 246 \u25a0 Marcus Garvey 252 \u25a0 Mao Zedong 260\u201365 \u25a0 Nelson Mandela 294\u201395 \u25a0 Che Guevara 312\u201313 \u25a0 Martin Luther King 316\u2013321 It\u2019ll take black nationalism greater social and political equality. African-Americans carry a cof\ufb01n today to remove colonialism Despite this, Malcolm remained and a \u201cHere Lies Jim Crow\u201d sign down from the backs and the minds skeptical about the likelihood that a street to demonstrate against the of 22 million Afro-Americans the extension of voting rights would \u201cJim Crow\u201d segregation laws of 1944, promote real change in the US. which legitimized anti-black racism. here in this country. In particular, he was concerned Malcolm X about the disparity between political system became genuinely the words of politicians during more responsive to the demands of The Nation of Islam forbade its election campaigns and their black voters, there would be little members from taking part in actions once in government. alternative but to use not votes but the political process, but when guns; not the ballot, but a bullet. Malcolm left the Nation in 1964 The year of action to start his own organization, he In 1964, Malcolm delivered a Despite his high pro\ufb01le at the advocated political participation speech in Detroit that contained time, Malcolm X left few written and demanded equal voting rights. a stern warning to politicians: if words. However, his ideas continue He envisioned the development of formal politics did not adequately to shape the civil rights agenda, a black voting bloc, which could be recognize black people\u2019s needs, with their focus on empowerment used to demand genuine change at they would be forced to take and reconnecting black Americans election time and direct the actions matters into their own hands, with their African heritage. \u25a0 of white politicians to ensure and violence would follow. \u201cThe young generation,\u201d he said, \u201care dissatis\ufb01ed, and in their frustrations they want action.\u201d They were no longer ready to accept second-class status, and didn\u2019t care whether the odds were against them. He said that black Americans had \u201clistened to the trickery, and the lies, and the false promises of the white man now for too long.\u201d Unless the Malcolm X Malcolm X was born Malcolm with the Nation of Islam (NOI). Little in Omaha, Nebraska, in On his release, he took the name 1925. In the early part of his life, Malcolm X and rose to become he experienced racism directed one of the public faces of black at his family, and in particular nationalism in America. In 1964, his father, a Baptist lay-preacher. he left the NOI and became a His father\u2019s death in 1931 Sunni Muslim, completing his precipitated the breakup of the Hajj to Mecca and speaking family. Malcolm\u2019s mother was publicly in Africa, Europe, committed to a mental institution, and the US. In 1965 he was and he was taken into foster care. assassinated by three members He fell into petty crime and was of the Nation of Islam. imprisoned for burglary in 1946. Key work During his imprisonment, Malcolm experienced a religious 1964 The Autobiography of and social awakening, converting Malcolm X (with Alex Haley) to Islam and becoming involved","310 WE NEED TO \u201cCUT OFF THE KING\u2019S HEAD\u201d MICHEL FOUCAULT (1926\u20131984) IN CONTEXT P olitical thought has long that exerts dominance over been concerned with how individuals. This view of the state IDEOLOGY best to de\ufb01ne and locate as a \u201cpractice\u201d rather than a \u201cthing Structuralism the source of power in society. in itself\u201d meant that a true Many of the most signi\ufb01cant understanding of the structure FOCUS political works have imagined a and distribution of power in Power powerful state as the center of society could only be reached legitimate political authority. through a broader analysis. BEFORE Machiavelli, in The Prince, viewed 1532 Machiavelli publishes the crude expression of power Foucault\u2019s analysis concerned The Prince, which analyzes the as justi\ufb01ed in the interests of the nature of sovereignty. He cynical use of power by government. Hobbes, in Leviathan, wanted to get away from what he individuals and the state. saw a powerful monarch as the considered to be a mistaken idea\u2014 antidote to the corrupt spirit of that political theory should involve 1651 Thomas Hobbes mankind. These and other thinkers understanding the power wielded completes his magnum opus, set the template for much modern by an individual sovereign, who Leviathan, a comment on the political scholarship, and the passes laws and punishes those role of the sovereign and man\u2019s analysis of state power has who break them. Foucault believed corrupt state of nature. remained the dominant form that the nature of government of political analysis. AFTER Power is not an institution, 1990s Green theorists use For French philosopher Michel and not a structure; neither Foucault\u2019s ideas to explain Foucault, power\u2014rather than being how ecological policies can centered on the state\u2014was is it a certain strength be developed by governments diffused across a great many we are endowed with. alongside experts. \u201cmicro-sites\u201d throughout society. Foucault criticized mainstream Michel Foucault 2009 Australian academic political philosophy for its reliance Elaine Jeffreys uses Foucault\u2019s on notions of formal authority, and theories to analyze power its insistence on analyzing an structures in China, entity called \u201cthe state.\u201d For emphasizing the rational Foucault, the state was simply nature of Chinese society. the expression of the structures and con\ufb01guration of power in society, rather than a single entity","POSTWAR POLITICS 311 See also: Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli 74\u201381 \u25a0 Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Paulo Freire 297 \u25a0 Noam Chomsky 314\u201315 The nature of society Power no longer resides has changed. only within the state or with one single authority \ufb01gure. The power of the state can Power also exists in Michel Foucault no longer be separated \u201cmicro-sites\u201d across society, such as schools, Foucault was born in Poitiers, from power in society. workplaces, and families. France, to a wealthy family. Academically gifted, he soon To understand the workings of power, we need established a reputation as to \u201ccut off the King\u2019s head\u201d in political theory. a philosopher. In 1969, he became the \ufb01rst Head of the changed between the 16th century his understanding of power away Philosophy Department at \u2014when the problems of politics from the hierarchical structures of the newly created University related to how a sovereign monarch sovereignty, Foucault highlighted of Paris VIII, itself created in could obtain and maintain power\u2014 different kinds of power in society, response to the 1968 student and the present day, when the such as the collection of statistics unrest in France. He gained power of the state cannot be and knowledge. He elaborated on notoriety by embracing disconnected from any other this analysis of power in his works, student activism, even form of power in society. He looking at areas such as language, engaging in running battles suggested that political theorists punishment, and sexuality. \u25a0 with police. In 1970, he was needed to \u201ccut off the King\u2019s head\u201d elected to the prestigious and develop an approach to Coll\u00e8ge de France as professor understanding power that of the History of Systems of re\ufb02ected this change. Thought, a position he held until his death. Governmentality The school classroom is a \u201cmicro- Foucault developed these thoughts site\u201d of political power, according to Foucault engaged in in lectures at the Coll\u00e8ge de France Foucault. Micro-sites exercise this activism in his later career, in Paris, where he proposed the power within society, away from the which was spent mainly in concept of \u201cgovernmentality.\u201d He traditional structures of government. the US. He published widely viewed government as an art throughout his life, and became involving a range of techniques of a major \ufb01gure in a variety of control and discipline. These might \ufb01elds across philosophy and take place in a variety of contexts, the social sciences. He died of such as within the family, at school, an AIDS-related illness in 1984. or in the workplace. By broadening Key works 1963 The Birth of the Clinic 1969 The Archaeology of Knowledge 1975 Discipline and Punish 1976\u20131984 The History of Sexuality","312 LIBERATORS DO NOT EXIST. THE PEOPLE LIBERATE THEMSELVES CHE GUEVARA (1928\u20131967 ) IN CONTEXT B ecause of his participation continent could only come about in revolutions in Cuba, through anticapitalist revolution, IDEOLOGY Congo-Kinshasa, and as advocated by Karl Marx. Revolutionary socialism Bolivia, Guevara is popularly seen as a \u201cman of action\u201d rather than a However, Guevara\u2019s practical FOCUS political theorist, but his adoption interpretation of revolution was Guerrilla warfare of guerrilla tactics was a major more political and militant than contribution to the development Marx\u2019s economic analysis, which BEFORE of revolutionary socialism. Having was intended to be used against 1762 Jean-Jacques Rousseau seen \ufb01rsthand the oppression and the capitalist states of Europe. opens The Social Contract poverty throughout South America The tyrannical regimes of South with: \u201cMan is born free, yet under dictatorships backed by the America made European states everywhere he is in chains.\u201d US, he believed the salvation of the seem relatively benign, and Guevara realized that the only 1848 Political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich The forces of the Militant groups always Engels publish the people can put in place have an advantage when Communist Manifesto. the conditions that make revolution possible. in a rural setting. 1917 Revolutions in Russia depose the tsar and his family Guerrilla groups launching attacks from rural areas can and establish a communist mobilize unrest to create a popular front against a regime. Bolshevik government. Liberators do not exist. The people AFTER liberate themselves. 1967 French political philosopher R\u00e9gis Debray formalizes the tactics of guerrilla warfare as \u201cfocalism.\u201d 1979 The Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua is overthrown through the use of guerrilla warfare tactics.","POSTWAR POLITICS 313 See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Vladimir Lenin 226\u201333 \u25a0 Leon Trotsky 242\u201345 \u25a0 Antonio Gramsci 259 \u25a0 Mao Zedong 260\u201365 \u25a0 Fidel Castro 339 An army of the people led the the rebellion would develop into a Che Guevara Cuban Revolution to victory over the popular front, providing the impetus state military. The tenets of guerrilla necessary for a full-scale revolution. Ernesto Guevara, better warfare outlined by Guevara were key known by the nickname to the revolution\u2019s success. After his success in Cuba, Che (\u201cfriend\u201d), was born in Guevara expressed his support Rosario, Argentina. He way to achieve their overthrow for the armed struggles in China, studied medicine at the was through armed struggle. Vietnam, and Algeria, and later University of Buenos Aires, Rather than waiting for the arrival fought in the unsuccessful but took time out to make of conditions that would allow for revolutions in Congo-Kinshasa and two motorcycle journeys a successful revolution, Guevara Bolivia. Guevara\u2019s guerrilla warfare around Latin America. believed that these conditions was key to his foco (\u201cfocus\u201d) theory The poverty, disease, and could be created through a strategy of revolution, and his ideas later appalling working conditions of guerrilla warfare, which would inspired many other movements to he saw on his travels helped to inspire the people to rebellion. adopt the tactics, including South consolidate his political views. Africa\u2019s ANC in their \ufb01ght against Power to the people apartheid, and Islamist movements After graduating in 1953, In his Reminiscences of the Cuban such as the Taliban in Afghanistan. Guevara made a further trip Revolutionary War and Guerrilla across Latin America, when Warfare, Guevara explains how Guevara was also recognized he witnessed the overthrow the success of the 1956 Cuban as an able statesman. While a of the democratic Guatemalan Revolution was dependent on the minister in the Cuban socialist government by US-backed mobilization of a popular front. government, he helped establish forces. In Mexico in 1954, he Rather than seeing the revolution Cuba as a leading player among was introduced to Fidel in terms of a liberator bringing international socialist states, and Castro, with whom he led the freedom to the people, he saw it as instituted policies in industry, rebels during the successful a grass-roots movement to topple education, and \ufb01nance that he Cuban Revolution. In 1965, he an oppressive regime, with the believed would continue the left Cuba to aid guerrillas in people liberating themselves. The liberation of the Cuban people by Congo-Kinshasa, and the next starting point for this kind of eradicating the egotism and greed year he fought in Bolivia. He revolution, he believed, was not in associated with capitalist society. was captured by CIA-backed industrialized towns and cities, but He left a legacy of writings, including troops on October 8,1967, and, in rural areas where small groups of his personal diaries, that continue to against the wishes of the US armed rebels could have maximum in\ufb02uence socialist thinking today. \u25a0 government, was executed effect against a regime\u2019s forces. This the next day. insurrection would then provide a If you tremble with focus for discontent, and support for indignation at every Key works injustice, then you are a comrade of mine. 1952 The Motorcycle Diaries 1961 Guerrilla Warfare Che Guevara 1963 Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War","314 EVERYBODY HAS TO MAKE SURE THAT THE RICH FOLKS ARE HAPPY NOAM CHOMSKY (1928\u2013 ) IN CONTEXT Dominant institutions in O ne question that continues society, such as the media to fascinate political IDEOLOGY and banks, are controlled by thinkers and politicians Libertarian socialism is: where is power concentrated in a wealthy minority. society? Many different types of FOCUS people and social institutions are Power and control This minority runs the involved in shaping human institutions in a way that progress and organization, and BEFORE over time a dense network of power 1850s Karl Marx argues that favors its interests. relations has established itself one societal class holds across the globe. However, does complete political and Any attempts at reform lead this mean that power is diffused economic power. to a drying up of investment, throughout society, or has it instead which ruins the economy. become concentrated in the hands 1920s German sociologist of a few privileged individuals who Max Weber claims that To keep the economy healthy, make up an elite? bureaucrats form elites everyone, even the poor, must that manage societies. support a system that is run US linguist and political in the interests of the rich. philosopher Noam Chomsky\u2019s view 1956 In The Power Elite, US is that in most countries a wealthy sociologist Charles W. Mills Everybody has to minority controls the key social and claims that important policies make sure that the political institutions, such as the come from big business, the rich folk are happy. mass media and the \ufb01nancial military, and a few politicians. system, ensuring that the functioning of modern society AFTER favors a powerful elite. In turn, 1985 Czech playwright V\u00e1clav this means that dissent and Havel publishes his essay meaningful change are nearly \u201cThe Power of the Powerless.