Oceanology - The Secrets of the Sea Revealed

["CEPHALOPODS A class of tentacled CIGUATERA Poisoning from eating CONTINENTAL RISE The region water in one direction; also a smaller mollusks that includes squid, cuttlefish, toxic sea food, often caused by where the deep ocean seabed begins flow of water near the shoreline. octopuses, and nautiluses. consuming fish that have eaten toxic to get shallower at the edge of a dinoflagellates. See also Dinoflagellates. continental margin. CYANOBACTERIA An abundant group CEPHALOTHORAX The fused head of microscopic photosynthesizing and thorax of a crustacean or a spider. CILIA (sing. CILIUM) Microscopic CONTINENTAL SHELF The relatively bacteria, formerly called blue-green beating hairs on the surface of some flat and shallow seafloor surrounding algae. Their tiny cells lack nuclei, as CHELA A pincer, especially one cells, found on animals such as fan a continent, which is geologically part do those of other bacteria. See also belonging to an arthropod such as worms. These hairs are used for of that continent. Alga, Protists. a crab. A chelate leg is a leg with a locomotion or to generate currents. pincer at the end of it. CONTINENTAL SLOPE The sloping CYANOPHORE A blue 400 \u2022 401 glossary CIRRI (sing. CIRRUS) Small, stiff, seabed that leads from the edge of chromatophore. See also Chromatophore. CHEMOSYNTHESIS The process by hairlike projections in some animals, a continental shelf down to the which an organism can grow and often used for grasping or movement. continental rise. DEPOSIT FEEDER An animal that multiply using the energy stored in They are found, for example, in sea feeds by extracting food particles from simple chemicals such as hydrogen lilies and feather stars. CONVECTION Circulating mud or sand. sulfide or methane. Chemosynthesis movements in a fluid caused by heat functions in contrast to photosynthesis, CLASPERS In sharks and their being applied to parts of it. This results DETRITIVORE An animal whose food which depends on energy coming from relatives, the modified pelvic fins in warmer and therefore less dense consists of small fragments of dead the Sun. Many bacteria can carry out of the male that transfer sperm to fluid rising upward, which drives material (detritus). chemosynthesis, notably those living the female\u2019s body during copulation. the circulation. around hydrothermal vents. See also See also Pelvic fins. DIATOMS A group of microscopic Hydrothermal vent, Photosynthesis. COPEPODS A class of small single-celled organisms featuring CLASS A category in biological swimming crustaceans that form an an ornamented, boxlike protective CHITIN A nitrogen-containing classification. It is above an order and important part of the plankton. covering. Most are photosynthesizers carbohydrate material that forms below a phylum. See also Order, Phylum. and live near the water surface as the skeletal parts of some animals, CORALLITE The cup-shaped skeleton plankton, where they form an including the exoskeletons of CLOACA A combined body outlet of aragonite below the body of an important part of many marine food arthropods. It usually mixes other for urinary products, feces, and individual coral polyp. chains. See also Photosynthesis, materials to increase its hardness reproductive cells, found in most fish Phytoplankton, Plankton. and strength. See also Exoskeleton. and birds. COUNTERSHADING Coloration of an animal\u2019s body that helps disguise it by DINOFLAGELLATES A group of CHLOROPHYLL The green pigment CNIDARIANS A phylum of counteracting the effect of shadows, microscopic single-celled organisms that plants, algae, and some other invertebrate animals with stinging usually by being lighter on the with two flagella that help them move, organisms, including cyanobacteria, tentacles that includes sea anemones, underside of the body. many of which are photosynthetic and use to trap the Sun\u2019s energy for use in corals, jellyfish, and relatives. live near the surface as plankton. See photosynthesis. There are several CRUSTACEANS A subphylum of also Flagellum, Photosynthesis, Plankton. different types of chlorophyll. See COAST See Emergent coast, Erosional arthropods, including crabs, lobsters, also Cyanobacteria, Photosynthesis. coast, Submergent coast. shrimp, barnacles, and copepods. DORSAL Relating to the upper side or back of an animal. See also Ventral. CHORDATES A phylum of animals COMPOUND EYE An eye consisting CRYPSIS Features or behaviors that that includes all the vertebrates, as of many small individual facets packed allow an animal to avoid detection. DORSAL FIN A fin