\u201d impossible, because the dominant institutional structures in society\u2014 1986 British sociologist from newspapers to banks\u2014focus Michael Mann claims that on maintaining their positions to societies are made up of their mutual bene\ufb01t. Not only are overlapping power networks. social elites advantaged by their wealth and position, but they are","POSTWAR POLITICS 315 See also: Plato 34\u201339 \u25a0 Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Friedrich Hayek 270\u201375 \u25a0 Paulo Freire 297 \u25a0 Michel Foucault 310\u201311 humble, have a stake in supporting the privileged position of the very wealthy. Everybody has to make sure that the rich folk are happy, to ensure the health of the economy. Power is increasingly Keeping pro\ufb01ts up Large banks such as France\u2019s Societe concentrated in This concentration of power is Generale display their wealth in their structural, rather than a conspiracy expensive head of\ufb01ces. According to unaccountable institutions. carried out by a small number Chomsky, the whole of society is run to Noam Chomsky of individuals. The economic keep such rich organizations happy. interests of large corporations, the also at the pinnacle of a society government, and investors ensure less-developed nations. However, that is structured to favor them that public decisions are made by he points out that while the still further. groups whose interdependence principles of imperial domination means that radical change is not have changed little, the capacity to Any attempt at widespread possible. Instead, a mutually implement them has declined as reform would, in Chomsky\u2019s view, supporting network of institutions power becomes more broadly result in one of two outcomes: a work to ensure the maintenance of distributed in a diversifying world. \u25a0 military coup, which would restore a stable economic system, which is power to the hands of private said to be bene\ufb01cial to all. However, individuals; or (more likely) the Chomsky notes that many of the drying up of investment capital, \u201cbene\ufb01ts\u201d of this system are \u201cgood which would have serious for pro\ufb01ts, not for people, which consequences for the economy. means that it\u2019s good for the The latter outcome ensures that all economy in the technical sense.\u201d members of society, no matter how Chomsky also considers the wealthiest countries of the world to be elites that threaten the security and resources of smaller, Noam Chomsky Avram Noam Chomsky was born concerning himself particularly in Philadelphia. After graduate with questions of power and the study at the University of global in\ufb02uence of the US. Pennsylvania, and a period as Often controversial, his work a Junior Fellow at Harvard has had a signi\ufb01cant in\ufb02uence University, he began work at MIT, in a wide range of \ufb01elds, and where he has remained for more he has won many prestigious than 50 years. During this time he awards. He has authored over has forged a career that has been 100 books and has lectured notable both for its signi\ufb01cant widely around the world. contribution in the \ufb01eld of linguistics, and a willingness to Key works engage with questions of broad political signi\ufb01cance. Chomsky 1978 Human Rights and published an article criticizing American Foreign Policy fascism at the age of 12, and has 1988 Manufacturing Consent been a political activist ever since, 1992 Deterring Democracy","NOTHING IN THE WORLD IS MORE DANGEROUS THAN SINCERE IGNORANCE MARTIN LUTHER KING (1929\u20131968)","","318 MARTIN LUTHER KING IN CONTEXT B y the 1960s, the battle for King became perhaps the most civil rights in the United signi\ufb01cant \ufb01gure to emerge from IDEOLOGY States was reaching its \ufb01nal the struggle. In 1957, with other Social justice stages. Since the reconstruction religious leaders, King had following the Civil War a century established the Southern Christian APPROACH earlier, the Southern states of the Leadership Conference (SCLC), Civil disobedience US had been pursuing a policy a coalition of black churches of disenfranchisement and that broadened the reach of BEFORE segregation of black Americans, the organizations involved in the 1876\u20131965 The Jim Crow through overt, legal means. This movement. For the \ufb01rst time, laws are implemented, was codi\ufb01ed in the so-called this had generated momentum legalizing a series of \u201cJim Crow\u201d laws\u2014a set of local and on a national scale. discriminatory practices in regional statutes that effectively the southern states of the US. stripped the black population of Like many others in the many basic rights. The struggle to civil rights movement, King 1954 Brown versus Board of win civil rights for black people characterized the struggle as one of Education, a case adjudicated had been ongoing since the end enlightenment against ignorance. by the Supreme Court, of the Civil War, but in the mid- The long-standing beliefs of racial mandates the desegregation 1950s, it had developed into a broad of public schools on the movement based on mass protest grounds that segregation and civil disobedience. is unconstitutional. Struggle against ignorance Freedom is never voluntarily AFTER At the forefront of the movement given by the oppressor; 1964\u201368 In the US, a series was Dr. Martin Luther King, a civil it must be demanded of laws are passed banning rights activist who worked with by the oppressed. discriminatory practices the National Association for the Martin Luther King and restoring voting rights. Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Inspired by the success 1973 US ground forces are of civil rights leaders elsewhere, withdrawn from Vietnam, and in particular by the nonviolent amid waves of antiwar protest protests against British rule in on the home front. India led by Mahatma Gandhi, Discrimination is the result of However wrong, these beliefs lead fervently held beliefs. people to commit barbaric acts. A change in attitudes is needed Nothing in the world is to tackle discrimination. more dangerous than sincere ignorance.","POSTWAR POLITICS 319 See also: Henry David Thoreau 186\u201387 \u25a0 Mahatma Gandhi 220\u201325 \u25a0 Nelson Mandela 294\u201395 \u25a0 Frantz Fanon 304\u201307 \u25a0 Malcolm X 308\u201309 superiority and entitlement that promote violence, going so far as Nonviolence means avoiding dominated the government of the to cancel speeches and protests not only external physical Southern states of the US had when he felt that they might result violence but also internal given rise to a political system that in violent action on the part of the violence of spirit. You not excluded black people and many activists. At the same time, King only refuse to shoot a man, other minorities. King felt that this pursued a fearless confrontation of but you refuse to hate him. position was fervently believed in intimidation and violence when it Martin Luther King by those in power, and that this was visited on civil rights activists. \u201csincere ignorance\u201d was at the He frequently led demonstrations otherwise be spent on relieving root of the problems of inequality. from the front, was injured more the problems of poverty. Instead, Therefore, any attempt to deal with than once, and was jailed on as he saw it, the war was in fact the problem solely through political numerous occasions. Images of the compounding the suffering of means would be doomed to failure. brutality of the police toward civil poor people in Vietnam. Direct action would be needed to rights activists became one of the reform politics and win equality most effective means of garnering The difference of opinion of participation and access in nationwide support for the cause. between those advocating democratic life. At the same time, nonviolence and those prepared to the movement for civil rights would King\u2019s adherence to use violence in the struggle for civil also have to tackle the underlying nonviolence also inspired his rights is a major area of debate in \u276f\u276f attitudes of the majority toward opposition to the Vietnam War. In minorities in order to achieve 1967, he delivered his celebrated lasting change. \u201cBeyond Vietnam\u201d speech, which spoke out against the ethics of Nonviolent protest con\ufb02ict in Vietnam, branding it as In contrast to other leaders within American adventurism, and taking the civil rights movement, such issue with the resources lavished as Malcolm X and Stokely upon the military. In part, King felt Carmichael, King was committed that the war was morally corrupt to nonviolence as one of the since it consumed vast amounts of fundamental principles of the the federal budget, which could struggle for equality. The utmost moral strength was required to adhere to nonviolence in the face of extreme provocation, but Gandhi had shown what was possible. Gandhi believed that the moral purpose of the protesters would be eroded, and public sympathy lost, if resistance became violent. As a result, King took great pains to ensure that his involvement in the civil rights movement did not Nine black students challenged the segregation at Little Rock\u2019s whites-only Central High School in 1957. They were refused entry, and federal troops were sent in to ensure their safety.","320 MARTIN LUTHER KING Nonviolent civil disobedience took many forms during the \ufb01ght for civil rights, such as refusing to sit in the \u201ccolored\u201d section at the back of public buses. the discussion of civil disobedience to this day. In his \u201cLetter from Birmingham Jail,\u201d King articulated his strategy for confronting the ignorance of racism in the US, stating that \u201cnonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community, which has constantly refused to negotiate, is forced to confront the issue.\u201d However, critics within the movement felt that the pace of change was too slow, and that there was a moral imperative to respond to violence and intimidation in kind. Against all inequality The link between racism and King\u2019s stand against the Vietnam King\u2019s vision for the civil rights poverty had long been a theme of War had explicitly criticized US movement developed as the 1960s the civil rights movement, and involvement in the con\ufb02ict as progressed, and he broadened his formed a part of much of the distracting attention and \ufb01nancial focus to include inequality more activism in which King was support from the battle against generally, proposing to tackle involved. The 1963 \u201cMarch on poverty. Beyond these speci\ufb01c economic, as well as racial, Washington for Jobs and Freedom\u201d campaigns, a commitment to an injustice. In 1968, he began the had the \ufb01ght against racism at its extension of social welfare was a \u201cPoor People\u2019s Campaign,\u201d focusing core, but also demanded the consistent theme throughout much on income, housing, and poverty, extension of economic rights. of the activism King had pursued and demanding that the federal with the SCLC. government invest heavily in Discrimination is a hellhound dealing with the problems of that gnaws at Negroes in King believed that solving the poverty. Speci\ufb01cally, the campaign problems of poverty meant tackling promoted a minimum income every waking moment of their another facet of the ignorance he guarantee, an expansion in social lives to remind them that the had identi\ufb01ed in the \ufb01ght for racial housing, and a commitment equality. In his \ufb01nal book, Where on the part of the state to full lie of their inferiority is Do We Go From Here: Chaos or employment. The campaign was accepted as truth. Community?, he argued for the need intended from the outset to unite for change in attitudes toward all racial groups, focusing on the Martin Luther King poor people. Part of the problem of common problems of poverty and poverty, he felt, lay in stereotyping hardship. However, King died the poor as idle. He suggested that before it began and, despite a prevailing attitudes had meant that widely publicized march and \u201ceconomic status was considered series of protests, the movement the measure of the individual\u2019s did not match the success of abilities and talents\u201d and that \u201cthe the campaigns for civil rights. absence of worldly goods indicated a want of industrious habits and","moral \ufb01ber.\u201d In order to tackle When an individual is POSTWAR POLITICS 321 poverty, this underlying attitude protesting society\u2019s refusal needed to be challenged. to acknowledge his dignity Martin Luther King as a human being, his very King\u2019s legacy Born in Atlanta, Georgia, King remains one of the most act of protest confers Martin Luther King, Jr. was in\ufb02uential civil rights leaders of dignity on him. educated at Boston University. the modern era. His oratory is Bayard Rustin By 1954, he had become a timeless and has passed into the pastor and a senior \ufb01gure modern vernacular, and his work King knew he was a target for within the National Association has inspired the activists who assassination, but this did not for the Advancement of followed him in the US and stop him from leading the civil rights Colored People (NAACP). In worldwide. Perhaps the most movement from the front. The Civil this capacity, he became a concrete measure of his in\ufb02uence, Rights Act was passed just days leader in the civil rights however, is in the reform of civil after his death. movement, organizing rights that occurred as a result of protests across the South, the movement he helped to lead. including the 1955 boycott The Voting Rights Act introduced of the Montgomery bus in 1965 and the Civil Rights Act system. In 1963, he was of 1968 signaled the end of the arrested during a protest in Jim Crow laws, and removed overt Birmingham, Alabama, and discrimination from the Southern jailed for more than two weeks. states. The last great injustice he tackled, however\u2014the problem of On his release, King led poverty\u2014remains unsolved. \u25a0 the March on Washington and delivered his iconic \u201cI Have a Dream\u201d speech. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and led the popular pressure for the repeal of the Jim Crow laws. King was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, in March 1968, while on a visit in support of striking sanitation workers. Key works 1963 Why We Can\u2019t Wait 1963 Letter from Birmingham Jail 1967 Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community?","322 PERESTROIKA UNITES SOCIALISM WITH DEMOCRACY MIKHAIL GORBACHEV (1931\u2013 ) IN CONTEXT M ikhail Gorbachev, democratic centralism, a shift to Secretary General of the scienti\ufb01c methods, and the equal IDEOLOGY Communist Party of implementation of universal Leninism the Soviet Union, planned reforms principles of social justice. Glasnost designed to boost the stalled (openness) meant increased FOCUS Russian economy of the 1980s. transparency in social and political Perestroika Gorbachev argued that this spheres, and freedom of speech. stagnation was a result of an BEFORE unfair distribution of social wealth, Gorbachev stated that such 1909 Lenin publishes in\ufb02exible structures that stopped democratization did not signal an Materialism and the masses from using their full abandonment of socialism. The Empiriocriticism, which creativity, and the overbearing true spirit of Lenin, he claimed, becomes an obligatory subject authority of the state. did not see socialism as a rigid in all institutions of higher theoretical scheme, but rather as education in the Soviet Union. His program was comprised of a constantly changing process. two main components. Perestroika Gorbachev argued that socialism 1941 Stalin becomes the (restructuring) involved a and democracy were in fact premier of the Soviet Union, rethinking of the principles of indivisible, although his ruling with a strong hand. understanding of democracy refers only to the freedom of the AFTER working masses to rise to power. 1991 The USSR is of\ufb01cially dissolved, dividing up into 15 Unfortunately, Gorbachev\u2019s independent sovereign states. economic reforms resulted in a This marks the end of the deep economic downturn, and his Cold War. social reforms precipitated the breakup of the Soviet state. \u25a0 1991\u20131999 Boris Yeltsin becomes the \ufb01rst president of Gorbachev\u2019s democratic agenda the Russian Federation and included a determination to negotiate begins to transform the an end to the Cold War with President country\u2019s centralized economy Ronald Reagan. into a market economy. See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Vladimir Lenin 226\u201333 \u25a0 Leon Trotsky 242\u201345 \u25a0 Antonio Gramsci 259 \u25a0 Mao Zedong 260\u201365","POSTWAR POLITICS 323 THE INTELLECTUALS ERRONEOUSLY FOUGHT ISLAM ALI SHARIATI (1933\u20131977) IN CONTEXT I n\ufb02uenced by Islamic culture, and often blame religion for puritanism, as well as Marxism a failure to acknowledge material IDEOLOGY and postcolonial thinkers, concerns. The emancipation of Iran Islamism ranian philosopher Ali Shariati is only possible by recognizing the advocated Islamic thought and country\u2019s Islamic roots and the FOCUS beliefs as pillars of Islamic society, creation of an egalitarian social Islamic independence while promoting independence system that adheres to religious from Western domination. norms. While the masses may need BEFORE more self-awareness, intellectuals 1941 Soviet and British Shariati sought to defend Islam need more \u201cfaith.\u201d Shariati\u2019s views forces invade Iran to secure from misconceptions. For him, were not a rejection of modernity\u2014 access to oil. these misunderstandings were to him, Islam was a fundamental largely the result of an unhealthy tool for Iran to come to grips with 1962 Jalal Al-e-Ahmad divide between the educated the modern world. \u25a0 publishes his book class and the masses in Iran. He Occidentosis: A Plague from distinguishes between intellectuals There is no prophecy the West\u2014a critique of and enlightened people. The which is as advanced, Western civilization. latter, he argues, do not require powerful, and conscious as a university degree, but rather an the prophecy of Muhammad. AFTER awareness of traditions, religion, 1978 The Iranian Revolution and the needs of the people. Ali Shariati brings Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to power. Anti-intellectual In their attempt to apply European 1980 Encouraged by Western models of development and powers, Iraq invades Iran, modernity to Iran, intellectuals starting an eight-year war failed to recognize that conditions and causing devastation on in Iran are different from those in both sides. Europe. Intellectuals failed to acknowledge the Islamic spirit that 2005 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad dominates and sustains Iranian becomes president of Iran, taking a religious hard line and See also: Muhammad 56\u201357 \u25a0 Mahatma Gandhi 220\u201325 \u25a0 reversing previous reforms. Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk 248\u201349 \u25a0 Abul Ala Maududi 278\u201379","324 THE HELLISHNESS OF WAR DRIVES US TO BREAK WITH EVERY RESTRAINT MICHAEL WALZER (1935\u2013 ) IN CONTEXT The ethics of warfare have come under pressure due to the changing nature of con\ufb02ict, such as\u2026 IDEOLOGY Communitarianism \u2026guerrilla \u2026complex \u2026military warfare. interrelations industrialization, FOCUS between states. Just war theory especially use of nuclear weapons. BEFORE 1274 Thomas Aquinas sets To cope with these changes, the concept of a just war out the moral principles of a must be reappraised. just war in Summa Theologica. A reappraisal shows that war remains necessary in 14th\u201315th centuries Scholars certain circumstances, but subject to restraints. at the School of Salamanca conclude that war is just only However, war is so hellish that any restraint may be broken when it is waged to prevent an if it hastens the end of the war. even greater evil. The hellishness of war drives us 1965 The US begins a ground to break with every restraint. war in Vietnam. The US\u2019s eventual defeat, coupled with domestic opposition, leads to a reappraisal in the US of the moral boundaries of war. AFTER 1990 US president George Bush invokes just war theory prior to the First Gulf War. 2001 US-led forces invade Afghanistan following the 9\/11 terrorist attacks.","POSTWAR POLITICS 325 See also: Sun Tzu 28\u201331 \u25a0 Augustine of Hippo 54\u201355 \u25a0 Thomas Aquinas 62\u201369 \u25a0 Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli 74\u201381 \u25a0 Smedley D. Butler 247 \u25a0 Robert Nozick 326\u201327 W hen is war justi\ufb01ed? Michael Walzer is a US political Michael Walzer What conduct is philosopher regarded as one of the permissible on the most eminent just war theorists Michael Walzer was born battle\ufb01eld? Questions like these of the last century. His work has in New York and attended have troubled political thinkers for reinvigorated just war theory and Brandeis University, Boston as long as people have waged war. provided the impetus for a new set and the University of Augustine of Hippo provided an of responses to the complexities Cambridge in the UK before early examination of the conditions of con\ufb02ict. For Walzer, war is, in completing his doctorate at for just warfare, suggesting that certain circumstances, necessary, Harvard in 1961. He went on defense of oneself, or others in but the conditions for warfare and to teach a course at Harvard need, was not only a moral its conduct are subject to strong in the 1970s in tandem with justi\ufb01cation for warfare, but an moral constraints and ethics. Robert Nozick, which provided imperative. Later, in his Summa the genesis for two in\ufb02uential Theologica, Thomas Aquinas put However, Walzer believes that books: Nozick\u2019s Anarchy, forward the basis of modern just a just and necessary war may need State, and Utopia, and war theory, suggesting that war to be fought to the full extent of the Walzer\u2019s Spheres of Justice. cannot be fought for personal gain means available, however horri\ufb01c He was made emeritus and must be waged by a legitimate that might seem. For instance, if professor at the Institute of body, and that the overriding the killing of civilians is judged Advanced Study at Princeton motive must be to secure peace. likely to hasten the end of the war, University in 2007. it might be justi\ufb01ed. He believes However, recent rapid advances that those waging war should be Walzer\u2019s work has been in military industrialization, subject to moral restraints, but that in\ufb02uential in a number of complex interrelations between those restraints cannot be absolute. areas, including just war states, and the emergence of theory, but also taking in guerrilla warfare all challenge the Just and unjust wars equality, liberalism, and solidity of the ethical underpinning Walzer\u2019s Just and Unjust Wars justice. As a supporter of to armed con\ufb02ict. argues for the maintenance of self-governing communities, a strong ethical base, while he has been concerned with The use of nuclear weapons in holding that warfare is sometimes civil society and the role of the war profoundly affected Walzer\u2019s ideas. necessary, but rejects moral welfare state. A leading public The immense destructive capabilities absolutism\u2014the idea that some intellectual, his work on of these weapons led him to urge a acts are never morally permissible. just warfare has in\ufb02uenced reassessment of the ethics of warfare. many contemporary politicians Walzer suggests that in modern and military leaders. con\ufb02icts, the muddied dynamics of the battle\ufb01eld and the complex Key works ethics involved provide challenges to ethical thinking. He gives the 1977 Just and Unjust Wars Allied bombing of Dresden in 1983 Spheres of Justice World War II as an example of 2001 War and Justice a very dif\ufb01cult case to judge. Nuclear weapons, in particular, trouble Walzer, who suggests that they shift the boundaries of morality so drastically that it is now dif\ufb01cult to make a moral framework for warfare. However, as a last resort, even the most extreme measures might be justi\ufb01ed. \u25a0","326 NO STATE MORE EXTENSIVE THAN THE MINIMAL STATE CAN BE JUSTIFIED ROBERT NOZICK (1938\u20132002) IN CONTEXT The state should provide If it becomes involved basic rights such as in any other activities it IDEOLOGY protecting its people Liberalism against force. begins to infringe on people\u2019s rights. FOCUS Libertarian rights No state more extensive than the minimal state can be justi\ufb01ed. BEFORE 1689 John Locke writes two T he position of individual form of state was needed to enforce treatises on government rights in an era of strong them. From this came the notion of outlining a social contract. states and extensive the social contract, outlined by public institutions has proved a Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whereby 1944 In The Road to Serfdom, fertile ground for political theory. individuals give up some of their Friedrich Hayek condemns Prominent in the debate has been freedom in order to have protection government control through philosopher Robert Nozick, whose from the state. central planning. work was in part a response to the ideas of John Locke and John Rawls. Rawls\u2019s in\ufb02uential 1971 book 1971 John Rawls\u2019s book A Theory of Justice built on this A Theory of Justice argues Locke, writing his Second idea by proposing a variant of the for the state to correct Treatise on Government in 1689, social contract, which he believed inequalities in society. provided the foundations of the reconciled it with the ideas of theory of the modern state by liberty and equality that were AFTER suggesting that people held explored in Locke\u2019s work. Rawls 1983 Michael Walzer looks at individual rights, but that some suggests a framework that allows how society distributes \u201csocial goods\u201d such as education and work in Spheres of Justice. 1995 Canadian theorist Gerald Cohen publishes a Marxist critique of Rawls and Nozick titled Self-ownership, Freedom, and Equality.","POSTWAR POLITICS 327 See also: John Locke 104\u201309 \u25a0 Immanuel Kant 126\u201329 \u25a0 Henry David Thoreau 186\u201387 \u25a0 John Rawls 298\u2013303 \u25a0 Michael Walzer 324\u201325 Individuals have rights and from a course taught by Nozick at Robert Nozick there are things no person Harvard with the political theorist or group may do to them. Michael Walzer, which took the Born in New York in 1938, form of a debate between the two. Robert Nozick was the son of Robert Nozick Later, Walzer became one of the a Jewish entrepreneur. He most signi\ufb01cant critics of the pursued an academic career, individuals to collectively agree on arguments made in the book. training at Columbia, Oxford, an idea of justice that is based on and Princeton universities. fairness and equality rather than Perhaps the most famous personal self-interest, laying a conclusion reached in Anarchy, Initially drawn to the ideas foundation for social democracy. State, and Utopia was the idea that of the Left, his reading of Nozick drew on Locke and Kant to taxation, as employed by modern Friedrich Hayek, Ayn Rand, argue that there were dangers in states to redistribute income and and other free-market thinkers the forms of cooperation that lay in fund public agencies, was morally during his graduate studies Rawls\u2019s argument. He revived the indefensible. In Nozick\u2019s view, it moved his standpoint toward idea of libertarianism, which holds amounts to a form of forced labor, libertarianism. His career that the reach of the state should be where a proportion of a person\u2019s was spent mostly at Harvard, as limited as possible. work compulsorily bene\ufb01ts others. where he established himself Indeed, Nozick went as far as to as one of the leading \ufb01gures in The result of Nozick\u2019s argument imagine this as a form of slavery, libertarian thought. Famously, was the notion that any form of where every member of society he is said to have only ever state other than the minimal was had some claim of ownership to taught the same course twice. incompatible with individual rights, an individual\u2019s labor. and therefore unjusti\ufb01able. Where Nozick\u2019s most signi\ufb01cant the state became involved in any Anarchy, State, and Utopia work of political theory was activity other than the most basic proved hugely in\ufb02uential and his \ufb01rst, Anarchy, State, and \u2014\u201cprotection against force, theft, helped de\ufb01ne the modern Utopia, though he wrote fraud, enforcement of contracts, and boundaries of the debate between on a variety of