situated on the well as some invertebrate relatives, together. Compound eyes are a Crypsis includes concealed habitats, back of a fish or whale. including tunicates. See also Tunicates. common type of eye in arthropods. camouflage, or nocturnal behavior. DOWNWELLING The sinking down CHROMATOPHORE A pigment- CONTINENTAL CRUST The part of CRYPTIC COLORATION See of water from the surface of the ocean. containing cell or group of cells in the Earth\u2019s crust that forms the continents. Camouflage, Crypsis. Large-scale downwelling in certain skin of many animals. Different types It is less dense and thicker than regions gives rise to a process known of chromatophores display different oceanic crust. See also Oceanic crust. CTENOPHORES A jellyfishlike phylum as thermohaline circulation. See also colors. Animals with chromatophores of floating carnivorous animals, also Thermohaline circulation, Upwelling. can adjust the distribution of pigments CONTINENTAL MARGIN The region called comb jellies. within individual cells, altering their of seafloor surrounding a continent, DRIFT A large-scale flow of surface overall appearance. See also including the continental shelf, CURRENT A regular large-scale water that is broader and slower- Cyanophore, Iridophore. continental slope, and continental rise. horizontal or vertical flow of ocean moving than a current.","DUNE A mound of sand formed by FAST ICE Sea ice that is frozen on to a species and below a family. The chemicals issues from the rock at the action of winds blowing toward the coast or land-formed ice at its scientific name of a species consists high temperatures. coastal land. landward edge. See also Sea ice. of two words: a genus name and a species epithet. For example, Ursus HYDROZOANS A class of mainly ECHINODERMS A marine FILTER FEEDER An animal that feeds maritimus, the polar bear, is a species colonial cnidarians that includes invertebrate phylum that includes by filtering small food particles from in the genus Ursus, which also includes hydroids, siphonophores, and some starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, its environment, through the baleen other bears. See also Family, Species. small jellyfish. See also Cnidarians, and relatives. These animals feature in the case of some whales. Filter Hydroids, Jellyfish, Siphonophores. tube feet that enable some of them to feeders are a type of suspension feeder. GILL A structure for absorbing oxygen walk. See also Tube feet. See also Baleen, Suspension feeder. from water, often found in fish, ICE SHEET A very large area of ice mollusks, and crustaceans. Gills can that permanently covers a land area, ECHOLOCATION A method of FJORD An inlet of the sea once also have other functions, such as as in Antarctica or Greenland. detecting and locating objects, which occupied by a glacier. Fjords are often sieving small food particles. is used by dolphins and some other deep and steep-sided, with a shallower ICE SHELF A floating extension of animals. Sound waves are emitted, sill at their mouth. See also Glacier. GLACIER A \u201criver\u201d of ice that flows an ice sheet or glacier over the ocean. and their echoes are then gathered slowly downhill from an ice cap or and interpreted. See also Melon. FLAGELLUM (pl. FLAGELLA) A long, mountainous region. INTERNAL FERTILIZATION microscopic whiplike structure used Fertilization where the eggs and the EMERGENT COAST A coast where the by some single-celled organisms, such GUYOT A seamount with a flat top. sperm meet and fuse inside the body land has risen relative to the current as dinoflagellates, for locomotion. See See also Seamount. of an animal. See also External sea level. See also Submergent coast. also Dinoflagellates. fertilization. GYRE A large system of ocean currents ENDOPARASITE A parasite that lives FLIPPER A limb used for swimming\u2014 circulating round a center point. INTERTIDAL Between the high and inside the body of another organism. for example, in whales, seals, penguins, There are five major ocean gyres. low water marks of a shoreline. See also Parasite. and turtles. HADAL ZONE The deepest zone of INVERTEBRATE Any animal other ENDOSKELETON A skeleton that is FLUKE Either of the two flattened sides ocean water, below 20,000 ft (6,000 m), than a vertebrate without a backbone, inside the body rather than on the of a whale\u2019s tail. which occurs only in ocean trenches. such as tunicates and arthropods. See surface, such as the skeletons of See also Abyssal. also Vertebrates. vertebrates and echinoderms. FORAMINIFERANS Single-celled organisms that mainly live on the HERMAPHRODITE An