subjects so on\u201d\u2014then it would infringe the libertarian thought and liberalism. throughout his career, and rights that Rawls sought to preserve. Often read alongside A Theory did not restrict himself to of Justice, it ranks as one of the political philosophy. In later most important works of political life he rejected extreme philosophy in the modern era. \u25a0 libertarianism, and suggested limits on inheritances. Anarchy, State, and Utopia Taxation is described as a form of Nozick\u2019s most vivid description slavery by Nozick, in the sense that Key works of this view was in his book members of society can demand Anarchy, State, and Utopia, a portion of an individual\u2019s labor, 1974 Anarchy, State, and which argued for a minimal state making it into a forced employment. Utopia and provided a series of direct 1981 Philosophical responses to the claims made by Explanations Rawls. The book was developed 1993 The Nature of Rationality","328 NO ISLAMIC LAW SAYS VIOLATE WOMEN\u2019S RIGHTS SHIRIN EBADI (1947\u2013 ) IN CONTEXT T he position of human rights Iranian women protested in 1979 in Islamic states raises against new laws requiring them to IDEOLOGY issues that have serious cover up in public. Ebadi believes that Islam implications for political thought. the oppression of the regime can only The roles women take in public life, be reversed by Iranians themselves. FOCUS in particular, have been curtailed Human rights activism by the rise of fundamentalism, with contested. Ebadi argues strongly gender discrimination pursued against Western intervention in BEFORE through a number of retrograde Iran, suggesting that, despite the 1953 A CIA-backed coup laws. The correct response to these regime\u2019s poor human rights record, overthrows the democratically problems, and especially the role of gender discrimination, and a lack elected Iranian prime minister, Western powers, has been much of democracy, any involvement Mohammad Mosaddeq. debated by Islamic thinkers. by foreign powers would be undesirable and unhelpful\u2014and 1979 The Islamic revolution, Shirin Ebadi is a Nobel Prize- would simply make matters worse. led by Ayatollah Khomeini, winning human rights activist. Instead, she believes change must removes an autocratic A practicing judge prior to the come from within, and points to monarchy and inaugurates an Iranian Revolution in 1979, she was the relatively strong women\u2019s Islamic republic that brings in forced to cease legal work as the movement in Iran compared with a series of repressive laws. result of a series of laws enacted by other Islamic states. \u25a0 the new regime, which restricted AFTER the rights of women. Despite this, 2006 Peaceful demonstrations Ebadi sees women\u2019s rights as for women\u2019s rights are broken entirely compatible with Islam, up in Tehran, Iran, and several and suggests that the previously demonstrators are sentenced strong position of women in Iranian to prison terms and corporal society points to the regime as the punishment. problem, rather than Islamic law. 2011 The \u201cArab Spring\u201d brings The role of Western nations rapid social and political and values in promoting human change to a number of states rights in this environment is hotly in North Africa and the Middle East, though not to Iran. See also: Emmeline Pankhurst 207 \u25a0 Abul Ala Maududi 278\u201379 \u25a0 Simone de Beauvoir 284\u201389 \u25a0 Ali Shariati 323","POSTWAR POLITICS 329 SUICIDE TERRORISM IS MAINLY A RESPONSE TO FOREIGN OCCUPATION ROBERT PAPE (1960\u2013 ) IN CONTEXT S uicide terrorism has widely A strategic response been believed to be an Pape\u2019s 2005 publication Dying to IDEOLOGY expression of religious Win analyzes all known instances War studies fundamentalism, fueled by a ready of suicide terrorism between 1980 supply of willing martyrs. American and 2003: a total of 315 attacks. FOCUS political scientist Robert Pape has He found that the attacks were Empirical political science compiled evidence to suggest that not explained by individual motives suicide terrorism is in fact a secular and beliefs, and discovered little BEFORE tactic rather than a religious correlation between religion and 1881 Russian tsar Alexander II one, and forms part of a broader suicide terrorism. He proposed is killed by a suicide bomber. campaign to remove an occupying instead a \u201ccausal logic of suicide force from the area perceived by the terrorism,\u201d which suggests that 1983 In Lebanon, two suicide perpetrators to be their homeland. such actions are a strategic bomb attacks on US and response to foreign occupation French barracks in Beirut are There is little connection by a democratic power. Pape\u2019s claimed by the Islamic Jihad. between suicide terrorism research found that every terrorist and Islamic fundamentalism, campaign, and more than 95 2001 The 9\/11 attacks by percent of all suicide bombings, al-Qaeda are followed by or any one of the had the objective of national US-led occupations of Iraq world\u2019s religions. liberation at their heart. and Afghanistan. Robert Pape The corollary of this argument AFTER is that the use of military force by 2005 A series of suicide bomb foreign powers to subjugate or attacks on buses and trains reform societies will serve only to across London kills 52 people. promote a larger number of suicide terrorists than would otherwise be 2009 Sri Lanka\u2019s civil war the case. As Pape argues, suicide ends after 26 years, during terrorism is not the result of an which time the Tamil Tigers existing supply of fanatics, but is carried out 273 suicide attacks. a \u201cdemand-driven phenomenon.\u201d \u25a0 2011 The US withdraws its See also: Abul Ala Maududi 278\u201379 \u25a0 Frantz Fanon 304\u201307 \u25a0 Ali Shariati 323 \u25a0 military presence from Iraq. Michael Walzer 324\u201325","DIRECTO","RY","332 DIRECTORY T he most important ideas of political thought and some of the most prominent political thinkers have been presented in this book, but inevitably there has not been space to include all who have shaped the political thinking of the world throughout the ages. This directory, although by no means exhaustive, gives some information on a selection of those \ufb01gures who have not been dealt with elsewhere, including their achievements and the ideas for which they are best known. It also gives links to other pages in the book that discuss the ideas, movements, and thinkers they have been associated with or that have in\ufb02uenced their thinking, and others that they have inspired. DARIUS THE GREAT much to establish it as a model of culture and institutions into Africa government during the Warring and Asia, where many Hellenistic c.550\u2013486 BCE States period. Unlike Confucius, cities were founded, modeled on he stressed the essential goodness the classical Greek city-states. Darius I seized the Persian crown of human nature, which could See also: Aristotle 40\u201343 \u25a0 in 522 BCE. He put down rebellions be corrupted by society, and Chanakya 44\u201347 that had previously toppled his advocated education to improve predecessor, Cyrus the Great, and public morals. He was also less GENGHIS KHAN expanded the empire into central respectful of rulers, believing that Asia, northeast Africa, Greece, and they should be overthrown by the 1162\u20131227 the Balkan region. To administer people if they ruled unjustly. this huge empire, he divided it into See also: Confucius 20\u201327 \u25a0 Born into a ruling clan in northern provinces overseen by satraps, who Mozi 32\u201333 \u25a0 Han Fei Tzu 48 Mongolia, Temujin gained the title also administered the system of Genghis Khan (meaning \u201cthe taxation. The satraps were based in ALEXANDER THE GREAT Emperor Genghis\u201d) on founding the regional capitals such as Persepolis Mongol empire. Before he came to and Susa, which were the sites of c.356\u2013323 BCE power, the people of Central Asia massive construction projects. belonged to several different clans To unify the empire, Darius also The son of King Philip II of and were largely nomadic. Genghis introduced a universal currency, Macedon, Alexander was born at Khan brought the clans together as the daric, and made Aramaic the the height of the classical period one nation and led a series of of\ufb01cial language. of Greek history, and is believed to military campaigns, expanding his See also: Alexander the Great 332 have been tutored by Aristotle as a empire into China. Under his rule youth. After the death of his father, as Great Khan, the empire was MENCIUS he succeeded to the throne and divided into khanates ruled embarked on a campaign of by members of his family, and c.372\u2013289 BCE expansion. He successfully continued to expand as far as invaded Asia Minor, and from central Europe. Seen by those he Also known as Mengzi, the there conquered the remainder of conquered as cruel, he nevertheless Chinese philosopher Mencius is the Persian empire of Darius III, created an empire that respected believed to have studied with one eventually extending his power the cultural diversity of its people. of Confucius\u2019s grandsons, and his as far as northern India. In the See also: Sun Tzu 28\u201331 \u25a0 interpretation of Confucianism did process, he introduced Greek Chanakya 44\u201347","DIRECTORY 333 BARTOLOM\u00c9 DE revenue, the judiciary, and the then one of the signatories of LAS CASAS military. In this way, Akbar King Charles I\u2019s death warrant. uni\ufb01ed the disparate regions into Cromwell\u2019s participation in the 1484\u20131566 a prosperous and peaceful whole. removal of the monarch was See also: Chanakya 44\u201347 \u25a0 motivated by religion as much as The Spanish priest and historian Mahatma Gandhi 220\u201325 \u25a0 politics, as was his subsequent Bartolom\u00e9 de las Casas emigrated Manabendra Nath Roy 253 occupation of Catholic Ireland. He to Hispaniola in 1502. He initially rose to political power during the worked a plantation there and TOKUGAWA IEYASU brief Commonwealth of England, owned slaves. He remained a and was made Lord Protector of priest, however, and participated in 1543\u20131616 England, Wales, Scotland, and the conquest of Cuba as chaplain, Ireland in 1653. Seen by some as but was so appalled by the atrocities Japanese military leader and a ruthless anti-Catholic dictator, perpetrated against the local Ta\u00edno statesman Tokugawa Ieyasu was Cromwell is also regarded as the people that he became an advocate the son of the ruler of Mikawa bringer of liberty at the time of of the Indian people. He entered a province. He was born during a a decadent monarchy, replacing monastery in Santo Domingo as a period of prolonged civil con\ufb02ict. it with the foundations of Dominican friar, and traveled Ieyasu inherited his father\u2019s parliamentary democracy. throughout Central America, position, as well as his alliance See also: Barons of King John eventually becoming bishop of with neighboring ruler Toyotomi 60\u201361 \u25a0 John Lilburne 333 Chiapas in Mexico and \u201cProtector Hideyoshi. Despite promises to of the Indians,\u201d before returning to honor the alliance after Hideyoshi\u2019s JOHN LILBURNE Spain in 1547. His writings on the death, Ieyasu defeated the cruelty of the colonization of the Toyotomi clan and established his 1614\u20131657 Americas can be seen as an early government in Edo, modern Tokyo. proposal of universal human rights. Tokugawa Ieyasu was made a English politician John Lilburne See also: Francisco de Vitoria shogun (military governor) by the devoted his life to \ufb01ghting for what 86\u201387 \u25a0 Nelson Mandela 294\u201395 \u25a0 nominal emperor Go-Yozei in 1603, he called his \u201cfreeborn rights,\u201d as Martin Luther King 316\u201321 effectively making him ruler of all opposed to rights granted by law. Japan and founder of the Tokugawa He was imprisoned for printing AKBAR THE GREAT dynasty. By distributing land illegal pamphlets in the 1630s, and among regional leaders and enlisted in the Parliamentarian 1542\u20131605 imposing strict regulations on their army at the start of the English rule, he maintained a power base Civil War. He resigned from the The third Mughal emperor in and brought stability to the country. army in 1645 because he felt it India, Akbar not only extended See also: Sun Tzu 28\u201331 \u25a0 was not \ufb01ghting for liberty as he the empire to cover most of Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli 74\u201381 \u25a0 understood it. Although associated central and northern India, but Ito Hirobumi 195 with the Levellers, a movement also introduced a culture of campaigning for equal property religious tolerance to an ethnically OLIVER CROMWELL rights, Lilburne argued for equality diverse population and instigated of human rights and inspired the a reorganization of its government. 1599\u20131658 Levellers\u2019 pamphlet An Agreement Rather than divide his empire into of the People. He was tried for high autonomous regions under separate Previously a relatively unimportant treason in 1649 but was freed in rulers, regions were administered member of parliament, Cromwell response to public opinion and sent by military governors under the rule came to prominence during the into exile. On his return to England of a central government. This English Civil War. He proved to be in 1653, he was tried again and central government was divided an able military leader of the imprisoned until his death in 1657. into different departments dealing Parliamentarian forces in their See also: Thomas Paine 134\u201339 \u25a0 with separate issues, such as defeat of the Royalists. He was Oliver Cromwell 333","334 DIRECTORY SAMUEL VON PUFENDORF remained until her death. She wrote JOSEPH DE MAISTRE numerous poems and, in response 1632\u20131694 to criticism of her writing from the 1753\u20131826 Church authorities, a stout defense The son of a Lutheran pastor in of women\u2019s right to education, the Joseph-Marie, comte de Maistre, Saxony, Germany, Samuel von \u201cReply to Sister Philotea.\u201d She emerged as a major \ufb01gure in the Pufendorf originally studied argued that society was damaged conservative backlash that followed theology in Leipzig, but decided to by keeping women ignorant, asking the French Revolution. He saw move to Jena to study law. Here, he \u201chow much injury might have been the revolution as the result of discovered the works of Grotius avoided\u2026 if our aged women had atheist Enlightenment thinking, and Hobbes, and their theories of been learned?\u201d She was censured and argued that the Reign of natural law. He built a reputation for by the Church for her comments. Terror that followed it was an his ideas on universal law, and was See also: Mary Wollstonecraft inevitable consequence of rejecting appointed the \ufb01rst professor of law 154\u201355 \u25a0 Emmeline Pankhurst 207 \u25a0 Christianity. He \ufb02ed to Switzerland and nations at the University of Simone de Beauvoir 284\u201389 \u25a0 and later Italy and Sardinia to Heidelberg, where he expanded on Shirin Ebadi 328 escape the revolution. He believed his theories of natural law, paving that rationally justi\ufb01ed systems of the way for Rousseau\u2019s conception GEORGE WASHINGTON government were doomed to end in of the social contract. He also violence, and the only stable form proposed a system of international 1732\u20131799 of government was a divinely law independent of religion. He later sanctioned monarchy, with the moved to Sweden as historian to the Commander-in-chief of the pope as ultimate authority. royal court, and developed a theory Continental Army in the American See also: Thomas Aquinas 62\u201369 \u25a0 of Church government that stressed Revolutionary War, Washington Edmund Burke 130\u201333 the distinction between the laws of was one of the Founding Fathers of the Church and the laws of the state. the United States and the \ufb01rst US NIKOLAI MORDVINOV See also: Hugo Grotius 94\u201395 \u25a0 president. He was not a member of Thomas Hobbes 96\u2013103 \u25a0 a political party, warning against 1754\u20131845 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 118\u201325 the divisiveness of partisan politics. During his two terms of An of\ufb01cer in the Russian Navy JUANA IN\u00c9S DE LA CRUZ of\ufb01ce, he introduced measures who had also served in the British designed to unify the country Royal Navy, Nikolai Mordvinov 1651\u20131695 as a republic ruled by federal came to the attention of Emperor government. As well as promoting Paul and was promoted to admiral Juana In\u00e9s de Asbaje y Ram\u00edrez de a sense of nationalism, he took and later navy minister, a position Santillana was born near Mexico practical steps to improve the in which he had in\ufb02uence over City, the illegitimate daughter of prosperity of the republic and military policy. He was an advocate Isabella Ramirez and a Spanish promote trade\u2014he brought in a fair of liberalism at a time when the captain. At a very early age, she tax system to clear the national Russian government was resolutely learned to read and write, and debt\u2014while in foreign affairs he autocratic. A fervent Anglophile, showed a great interest in her advocated neutrality to avoid Mordvinov particularly admired grandfather\u2019s library when sent to becoming involved in European British political liberalism and live with him in 1660. At the time, wars. Many of the conventions used his in\ufb02uence to argue for its studying was an exclusively male of US government, such as the replacement of serfdom, which he preserve, and she pleaded with her inaugural address and the custom felt was holding back Russia\u2019s family to disguise her as a boy in of a two-term presidency, were economic development. He believed order to go to the university, but in established by Washington. that this could be achieved without the end taught herself the classics. See also: Benjamin Franklin the need for revolution. In 1669, she entered the Convent of 112\u201313 \u25a0 Thomas Paine 134\u201339 \u25a0 See also: John Stuart Mill 174\u201381 \u25a0 the Order of St Jerome, where she Thomas Jefferson 140\u201341 Peter Kropotkin 206","DIRECTORY 335 MAXIMILIEN in\ufb01ltrators into his organization led made himself First Consul of the ROBESPIERRE to accusations of conspiracy and Republic, and instituted the the arrest and execution of Babeuf Napoleonic Code. This established 1758\u20131794 and many of his fellow agitators. a meritocratic government by See also: Jean-Jacques outlawing privilege by birth, and A leading \ufb01gure in the French Rousseau 118\u201325 \u25a0 Maximilien introduced measures to ensure Revolution, Robespierre was Robespierre 335 religious emancipation\u2014especially seen by his supporters as an to Jews and Protestants. He also incorruptible upholder of the JOHANN FICHTE signed a concordat with Pope Pius principles of the revolution but is VII, restoring some of the Catholic remembered as a ruthless dictator. 1762\u20131814 Church\u2019s status. He proclaimed He studied law in Paris, where he himself emperor in 1804 and \ufb01rst came across the revolutionary Primarily known as a philosopher, embarked on a series of wars writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Fichte is also regarded as a seminal that would eventually lead to his Practicing law in Arras, he became \ufb01gure in political nationalism in downfall. He abdicated and went involved in politics and rose to Germany. After the French into exile on Elba in 1813, but soon membership of the Constituent Revolution, France annexed many returned to power, only to be Assembly. Here, he argued for of the western states of Germany defeated by the British at Waterloo equal rights and the establishment and introduced ideas of liberty and in 1815. He was imprisoned on the of a French Republic. After the civil rights, but this provoked a island of St. Helena until his death. execution of Louis XVI, he presided patriotic reaction. Fichte urged the See also: Friedrich Nietzsche over the Committee of Public German people to come together 196\u201399 \u25a0 Maximilien Robespierre 335 Safety, which sought to eradicate in their shared heritage and the threat of counterrevolution language to oppose the French ROBERT OWEN through a Reign of Terror, but was in\ufb02uence and, more controversially, himself arrested and executed. to remove the threat he believed 1771\u20131817 See also: Montesquieu 110\u201311 \u25a0 came from the Jewish \u201cstate within Jean-Jacques Rousseau 118\u201325 \u25a0 a state.\u201d As well as his openly anti- Owen came from a humble Welsh Gracchus Babeuf 335 Semitic ideas, he believed that family and moved to Manchester, women should be denied civil England, as a teenager in search of GRACCHUS BABEUF rights. The most extreme of his work. He made his name in the proposals were echoed in Hitler\u2019s textile trade and became the 1760\u20131797 National Socialism movement. manager of a cotton mill at 19. He See also: Johann Gottfried Herder outlined his ideas for social reform Fran\u00e7ois-No\u00ebl Babeuf had little 142\u201343 \u25a0 Georg Hegel 156\u201359 \u25a0 in his book A New View of Society. formal education. He became a Adolf Hitler 337 His Utopian socialist philosophy writer and journalist and, after the was based on improvements in beginning of the French Revolution, NAPOLEON BONAPARTE the workers\u2019 environment, such published propaganda under as housing, social welfare, and the pen-names \u201cTribune\u201d and 1769\u20131821 education. He established \u201cGracchus\u201d Babeuf, in honor cooperative communities at New of the Roman reformers and A Corsican of noble Italian Lanark in Scotland and elsewhere tribunes, the Gracchus brothers. extraction, Napoleon studied at a in Britain, as well as one in New His views proved too radical even military academy in France and Harmony, Indiana. A pioneer of the for the revolutionary authorities. served in the French army, despite cooperative movement, his new The publication of his journal Le remaining a Corsican nationalist. communities were an inspiration to Tribun du Peuple in support of the His republican sentiments earned social reform movements in Britain. ideals of the Reign of Terror gained him a place in the republican See also: Thomas Paine 134\u201339 \u25a0 him a following known as the forces near the end of the French Jeremy Bentham 144\u201349 \u25a0 Karl Society of Equals. Evidence from Revolution. After a coup d\u2019\u00e9tat, he Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Beatrice Webb 210","336 DIRECTORY CHARLES FOURIER A republican who was strongly OSWALD SPENGLER opposed to political power for 1772\u20131837 the papacy, Garibaldi nonetheless 1880\u20131936 supported the establishment Born in Besan\u00e7on, France, the son of a monarchy for the sake of German historian Oswald Spengler of a businessman, Fourier traveled uni\ufb01cation, and helped to create made his name with The Decline of widely in Europe and had a variety the Kingdom of Italy under the the West, which, although \ufb01nished of jobs before settling on a career Sardinian king Victor Emanuel II, in 1914, was not published until as a writer. Unlike other socialist which was established in 1861. The after World War I. In it, he describes thinkers of the revolutionary period, Papal states joined the kingdom in his theory that all civilizations face he believed that the problems of 1870, completing the Risorgimiento. ultimate decay, an idea reinforced society were caused by poverty Garibaldi was a supporter of the by the decline of Germany in the rather than inequality, and idea of a European federation, 1920s. Another book, Prussiandom developed a form of libertarian which he hoped would be led and Socialism, advocated a socialism. He was also an early by a newly uni\ufb01ed Germany. new nationalist movement of advocate of women\u2019s rights. In See also: Giuseppe Mazzini 172\u201373 authoritarian socialism. He was, place of trade and competition, however, not a supporter of Nazism, which he considered an evil NASER AL-DIN and openly criticized Hitler\u2019s ideas practice operated by Jews, he SHAH QUAJAR of racial superiority, warning of a proposed a system of cooperation. world war that could bring an end Fourier\u2019s Utopian ideas were to be 1831\u20131896 to Western civilization. achieved in communities he called See also: Ibn Khaldun 72\u201373 \u25a0 \u201cphalanxes,\u201d housed in apartment The fourth shah of the Qajar Adolf Hitler 337 complexes. Workers would be paid dynasty, Naser al-Din came to the according to their contribution, throne of Iran in 1848 and began RICHARD TAWNEY with higher pay for unpopular jobs. his reign as a reformer in\ufb02uenced His ideas were taken up in the Paris by European ideas. As well as 1880\u20131962 Commune, which brie\ufb02y ruled Paris improving the infrastructure of in 1871, and phalanxes were set up the country\u2014building roads and The English social and economic in several places in the US. setting up postal and telegraph historian Richard Tawney was a See also: Mary Wollstonecraft services\u2014he opened Western-style \ufb01erce critic of the acquisitiveness 154\u201355 \u25a0 Robert Owen 335 schools, introduced measures to of capitalist society. He was the reduce the power of the clergy, and author of the classic historical GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI was sympathetic to the idea of analysis Religion and the Rise of establishing a Jewish state. He Capitalism, and also wrote several 1807\u20131882 toured Europe in 1873 and again in books of social criticism, in which 1878, and was especially impressed he developed his ideas of Christian A leading \ufb01gure in the Italian with the British political system. socialism and an egalitarian Risorgimiento\u2014the movement As his reign progressed, however, society. A reformist socialist and toward the uni\ufb01cation of Italy in the he became increasingly dictatorial, member of the Independent Labor 19th century\u2014Garibaldi led a persecuting minorities and giving Party, he worked alongside Sidney guerrilla force famed for their red concessions to European traders and Beatrice Webb, campaigning shirts, which conquered Sicily and while lining his own pockets. Seen for reforms in industry and Naples. He also fought campaigns as being enthralled with foreign education. He was a staunch in South America during a period interests, he became increasingly advocate of adult education and of exile from Italy, and spent time in unpopular with the growing Iranian was actively involved in the the United States. His exploits led nationalist movement and was Workers\u2019 Educational Association, to renown on both sides of the assassinated in 1896. becoming its president in 1928. Atlantic, and his popularity did See also: Theodor Herzl 208\u201309 \u25a0 See also: Beatrice Webb 210 \u25a0 much to hasten Italian uni\ufb01cation. Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk 248\u201349 Robert Owen 335","DIRECTORY 337 FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT d\u2019\u00e9tat, the \u201cMarch on Rome,\u201d in Europe, but he was eventually 1922, and became prime minister of defeated in 1945. He committed 1882\u20131945 a coalition government the following suicide in his bunker as Allied year. Within a few years, he had forces closed in during the The 32nd president of the United assumed dictatorial power, using Battle of Berlin. States, Roosevelt was elected to the title Il Duce (\u201cThe Leader\u201d). He See also: Joseph Stalin 240\u201341 \u25a0 of\ufb01ce in 1932 during the worst began a program of public works Benito Mussolini 337 period of the Great Depression. and economic reforms. In World He immediately instituted a War II he sided with Hitler\u2019s HO CHI MINH program of legislation known Germany. After the Allied invasion as the New Deal to promote of Italy, he was imprisoned, then 1890\u20131969 economic growth, reduce freed by German special forces. unemployment, and regulate the Eventually, he was caught by Italian Ho Chi Minh was born Nguyen \ufb01nancial institutions. At the same partisans and executed in 1945. Sinh Cung in French Indochina time, he introduced social reforms See also: Giovanni Gentile (present-day Vietnam), and aimed at improving civil rights. 