animal that is IRIDOPHORE A reflective or EPITHELIUM A layer of living cells on seafloor, protected by chalky shells, both male and female. A simultaneous iridescent kind of chromatophore. See the surface of an animal\u2019s body or of and feed on other small organisms. hermaphrodite is male and female at also Chromatophore. an internal organ. the same time, while a sequential FRAZIL ICE Ice that forms in cold hermaphrodite changes from one sex ISOPODS An order of mainly small EROSIONAL COAST A coastline that is water and consists of thousands of to the other, either once or repeatedly. crustaceans that includes woodlice, gradually being eroded by the sea. tiny crystals. It is an early stage in the sea slaters, and many marine species. development of sea ice and in turbulent HOLDFAST The structure that EURYHALINE Able to survive in water waters, it can form pancake ice. See holds a seaweed to the seafloor. It is JELLYFISH Members of the cnidarian of a wide range of salinities. See also also Pancake ice, Sea ice. not a true root because it does not class Scyphozoa, whose adults drift Salinity, Stenohaline. absorb substances for use in the rest or swim slowly in the ocean and use FROND A flattened, leaflike structure of the body. stinging cells to subdue prey. The EXOSKELETON A skeleton on found in many seaweeds. Unlike the deadly \u201cbox jellyfish\u201d are a separate the outside of the body, such as the leaves of land plants, seaweed fronds HOST Any organism on which a given but related class, and the word can skeletons of arthropods. do not contain specialized transport parasite regularly feeds. also be used for the small medusas vessels to interchange materials with of hydrozoans. Despite their name, EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION the rest of the organism. HYDROIDS A subgroup of hydrozoans jellyfish are not in fact fish. See also Fertilization in which egg and sperm that usually grow as small, plantlike Cnidarians, Hydrozoans, Medusa. combine outside the body, usually in GASTROPODS The largest class of colonies of connected individuals. See seawater. See also Internal fertilization. mollusks, which includes all snails also Hydrozoans. KERATIN A tough protein that forms and slugs. the substance of claws, nails, and hair. FAMILY A category in biological HYDROTHERMAL VENT A fissure classification. It is above a genus and GENUS (pl. GENERA) A category in in a volcanically active area of the KINGDOM The highest category in below an order. See also Genus, Order. biological classification. It is above ocean floor, where water rich in traditional biological classification.","KRILL An order of shrimplike MANTLE The fleshy covering on the NEMATOCYST The stinging cell of a a snail\u2019s shell when the animal 402 \u2022 403 glossary planktonic crustaceans that form outside of the body of mollusks and cnidarian that acts like a tiny harpoon. withdraws its body inside. a major part of ocean food chains, brachiopods that secretes the shell. It is usually charged with venom. See especially in the Southern Ocean. Mantle can also refer to the rocky also Cnidarians. OPISTHOSOMA The hind part of the See also Plankton. layer of Earth between the crust and body of a horseshoe crab or spider. the core. NEUROMAST One of the small LAGOON An enclosed area of coastal sensory structures that form part of ORDER A category in biological water almost cut off from the sea by MEDUSA One of the main body forms the lateral line system in aquatic classification. It is above a family and a barrier, or the sea area within the of cnidarian animals. A medusa is a vertebrates. See also Lateral line system. below a class. See also Class, Family. ring of an atoll. floating, usually saucer-shaped body form with a central mouth on the NOTOCHORD A stiffening rod OSSICLES The tiny calcareous units LARVA The young stage of an animal underside and tentacles. Jellyfish are that runs the length of the body in that connect together to form the when it is very different in structure medusas. See also Cnidarians, Polyp. chordate animals. In most vertebrates, skeleton of an echinoderm. from an adult. it is replaced by the backbone early MELON A structure containing fatty in embryonic development. See PACK ICE Floating sea ice that is LATERAL LINE SYSTEM A sensory tissue, found in the head of dolphins also Chordates. not attached to land. It may be fused system that runs along the sides of and other toothed whales, that plays together in a single mass or consist the body in fish and some other a role in emitting sound for NUTRIENTS Chemicals, especially of separate ice