238\u201339 \u25a0 Adolf Hitler 337 educated at the French lyc\u00e9e in His expansion of government social Hue. He worked for a while as a programs and intervention in ADOLF HITLER teacher before taking a job on a the \ufb01nancial markets set the ship and traveling to the US, and standard for American liberal 1889\u20131945 then worked in menial jobs in politics in the 20th century. His London and Paris. While in France, policies improved the economy Although born in Austria, Adolf he learned about communism and and lifted the public mood, and Hitler moved to Germany as a campaigned for the replacement with the advent of World War II, young man and quickly became a of French rule in Vietnam with a he cemented his popularity by \ufb01erce German nationalist. After nationalist government. He spent taking the country from its serving in World War I, he joined some years in the Soviet Union isolationist stance to become the \ufb02edgling German Workers\u2019 and China and was imprisoned a leading player in world affairs. Party\u2014which was later by the British in Hong Kong. He See also: Winston Churchill transformed into the Nazi Party\u2014 returned to Vietnam in 1941 to 236\u201337 \u25a0 Joseph Stalin 240\u201341 becoming its leader in 1921. He lead the independence movement, was imprisoned in 1923 after he using his assumed name of Ho Chi BENITO MUSSOLINI staged an unsuccessful coup Minh. He successfully prevented d\u2019\u00e9tat, the Munich Beer Hall Putsch. occupation of the country by 1883\u20131945 While in jail, Hitler wrote the the Japanese in World War II, memoir Mein Kampf (\u201cMy establishing the communist As a young man, Mussolini left Struggle\u201d). Freed the following Democratic Republic of Vietnam Italy for Switzerland, where he year, he used his ideas of German (North Vietnam) in 1945 with became a socialist activist and nationalism, racial superiority, anti- himself as president and prime later a political journalist. He was Semitism, and anticommunism to minister, but continued to \ufb01ght for also a fervent Italian nationalist whip up support, and was elected a united Vietnam until ill health and was expelled from the Italian chancellor in 1933. He quickly forced his retirement in 1955. Socialist Party for his support of established a dictatorial rule, He died in 1969, before the intervention in World War I. After replacing the Weimar Republic Vietnam War had come to an service in the Italian army, he with the Third Reich, and end, and remained a \ufb01gurehead renounced the orthodox socialist proceeded to rearm Germany in for the communist People\u2019s Army notion of a proletarian revolution preparation for seizing territory for and Viet Cong against South and developed a blend of nationalist the German people. His invasion Vietnam and the US-led forces. and socialist ideas in the Fascist of Poland in 1939 marked the See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Mao Manifesto in 1921. He led his start of World War II, during which Zedong 260\u201365 \u25a0 Che Guevara National Fascist Party in a coup he expanded the Reich across 312\u201313 \u25a0 Fidel Castro 339","338 DIRECTORY JOS\u00c9 CARLOS with the Frankfurt School of based on n\u00e9gritude rather than MARI\u00c1TEGUI Social Research, with which the Marxism of many postcolonial he maintained ties even after states, and maintained ties with 1894\u20131930 becoming a US citizen in 1940. France and the West. In his books One-Dimensional See also: Mahatma Gandhi Peruvian journalist Mari\u00e1tegui left Man and Eros and Civilization, 220\u201325 \u25a0 Marcus Garvey 252 \u25a0 school at age 14 to work as an he presented a Marxist-inspired Martin Luther King 316\u201321 errand boy at a newspaper, and philosophy, stressing the learned his trade at the dailies La alienation of modern society. His MIHAILO MARKOVIC Prensa and El Tiempo. In 1918 he interpretation of Marxism was set up his own left-wing paper, La tailored for US society, with less 1923\u20132010 Raz\u00f3n, and in 1920 was forced to emphasis on class struggle. He leave the country for his support was a critic of Soviet communism, Born in Belgrade in what was then of socialist activists. He toured which he believed had the same Yugoslavia, the Serbian philosopher Europe, and was living in Italy and dehumanizing effect as capitalism. Mihailo Markovic was a prominent involved in socialist politics when Popular with minority groups member of the Marxist humanist Mussolini seized power. Mari\u00e1tegui and students in the US, his ideas movement known as the Praxis blamed the rise of fascism on the earned him the status of \u201cFather of School. After \ufb01ghting as a partisan weakness of the left. He returned the New Left\u201d in the 1960s and 70s. in World War II, he made his name to Peru in 1923 and began to See also: Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the Communist Party of write about the situation in his 118\u201325 \u25a0 Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Yugoslavia with his \ufb01erce criticism home country in the light of Friedrich Nietzsche 196\u201399 of Soviet Stalinism, advocating his experiences in Italy. He allied a return to Marxist principles. himself with the American Popular L\u00c9OPOLD S\u00c9DAR He studied in Belgrade and London, Revolutionary Alliance and founded SENGHOR and as a respected academic the magazine Amauta. A cofounder became a focus for the Praxis of the Communist Party of Peru in 1906\u20132001 movement in the 1960s, calling 1928, he wrote the Marxist analysis for freedom of speech and a Seven Interpretative Essays on Born in French West Africa, thoroughly Marxist social critique. Peruvian Reality, arguing for a Senghor won a scholarship to study In 1986, Markovic was a coauthor return to the collectivism of the in France, where he graduated and of the SANU Memorandum, which indigenous Peruvian people. His became a professor at the outlined the position of Serbian ideas remained in\ufb02uential in Peru universities of Tours and Paris. nationalists, and as a member of after his early death in 1930, and He was actively involved in the the Socialist Party of Serbia was were the inspiration for both resistance during the Nazi a supporter of Serbian nationalist the Shining Path and T\u00fapac occupation of France. With other leader Slobodan Milo\u0161evic. Revolutionary movements African \u00e9migr\u00e9s, including Aim\u00e9 See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 in the late 20th century. C\u00e9saire and L\u00e9on Damas, he Herbert Marcuse 338 See also: Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar 162\u201363 \u25a0 developed the concept of n\u00e9gritude, Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Che Guevara asserting the positive values of JEAN-FRANCOIS LYOTARD 312\u201313 \u25a0 Benito Mussolini 337 African culture as opposed to the racist colonial attitudes prevalent 1924\u20131998 HERBERT MARCUSE in Europe. After World War II, he returned to Africa to continue his A leading \ufb01gure in the French 1898\u20131979 academic career and became postmodernist philosophical increasingly involved in politics. He movement, Lyotard studied at One of a number of German was elected the \ufb01rst president of the Sorbonne in Paris and was a intellectuals who emigrated to the Senegal when the country achieved cofounder of the International US in the 1930s, Marcuse studied independence in 1960. He adopted College of Philosophy. Like many philosophy and became associated a distinctly African socialist stance socialists in the 1950s, he was","DIRECTORY 339 disillusioned by the excesses of between the West and East during Harvard, and at Oxford, then Stalin\u2019s Soviet Russia, and joined the Cold War. After the fall of the worked as a professor in Toronto the Socialisme ou Barbarie Soviet Union, he took Cuba into an until 1980, when he moved to the organization, which had been set alliance with other Latin American University of Pittsburgh. His main up in 1949 to oppose Stalin from countries and passed measures \ufb01eld of interest is in moral a Marxist perspective. Later, he to open the country up to foreign philosophy, and in particular the turned to other Marxist groups. He investment before retiring due to political theories of Hobbes and took part in the student and worker ill-health in 2008 and passing the Rousseau. In numerous articles and protests of May 1968 in Paris, but presidency to his brother Ra\u00fal. books, Gauthier has developed a was disappointed by the lack of See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 libertarian political philosophy response from political thinkers. Vladimir Lenin 226\u201333 \u25a0 based on rational Enlightenment In 1974, Lyotard renounced his Che Guevara 312\u201313 moral theory. In his best-known belief in Marxist revolution in his book, Morals by Agreement, book Libidinal Economy. This and J\u00dcRGEN HABERMAS he applies modern theories about many of his political writings decision making\u2014such as games provided a postmodernist analysis 1929\u2013 theory\u2014to the idea of the social of Marx and capitalism\u2014and the contract, and examines the moral work of Sigmund Freud\u2014in terms The German philosopher and basis for political and economic of the politics of desire. sociologist J\u00fcrgen Habermas is decision making. See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 known for his analyses of modern See also: Thomas Hobbes 96\u2013103 \u25a0 Herbert Marcuse 338 capitalist society and democracy Jean-Jacques Rousseau 118\u201325 from a broadly Marxist perspective. FIDEL CASTRO He emphasizes the rationalism of ERNESTO LACLAU Marxist analysis, which he regards 1926\u2013 as a continuation of Enlightenment 1935\u2013 thinking. In\ufb02uenced by his A \ufb01gurehead of anti-imperialist experiences during World War II, The political theorist Ernesto politics, Castro \ufb01rst became and particularly the subsequent Laclau was a socialist activist involved in Cuban politics while a Nuremberg trials, he sought to in his native Argentina and a law student in Havana, which he \ufb01nd a new political philosophy for member of the Socialist Party left to \ufb01ght in rebellions against postwar Germany. He studied of the National Left until he was right-wing governments in at the Frankfurt School of Social encouraged to follow an academic Colombia and the Dominican Research, but disagreed with the career in England in 1969. He Republic. In 1959, with his brother institute\u2019s antimodernist stance. studied at Essex University, where Ra\u00fal and friend Che Guevara, He later became director of the he is still professor of Political he led the movement to overthrow Institute for Social Research in Theory. Laclau describes his stance the US-backed dictatorship of Frankfurt. A proli\ufb01c writer, as post-Marxist. He applies Fulgencio Batista in Cuba. As Habermas has argued for a truly elements of thought derived from prime minister of the new Republic democratic socialism, and has been French philosophers, including of Cuba, he established a one-party a frequent critic of postmodernism. Jean-Francois Lyotard and Jacques Marxist-Leninist state. Despite See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Derrida, and the psychoanalytic US attempts to overthrow and Max Weber 214\u201315 theory of Jacques Lacan, to an even assassinate him, he became essentially Marxist political president in 1976. Rather than DAVID GAUTHIER philosophy. However, he rejects aligning Cuba too closely with Marxist ideas of class struggle and the Soviet Union, Castro took 1932\u2013 economic determinism in favor an internationalist stance as of a \u201cradical plural democracy.\u201d a member of the Non-Aligned Born in Toronto, Canada, See also: Karl Marx 188\u201393 \u25a0 Movement, which advocated Gauthier studied philosophy Antonio Gramsci 259 \u25a0 an anti-imperialist middle way at the University of Toronto, at Jean-Francois Lyotard 338","340 GLOSSARY Absolutism The principle of Bourgeoisie In Marxism, the class including the preservation of complete and unrestricted power that owns the means of production economic liberty, enterprise, in government. Also known as and whose income derives from that free markets, private property, totalism or totalitarianism. ownership rather than paid work. the privatization of business, and reduced government action. Agrarianism A political Capitalism An economic system philosophy that values rural society characterized by market forces, Constitutionalism A system and the farmer as superior to urban with private investment in, and of government that adheres to a society and the paid worker, and ownership of, a country\u2019s means constitution\u2014a written collection sees farming as a way of life that of production and distribution. of the fundamental principles and can shape social values. laws of a nation. Collectivism A political theory Anarchism The abolition of that advocates collective, rather Democracy A form of government government authority, through than individual, control over social in which supreme power is vested violent means if necessary, and the and economic institutions, in the people or exercised by their adoption of a society that is based especially the means of production. elected representatives. on voluntary cooperation. Colonialism The claim of a state Dependency theory The notion Apartheid Meaning \u201cseparation\u201d to sovereignty over new territories. that rich countries in the northern in Afrikaans, a policy of racial It is characterized by an unequal hemisphere have created a discrimination introduced in power relation between the neocolonial relationship with those South Africa following the National colonists who run the territories in the southern hemisphere, in Party\u2019s election victory in 1948. and their indigenous population. which the less developed countries are dependent and disadvantaged. Apparatchik A member of the Common law The law of the land, communist party machine. It has derived from neither the statute Despot A ruler with absolute come to be used as a derogatory books nor the constitution, but power who typically exercises it description of a political zealot. from court law reports. tyrannically and abusively. Autocracy A community or state Communism An ideology that Dictator An absolute ruler, in which unlimited authority is advocates the elimination of private especially one who assumes exercised by a single individual. property in favor of communal complete control without the free ownership, based on the 1848 consent of the people, and who may Bipartisan An approach to a political manifesto of Karl Marx exercise power oppressively. situation or issue agreed by and Friedrich Engels. political parties that are normally Direct democracy Government in opposition to one another. Confucianism A system based on by the people in fact, rather than the teachings of Confucius, which merely in principle\u2014citizens vote Bolshevik Meaning \u201cmajority\u201d in stresses hierarchy and loyalty, as on every issue affecting them\u2014 Russian, a faction of the Marxist well as individual improvement. as practiced in ancient Athens. Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) that split from the Conservatism A political position Divine right of kings A doctrine Menshevik faction in 1903, that opposes radical changes that holds that a monarch derives becoming the Communist Party in society. Conservatives may legitimacy from God, and is not of the Soviet Union after 1917. advocate a wide range of policies, subject to any earthly authority.","GLOSSARY 341 Dystopia A theoretical society Federalism A system of Isolationism A policy of characterized by a wretched, government in which powers withdrawing a nation from dysfunctional state. See Utopia. are divided between central military alliances, international government and smaller states agreements, and sometimes Economic structuralism or provinces. even international trade. The belief that the conduct of world politics is based Feudal system A medieval Junta A clique, faction, or on the way that the world is political system that consisted of cabal, often military in nature, organized economically. small geographical units\u2014such as that takes power after the principalities or dukedoms\u2014ruled overthrow of a government. Ecosophy In green politics, by the nobility, where the peasant the ecological philosophy of Arne population lived in a state of Just war theory A doctrine of Naess, propounding ecological bondage to their ruler. military ethics comprising Jus ad harmony or equilibrium. bellum\u2014Latin for \u201cright to war\u201d\u2014 Fourth estate A theoretical the need for a moral and legal basis Egalitarianism A philosophy institution consisting of the press for war, and Jus in bello\u2014Latin for that advocates social, political, and other forms of media. The term \u201cjustice in war\u201d\u2014the need for the and economic equality. derives from the \ufb01rst three \u201cestates\u201d moral conduct of warfare. \u2014classes of people\u2014recognized Elitism The belief that society by the French legislative assembly Kleptocracy Political and should be governed by an elite until the late 18th century: the governmental corruption in which group of individuals. Church, the nobility, and townsmen. politicians, bureaucrats, and their protected friends exercise power for Enlightenment, The Also Fundamentalism The strict their own material bene\ufb01t. From known as the Age of Reason, a adherence to and belief in the Greek for \u201crule by thieves.\u201d period of intellectual advances religious principles. in the 18th century that involved Leftism, left wing Ideology a questioning of religious Glasnost Meaning \u201copenness\u201d of the political \u201cleft.\u201d It is understandings of the world in Russian, a policy introduced characterized by an interventionist and the application of reason. in the Soviet Union by Mikhail approach to social welfare and an Gorbachev that committed internationalist worldview. The Extremism Any political theory the government to greater concept originated in 18th-century that favors uncompromising accountability and scrutiny. France, when nobility who sought policies or actions. to improve the peasants\u2019 conditions Green politics An ideology sat to the left of the king. Fabian Society A British centered around building an movement that advocated that ecologically sustainable society. Legalism A utilitiarian political socialism should be introduced philosophy adopted in China incrementally via education and Habeas corpus The right of during the Warring States period, gradual legislative changes. an individual detained under which stressed the importance of accusation to appear before a maintaining law and order, using Fascism A nationalist ideology court of law to have their guilt harsh punishment if necessary. typi\ufb01ed by strong leadership, stress or innocence examined. on a collective identity, and the use Liberalism A political ideology of violence or warfare to further the Imperialism The policy of that stresses the rights and interests of the state. The term extending the dominion of a nation freedoms of individuals. Liberals derives from the Italian fascio\u2014a through direct intervention in the may adopt a broad range of policies, tied bundle of sticks\u2014referring to affairs of other countries, and including the defense of free trade, collective identity, and was \ufb01rst seizure of territory and subjugation freedom of speech, and freedom of applied to Mussolini\u2019s regime. of peoples in building an empire. religious association.","342 GLOSSARY Liberalism, classic A philosophy Moral absolutism A philosophy Perestroika Political, bureaucratic, originating in the 18th century based on the notion that morality or economic restructuring of a that advocates the rights of the should be the absolute guide of system or organization. From the individual over those of the state human action, particularly in Russian for \u201creconstruct,\u201d it was \ufb01rst or Church, opposing absolutism regard to international law. coined by Mikhail Gorbachev to and the divine right of kings. describe reforms to the communist Multilateralism The cooperation system in the former Soviet Union. Libertarianism The advocacy of of multiple countries working liberty and free will. It can be found together in international relations. Pluralism The belief in a society on both the political left and right The opposite of unilateralism. in which members of diverse and incorporates beliefs including social or racial groups are able to self-reliance, reason, and Nationalism Loyalty and devotion express their traditional cultures noninterference by the state in to the home nation, and the or special interests freely and economic and personal affairs. political belief that its interests alongside one another. should be pursued as the primary Machiavellian Cunning, goal of political policy. Plutocracy A government that is cynical, and opportunistic controlled or greatly in\ufb02uenced by political activity. From Niccol\u00f2 Natural law The concept that the wealthy in society. Machiavelli, a 16th-century positive and just laws rest upon a Florentine political theorist. \u201chigher law\u201d\u2014originally de\ufb01ned Popular sovereignty The theory by Thomas Aquinas as re\ufb02ecting that sovereign political authority is Maoism A form of Marxism- God\u2019s eternal law that guides the vested in and equally shared by the Leninism derived from the universe\u2014which is attested to by citizens of a state, who grant the teachings of Mao Zedong. Its common sense in most people. exercising of this authority to the central tenet is that the agrarian state, its government, and political peasantry can take the place of the N\u00e9gritude An ideological position leaders, but do not surrender proletariat in supporting revolution. of solidarity based on shared ultimate sovereignty. black-African identity, developed Marxian socialism A phase of by French intellectuals in the Progressivism The doctrine economic development that Marx 1930s in reaction to the racism of moderate political progress believed was an essential stage in of French colonialism. toward better conditions in the transition from a capitalist to government and society. a communist state. Oligarchy A form of government in which power is held by a small Proletariat In Marxist theory, the Marxism The philosophy group and exercised in their own workers of a nation who own no underpinning the writings of Karl interest, usually to the detriment property and must sell their labor Marx, proposing that the economic of the general population. to earn a living. Marx believed that order of society determines the it was inevitable that the proletariat political and social relationships Paci\ufb01sm The opposition to and would rise up and overthrow their within it. campaign against war and violence capitalist masters, instituting a as a means of resolving dispute, communist system under which Marxism-Leninism An ideology usually based on religious or moral they would exercise political and based on the theories of Karl Marx grounds. The term was coined by economic control. and Vladimir Lenin that calls for French peace campaigner \u00c9mile the creation of an international Arnaud (1864\u20131921). Radicalism The advocacy communist society. of extreme forms of change to Partisan An absolute supporter of achieve political means. Also Meritocracy The belief that rulers a particular political leader, party, refers to beliefs that constitute should be selected on the basis of or cause who typically exhibits a considerable departure from ability, rather than wealth or birth. unquestioning allegiance. traditional or established beliefs.","GLOSSARY 343 Reactionism A political Social democracy A reformist Syndicalism An early 20th-century orientation opposing radical social political movement advocating a ideology that emerged as an change, instead favoring a return gradual transition from capitalism alternative to capitalism and to a former political or social order. to socialism by peaceful, socialism. Especially popular in democratic means. Typical tenets France and Spain, it advocated Realpolitik Pragmatic, realistic include the right of all citizens to the seizure of a nation\u2019s means of politics, rather than that governed education, healthcare, workers\u2019 production\u2014and the overthrow of by moral or ethical objectives. compensation, and freedom its government\u2014in a general strike Realpolitik may involve a loose from discrimination. by workers\u2019 unions, and the approach to civil liberties. organization of production through Socialism An ideology and a federation of local syndicates. Republicanism The belief that a method of government that republic\u2014a state with no monarch, advocates state ownership and Theocracy A political system that in which power resides with the regulation of industry, and central is organized, governed, and led by people and is exercised by their control over the allocation of a priesthood, or even a proclaimed elected representatives\u2014is the resources, rather than allowing \u201cliving god,\u201d usually according to best form of government. these to be determined by religious doctrine or perceived market forces. divine intervention. Rightism, right wing The ideology of the political \u201cright,\u201d Sovereignty Supreme power as Totalitarianism A regime that loosely de\ufb01ned as favoring exercised by an autonomous state subordinates the rights of the conservative, pro-market attitudes, or ruler, free from any external individual in favor of the interests a preference for individual rights in\ufb02uence or control. Usually used of the state, through control of over interventionist government, to refer to a nation\u2019s right to self- political and economic affairs and a strict approach to law and determination in internal affairs prescription of the attitudes, values, order, and nationalism. and international relations with and beliefs of the population. other countries. Segregationism The belief in Unilateralism Any action the necessity to separate different State of nature In social contract conducted in a one-sided manner. races, classes, or ethnic groups theory, the hypothetical condition In politics, it often describes from each other. that existed prior to the emergence countries conducting foreign of organized government. affairs in an individualistic manner, Sharia law The body of divine law According to Jean-Jacques with minimal consultation with in Islam that governs the religious Rousseau, this condition was other nations, even allies. The and secular life of Muslims. Some one of idyllic harmony between opposite of multilateralism. Muslims argue that Sharia is the man and nature, while Thomas only legitimate basis for law. Hobbes depicts it as a dystopian Utilitarianism A branch of social state of man in constant con\ufb02ict philosophy developed by Jeremy Social contract An actual or with his fellow man. Bentham, which holds that the best theoretical agreement between policy at any given juncture is one individuals to form an organized Suffrage The right to vote in that affords the greatest happiness society, or between individuals elections or referenda. Universal to the greatest number of people. and a ruler or government to de\ufb01ne suffrage refers to the right to vote of the limits, rights, and duties of citizens regardless of their gender, Utopia An ideally perfect place. In each. Theorists including Thomas race, social status, or wealth, while politics, \u201cUtopian\u201d is applied to any Hobbes and John Locke de\ufb01ned the women\u2019s suffrage describes the system that aims to create an ideal social contract as the means by right of women to vote on the same society. From the Greek meaning which individuals were protected basis as men, as campaigned for in \u201cno place,\u201d the word was \ufb01rst used by a governing power, and kept the early 20th century by activists in Thomas More\u2019s \ufb01ctional work from the state of nature. such as the \u201csuffragettes.\u201d Utopia (1516). See dystopia.","344 INDEX Numbers in bold refer Atat\u00fcrk, Mustafa Kemal 218, Bolshevism 206, 218, 230\u201333, 235, 240, to a person\u2019s main entry. 248\u201349 242\u201344, 312 A Athens 18\u201319, 36\u201337, 39, 40, 42, Booth, Charles 210 136, 236 Bourdieu, Pierre 250 absolutism 84, 85, 88\u201389, 98, bourgeoisie 228, 230, 250 102, 106, 108, 176, 244 Augustine of Hippo 39, 52, 54\u201355, Brazil 297 56, 64, 65, 120, 161, 268, 325 Britain 117, 176, 178\u201379, 181, 186, Addams, Jane 211 administrators 18, 23, 24\u201325, Augustus, Emperor 49 207, 236, 280 Australia 195 Bill of Rights 85, 98, 106, 136, 27, 28, 33, 45 authoritarianism 14, 18, 27, 32, Afghanistan 268, 324, 329 138, 276 Africa 219, 258, 269 39, 48, 98, 102, 245 Empire 112, 116, 117, 219, 253, African National Congress 294\u201395 autonomy 126, 128, 177, 180 Agamben, Giorgio 257 Averroes 53, 64 258, 304 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 323 Avicenna 53, 58 Glorious Revolution 98, 106, Akbar the Great 333 Al-e-Ahmad, Jalal 323 B 130, 132, 136, 195 Alexander II, Tsar 329 Magna Carta 60\u201361 Alexander the Great 19, 41, 47, Babeuf, Gracchus 242, 335 welfare state 169, 202, 268 Baghdad 58, 59 bureaucracy 33, 48, 147, 314 332 Bakunin, Mikhail 184\u201385, 262 Burke, Edmund 116, 117, 120, 125, Al-Farabi 52, 53, 58\u201359, 72 Baldwin, Stanley 236 Algeria 304, 305 Barons of King John 60\u201361 130\u201333, 137 Al-Kindi 52, 53, 58 Bataille, Georges 196, 199 Bush, George 324 Allende, Salvador 204, 205 Batista, Fulgencio 204, 339 Bush, George H.W. 236 al-Qaeda 269, 278, 329 Bauer, Bruno 208 Butler, Smedley D. 247, 268 Althusius, Johannes 84, 92\u201393 Beauvoir, Simone de 268, 269, anarchism 184\u201385, 206, 234, 246 C Anger, Jane 154 284\u201389 anti-imperialism 169, 204\u201305, Beccaria, Cesare 146 Caesar, Julius 19, 49, 60 Bentham, Jeremy 117, 144\u201349, Calhoun, John C. 161 222\u201325, 304\u201307 capitalism 85, 113, 170, 196, 202, anti-Semitism 143, 208\u201309, 219, 179\u201380, 181 Bergson, Henri 200 203, 281, 302, 303 335 Berlin, Isaiah 94, 176, 180, 303 anticapitalists 184, 229 antitotalitarianism 282\u201383 Berlin Wall 170, 269 Hayek 270\u201375 apartheid 269, 294\u201395, 305 Berlusconi, Silvio 259 Marx on 190\u201393 appeasement 236\u201337 Bernstein, Eduard 169, 201, 202\u201303 Carmichael, Stokely 319 Aquinas, Thomas 40, 53, 58, , 62\u201369, Beveridge, William 210 Carson, Rachel 290, 291 Bhutan 195 Castro, Fidel 204, 313, 339 70, 84, 86, 90, 120 Bill of Rights 85, 98, 106, 108, Catholic Church 64, 69, 71, 90, 335 on just war 54, 56, 87, 268, 325 C\u00e9saire, Aim\u00e9 338 Arab Spring 269, 328 109, 136, 138, 150\u201353, 276 Chamberlain, Neville 236, 237 Arendt, Hannah 125, 282\u201383 Bin Laden, Osama 278 Chanakya 19, 28, 39, 44\u201347, 76 aristocracy 43, 49, 68, 133 Bismarck, Otto von 160, 211 Chandragupta Maurya 19, 28, 47 Aristotle 12, 14, 19, 36, 39, Black Panthers 308 Charlemagne, Emperor 52, 71 Blair, Tony 236 Charles I of England 85, 101\u201302, 106, 40\u201343, 47, 54, 58, 93, 156, 332 Blanqui, Auguste 228 Politics 19, 42, 67, 68, 70, 71 Bodin, Jean 84, 88\u201389, 93, 98, 100 107, 109, 140, 333 Assange, Julian 283 Bol\u00edvar, Sim\u00f3n 117, 162\u201363, 205 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 80, 87 Chartists 117, 136, 139","INDEX 345 Ch\u00e1vez, Hugo 162, 163, 242 conservatism 14, 25, 117, 130, 147, 258, E Chiang Kaishek 264 274 Chile 204, 205, 275 Ebadi, Shirin 269, 328 China 18, 19, 72, 168, 179, 310 Churchill 236\u201337 ecology, deep 269, 290\u201393 Oakeshott 276\u201377 education 38\u201339, 45, 155, 173, 211, 259, Communism 27, 219, 228, 233, Schmitt 254\u201357 260\u201365 consociation 92\u201393 297, 332, 334 Constantine I, Emperor 52, 54, 64 Einstein, Albert 225 Confucius 20\u201327 constitution 18, 19, 43, 49, 69, 70, elections 117, 168, 252 Mozi 32\u201333 elites 314\u201315 Sun Tzu 28\u201331 110\u201311, 195 ends and means 14, 242\u201345 Sun Yat-Sen 212\u201313, 218 Corradini, Enrico 200 Engels, Friedrich, see Marx, Karl: Chomsky, Noam 268, 314\u201315 corruption 184\u201385 Christian, David 232 Cromwell, Oliver 101, 102, 136, 333 Communist Manifesto Christian Church 52, 53, 54, 64, 69, 70, cronyism 22, 27, 33 English Civil War 60, 61, 84, 85, 98, 99, Cuba 204\u201305, 268, 313, 333, 339 71, 86, 88, 110\u201311 culture 142\u201343, 259 102, 106, 109, 333 Christianity 39, 40, 52\u201353, 54, 56, Cyrus the Great 332 Enlightenment 43, 85, 98, 110, 116, 64, 70, 86 D 131, 146, 154 Churchill, Winston 225, 233, 236\u201337 American 85, 112, 140 Cicero 49, 54, 60, 64, 66, 150 Damas, L\u00e9on 338 entrepreneurialism 85, 112\u201313 Daoism 32 environmentalism 269, 290\u201393 De republica 19, 36, 76 Darius the Great 332 espionage 30, 46\u201347 city-states 18, 19, 40\u201343, 49, 56, 59, 71 Davidson, Emily 207 ethics 12, 18, 45 civil disobedience 186\u201387, 207, Davies, Emily 155 Europe 190, 193, 268, 269 Debray, R\u00e9gis 312 European Union 15, 173, 248 222\u201325, 294\u201395, 300\u201301, 318\u201321 decolonization 304\u201307 exceptionality 254\u201357 civil rights 182, 222, 268, 269, De la Cruz, Juana In\u00e9s 334 executive 107, 111, 124 Deleuze, Gilles 199 existentialism 287\u201388 304, 308\u201309, 316\u201321, 337 democracy 14, 68, 102, 137, 148, 239, 300 civil service 24\u201325, 26, 27 F class 14, 84, 168, 179, 203, 231, failure of 200, 201 Greek 18\u201319, 36, 39, 40\u201343, 136 fairness 131, 301 241, 250, 288 inferiority of 68, 151, 170, 176 family 24, 27, 32, 48, 165, 302 classless society 170\u201371 liberal 180\u201381, 257, 282 Fanon, Frantz 253, 269, 294, Clausewitz, Carl von 76, 160 representative 85, 248\u201349 Cohen, Gerald 300, 303, 326 Roman 19, 49 304\u201307 Cold War 190, 219, 268, 322 Demosthenes 236 fascism 14, 218, 219, 238\u201339, 280, collective action problem 101 Deng Xiaoping 262 collectivism 238 Derrida, Jacques 339 337 collectivization 228, 240\u201341 Descartes, Ren\u00e9 156 federalism 92\u201393, 150\u201353, 296 colonialism 86\u201387, 143, 162\u201363, despotism 25, 26, 27, 37, 49, 111, 162, feminism 154\u201355, 180, 207, 268, 269, 168, 239, 253, 333 163 286\u201389 anticolonialism 169, 204\u201305, D\u00edaz, Por\ufb01rio 218, 246 Fichte, Johann 142, 335 Dickens, Charles 148 Florence 53, 76, 81 222\u201325 dictatorship 49, 133, 242 foreign policy 29, 247 decolonization 304\u201307 direct action 186\u201387, 222\u201325, 308 Foucault, Michel 310\u201311 independence movements 116\u201317, diplomacy 28, 45, 160 Fourier, Charles 336 divine right of kings 14, 27, 53, 70, 84, France 88, 89, 110, 111, 183, 208\u201309, 172, 204, 219, 268, 269, 304 postcolonialism 258, 305 85, 87, 91, 98, 110, 162 304, 335 Columbus, Christopher 86, 162, 204 Douglass, Frederick 158 republic 116, 194, 195 communism 14, 27, 168, 170, 202, Dreyfus, Alfred 208\u201309 Franco, Francisco 218, 219 Dutt, Rajani Palme 225 Frankfurt School 219 206, 218, 269, 338 anticommunism 258, 302 Chinese 212, 260\u201365 Lenin 226\u201333 Marx 188\u201393 Trotsky 242\u201345 communitarianism 324\u201325 Comte, Auguste 164, 165, 210 Confucius 13, 18, 19, 20\u201327, 28, 32, 39, 47, 48, 332 consciousness, human 156\u201359","346 INDEX Franklin, Benjamin 85, 112\u201313 Greer, Germaine 286 I free markets 176, 181, 272\u201375, 276, Gregory XIII, Pope 91 Grotius, Hugo 64, 84, 85, 86, 90, 91, Ibn Khaldun 53, 54, 72\u201373, 121, 165 280 idealism 148, 156\u201359, 238 freedom 85, 107, 123, 126\u201329, 269 94\u201395, 122 ideology 14, 276\u201377 Guevara, Che 162, 304, 312\u201313, immigration 143 of action and thought 177\u201381 imperialism, see colonialism see also liberty 339 India 19, 186, 253, 278, 279, 303, 304, Freire, Paulo 297 gun control 150\u201353 French Revolution 85, 92, 110, 140, Guti\u00e9rrez, Gustavo 164 333 Chanakya 28, 39, 44\u201347 172, 182, 334, 335 H Gandhi 219, 220\u201325, 304, 308 Burke on 116, 130\u201333 Mauryan Empire 28, 44, 47 Paine 137\u201338 habeas corpus 60 individualism 186\u201387, 238, 280 Friedan, Betty 286, 289 Habermas, J\u00fcrgen 282, 339 individuality 176, 178\u201379 Friedman, Milton 272 Hague Conference 86 industrialization 168, 178, 190, 228\u201330, Fukuyama, Francis 196 Han dynasty 19, 27, 48 fundamentalism 278\u201379, 328, 329 Han Fei Tzu 18, 19, 32, 48, 76 247, 250, 290 happiness 13, 117, 142\u201343 inequality 122, 148, 300\u201303 G injustice 54, 72\u201373 Kant on 126\u201329 intellectuals 250\u201351, 259, 323 Gadamer, Hans-Georg 282 utilitarianism 146\u201349, 179\u201380 intelligence 30, 46 Gandhi, Mahatma 186, 219, 220\u201325, Havel, V\u00e1clav 314 international law 86, 87, 90, 91 Hayek, Friedrich 269, 270\u201375, 326 international relations 29, 30, 103 253, 304, 308, 318, 319 Haywood, Harry 245 Internationals 169, 185, 200 Garibaldi, Giuseppe 336 Hegel, Georg 14, 15, 117, 156\u201359, 160, Iran 269, 323, 328, 336 Garvey, Marcus 252 Iraq 236, 247, 268, 269, 283, 323 Gauthier, David 339 168, 190, 238 Irish Rebellion 116 Gellner, Ernest 73 Henry I of England 53, 60 Islam 52\u201353, 56\u201359, 72\u201373, 269 generals 30, 44 Herder, Johann Gottfried 142\u201343, Genghis Khan 332 fundamentalism 278\u201379, 328 Gentile, Giovanni 238\u201339 172 Islamic empire 39, 56, 57, 58 Germany 143, 180, 195, 219, 290 hereditary principle 24, 26, 70 Islamism 323 Herzen, Alexander 194 Israel 208 Nazism 225, 256, 337 Herzl, Theodor 169, 208\u201309 Italy 172, 173, 200, 218, 238\u201339, 259, SPD 168, 194, 202\u201303 Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 84, 333 uni\ufb01cation 168, 169 hierarchy 23\u201326, 28, 29\u201330, 32\u201333 296, 336, 337 Giddens, Anthony 214 Hirobumi, Ito 195 Gierke, Otto von 93 history, end of 15, 196, 198 J Gilbert, Margaret 101 Hitler, Adolf 142, 160, 180, 208,218, 219, Giles of Rome 40, 53, 70 Jacobin Club 120 globalization 15, 269 236\u201337, 254, 256, 337 Jainism 222, 223 Godwin, William 184 Ho Chi Minh 31, 337 James I of England 90 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 143 Hobbes, Thomas 13, 40, 80, 84, Japan 84, 168, 169, 195, 212, 219, 333 good life 18, 36\u201338, 41, 42, 55, 59, 68, Jefferson, Thomas 88, 109, 133, 96\u2013103, 106, 107, 116, 121, 122, 70 123, 255 140\u201341, 151 Gorbachev, Mikhail 240, 322 Leviathan 70, 76, 85, 88, 98\u201399, 120, Jeffreys, Elaine 310 Gouges, Olympe de 154, 286 150, 254, 310 Jews 143, 169, 208\u201309, 237 government, role of 108 Hobsbawn, Eric 282 jihad 57, 278\u201379 governmentality 311 Holy Roman Empire 52, 53, 71, 117 Jim Crow laws 318, 321 Gramsci, Antonio 80, 259, 297 human nature 23, 77, 78 John, King of England 53, 60\u201361 Great Depression 218, 219, 236, 272, human rights 60, 61, 85, 87, 140, 328, John XXII, Pope 70, 71 333 297, 337 humanism 76, 77, 80, 90 Greece 18\u201319, 34\u201339, 68, 111, 117, 121, Hume, David 103, 146, 153 Hundred Schools of Thought 18, 22, 332 28, 32 green movement 269, 290\u201393, 310","INDEX 347 justice 13, 31, 36, 37, 52, 53, 56, 65\u201366, League of Nations 218 Mandate of Heaven 22, 25 69, 70, 269 Lebanon 329 Mandela, Nelson 269, 294\u201395 Legalism 18, 19, 22, 27, 32, 33, 48, 76 Mandeville, Bernard 214 just government 54\u201355 legislature 107, 111 Mann, Michael 314 just war 52, 55, 56\u201357, 62\u201369, 87, 247, legitimacy 100, 106\u201309, 123, 300 Mao Zedong 28, 31, 33, 219, 260\u201365 Lenin, Vladimir 169, 190, 218, 228\u201333, Marcuse, Herbert 338 324\u201325 Mari\u00e1tegui, Jos\u00e9 Carlos 338 social justice 274, 298\u2013303, 318\u201321 235, 240, 242, 322 Markovic, Mihailo 338 Leninism 262\u201365, 322 Marsilius of Padua 53, 70, 71 K Leopold, Aldo 290 Mart\u00ed, Jos\u00e9 204\u201305 Levellers 333 Marx, Karl 14, 133, 142, 159, 188\u201393, Kant, Immanuel 85, 116, 126\u201329, 164, liberal democracy 180\u201381, 257, 282, 302 196, 327 liberal republicanism 162\u201363 203, 215, 230, 231, 314 liberalism 14, 85, 95, 117, 164, 169, Capital 130, 193, 214, 259 Kennedy, John F. 268 Communist Manifesto 165, 168, Kenya 219, 258, 268, 304, 306 334 Kenyatta, Jomo 219, 258 critique of 239, 254\u201357 183, 193, 234, 276, 312 Keynes, John Maynard 272\u201373, 274 De Toqueville 170\u201371 Marxism 14\u201315, 165, 169, 201, 238\u201339, Khomeini, Ayatollah 323, 328 Franklin 112\u201313 King, Martin Luther 187, 222, 225, Locke 106\u201309 242, 257, 262\u201365 Mill 176\u201381 Gramsci 259 252, 268, 269, 294, 308, 316\u201321 Nozick 326\u201327 Lenin 229\u201330 Klein, Naomi 275 Ortega y Gasset 250\u201351 revisionism 202\u201303 Knight, Frank 300 Rawls 300\u201303 Mattick, Paul 245 Korean War 268 Weber 214\u201315 Maududi, Abul Ala 56, 269, 278\u201379 Kropotkin, Peter 184, 206 libertarianism 314\u201315, 326\u201327, 336, 339 Mauryan empire 19, 28, 44, 47 Krushchev, Nikita 240 liberty 13, 43, 60, 269, 301 Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico 164 Kuomintang (KMT) 212, 213 individual 94\u201395, 102, 176\u201381, May Fourth Movement 263 Mazzini, Giuseppe 172\u201373 L 280\u201381 Medina 52, 56\u201357, 278 Lilburne, John 333 Mearsheimer, John 254 labor, alienation of 190\u201393 Lincoln, Abraham 161, 182 Mencius 18, 19, 22, 27, 32, 332 Labour Party 202 Locke, John 85, 88, 98, 100, 102, 103, Mendelssohn, Moses 208 Lacan, Jacques 339 meritocracy 19, 22, 26, 27, 32\u201333, 48 Laclau, Ernesto 339 104\u201309, 116, 140\u201341, 151, 153, 161, Mexico 164, 169, 218, 246 Laffer, Arthur 72, 73 176, 183, 326 Miglio, Gianfranco 296 land 212\u201313, 246 Louis IV of France 70 military 29\u201330, 45, 46, 56 Laozi 32 Louis XIV of France 85, 106 military-industrial complex 268, 325 Las Casas, Bartolom\u00e9 de 333 Ludendorff, General Erich 160 Mill, John Stuart 146, 154, 169,172, Latin America 164, 238, 247, 304 Ludwig of Bavaria 71 Lukacs, John 250\u201351 174\u201381, 207 US intervention 204\u201305 Luther, Martin 71, 84, 88 Miller, David 282 wars of independence 117, 162\u201363, 164 Luxemburg, Rosa 234\u201335 Mills, Charles W. 314 law 26, 27, 36, 42, 45, 68\u201369, 106\u201307, Lyotard, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois 338\u201339 ministers 22, 24\u201325, 27, 33, 44\u201348 Mises, Ludwig von 272 123, 128, 137, 274 M modernization 164, 195, 262\u201365 divine 53, 55, 58, 67, 71, 90 Mohism 32\u201333 good 70, 108, 146, 147 Machiavelli, Niccol\u00f2 13, 53, 74\u201381, monarchy 43, 49, 53, 60\u201361, 68, 70, 109, international 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91 94, 160 natural 53, 54, 58, 64\u201369, 84, 85, 86\u201387, 137, 163, 176 The Prince 47, 53, 88, 120, 254, 276, Mongols 332 90\u201391, 94\u201395, 107, 148, 185, 334 296, 310 Monroe Doctrine (1823) 205 rule of 40, 47, 54, 56, 70, 106\u201309 Montesquieu 49, 84, 85, 110\u201311, 130, Sharia Law 278, 279 Madison, James 150\u201353 Magna Carta 60\u201361 142, 146, 194 Maistre, Joseph de 334 Mora, Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Luis 164 Malcolm X 304, 308\u201309, 318 moral philosophy 18, 23, 25\u201327, 28, 32, 33, 65, 339 moralism 12\u201313 morality 33, 128, 146, 186, 196\u201399, 243\u201344, 300","348 INDEX Mordvinov, Nikolai 334 O polity 19, 36, 43, 68 More, Thomas 13 Polybius 49 Morris, William 290 Oakeshott, Michael 130, 165, positivism 165 Mosaddeq, Mohammad 328 276\u201377 postcolonialism 258, 305 Mozi 18, 19, 22, 27, 32\u201333, 39, 47, 48 postmodernism 338, 339 Mughal empire 333 objectivism 280\u201381 Potoni\u00e9-Pierre, Eug\u00e9nie 286 Muhammad 52, 56\u201357, 64, 278 oligarchy 43, 49, 68 poverty 210, 211, 297, 320, 336 Mussolini, Benito 80, 218, 238, 239, Organization of African Unity 258 power 13, 269, 310\u201311, 314\u201315 Ortega y Gasset, Jos\u00e9 250\u201351 337 Ottoman empire 117, 248, 249 corruption of 72\u201373, 184\u201385 mutualism 183 Owen, Robert 335 will to power 196\u201399 myth, heroic 200\u201301 powers, separation of 49, 84, 85, 107, P N 110\u201311, 146 paci\ufb01sm 223\u201324 Praxis School 338 Naess, Arne 269, 290\u201393 Paine, Thomas 112, 116, 130, 133, Priestley, Joseph 146, 147 Nanda dynasty, India 44, 47 Primo de Rivera, Miguel 250 Napoleon Bonaparte 117, 132, 133, 158, 134\u201339, 141, 148, 151 privatization 129 Pakistan 278, 279 progressive movement 211 162, 163, 236, 335 Panama Canal 247 property, private 122, 123, 124, 133, Naser al-Din Shah Quajar 336 Pankhurst, Emmeline 207 nation-state 15, 84, 88, 89 papacy 52, 53, 69, 70, 71, 86 170, 183, 190\u201392, 230 nationalism 14, 117, 142\u201343, 197, 209, Pape, Robert 269, 329 property rights 134\u201339, 183 Paris Commune 168, 336 Protagoras 18, 36 218, 335 Parks, Rosa 308 Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 126, 183, 184, America 140\u201341 parliament 60, 61, 98, 102, 106, 151, black 252, 308 206, 272 China 212\u201313 276\u201377 Pufendorf, Samuel von 334 India 222\u201325 parliamentary democracy 201 Pussy Riot 242 Italy 172\u201373, 238 Parsons, Talcott 214 Putin, Vladimir 242 Turkey 248\u201349 paternalism 22, 24, 39, 181 Putnam, Robert 296 nationalization 240 People\u2019s Charter 117 nature, state of 13, 98\u2013103, 107, 120, perestroika 322 Q Pericles 40 121, 123, 127 Persian empire 332 Qin Shi Huang, Emperor 29 Nazism 208, 218, 219, 237, 256, 257, Peru 338 Quetelet, Adolphe 165 Philip II of Macedon 41, 332 Quran 57 283, 335, 336, 337 philosopher kings 19, 36\u201339, 40, 58, neoliberalism 272\u201375 R neo-Platonism 52 59, 250 nepotism 22, 27, 33 Pinochet, Augusto 275 race 252, 294\u201395, 305, 306, Nero, Emperor 39 Pitt, William 138 308 New World 86\u201387, 112 Plato 14, 19, 34\u201339, 52, 54, 55, 59, 170, Nicaragua 247 radicalism 297 Nicolas II, Tsar 218, 228 183, 186, 190, 250 Rand, Ayn 280\u201381 Nietzsche, Friedrich 156, 168, 169, Republic 13, 19, 36, 37, 40, 49, 54, 58, rationalism 36, 53, 276\u201377, 339 Rawls, John 103, 126, 269, 298\u2013303, 196\u201399, 200 88, 127, 242 nihilism 196\u201399, 257 Plotinus 52, 58 326\u201327 9\/11 257, 269, 329 Pol Pot 276 Reagan, Ronald 272, 275, 280, Non-Aligned Movement 258 Poland 234 nonappeasement 236\u201337 polis (city-state) 40\u201343, 70 322 noninterventionism 247 political animal, man as 40\u201343, realism 13, 14, 28, 44, 76, 80, 98\u2013103, nonviolent resistance 220\u201325 Nozick, Robert 13, 176, 183, 269, 300, 67\u201368, 70 160 326\u201327 nuclear weapons 268, 325"]
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