floes. aquatic vertebrates. It is used to communication and echolocation. salts of elements such as nitrogen, detect movement and pressure See also Echolocation. phosphorus, and iron, that are PALPS In arthropods and some other changes in the surrounding water. essential for living organisms to grow. invertebrates, palps are paired, METAMORPHOSIS A major jointed structures near the mouth, LICHEN A \u201cdouble organism\u201d in rearrangement of body structures that OCEAN One of the huge bodies of salt typically with a sensory function. In which a fungus\u2019s body is combined occurs during the development of water that between them cover almost bivalves, they are a pair of fleshy with algal cells. Although essentially some animals. 70 percent of Earth\u2019s surface. They are structures close to the mouth. land organisms, some lichens are normally listed as the Atlantic, Pacific, tolerant of sea spray and thrive on MID-OCEAN RIDGE An undersea Indian, Arctic, and Southern (or PANCAKE ICE A stage in the higher levels of rocky shores. mountain range running along the Antarctic) Oceans, but as they are all formation of sea ice in turbulent deep ocean floor where new oceanic connected, they are also sometimes waters consisting of separate floating LONGSHORE DRIFT Process by which crust is created. referred to as the World Ocean. plates. Pancake ice plates have raised, sediments such as sand and mud are rounded edges as a result of colliding transported along the coastline as a MIMICRY A detailed resemblance OCEAN ACIDIFICATION An increase with other plates. See also Sea ice. result of sea waves breaking at an between an animal and something in the acidity of ocean waters, oblique angle to the shore. else, especially another animal, for especially as a result of dissolved PARASITE An organism that lives the purposes of disguise or deception. carbon dioxide as a consequence of on or in another larger organism MAMMALS A class of warm-blooded See also Camouflage. human activities. and feeds from it for an extended vertebrates that almost all give birth period of time. to live young and nourish them using MOLLUSKS A major phylum of soft- OCEAN BASIN A region occupied by milk produced by the female. Marine bodied but usually hard-shelled a deep ocean or part of one, consisting PECTORAL FINS A pair of fins mammals include seals, whales, invertebrate animals that includes of low-lying oceanic crust surrounded attached to the chest, toward the manatees, and sea otters. gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods. by shallower water or land. front of a fish, behind the gills, one on each side. MANDIBLE The lower jaw of MUTUALISM An association between OCEANIC CRUST Earth\u2019s crust under vertebrates, or the biting or crushing members of two different animal the deep oceans, which is thinner and PELVIC FINS A pair of fins in fish, mouthparts of many arthropods. See species in which both benefit. The denser than the crust of the continents. attached to the abdomen, farther also Arthropods. association between cleaner shrimp See also Continental crust. back and lower down than the and moray eels is an example of this. pectoral fins. MANGROVES Salt-tolerant trees that See also Symbiosis. OMMATIDIA (sing. OMMATIDIUM) grow in sheltered intertidal zones in The individual eye facets in a PHOTOPHORE A light-producing warmer regions and whose roots are NEKTON Organisms that live in compound eye. See also Compound eye. organ found in some fish, regularly covered by seawater. The open water and swim strongly enough cephalopods, and other animals. term \u201cmangroves\u201d can also refer to to move directionally rather than OPERCULUM The external covering Complex photophores may feature the ecosystems and forests that feature being at the mercy of currents. See of a gill of a bony fish. It can also refer lenses and color filters. See also such trees. also Plankton. to a hard disk that seals the opening of Bioluminescence.","PHOTOSYNTHESIS The process man o\u2019 war, have a gas-filled float that RADIOLARIANS A group of single- SEA ANEMONES An order of solitary by which plants, algae, and is also known as the pneumatophore. celled organisms that float in the soft-bodied cnidarians that have only a cyanobacteria use the Sun\u2019s energy See also Siphonophore. plankton and act like tiny animals, polyp stage, also referred to simply to convert water and carbon dioxide feeding on other small life forms. as \u201canemones.\u201d See also Polyp. into carbohydrates, as a first step to PODIA (sing. PODIUM) Small They have elaborate skeletons of silica, building up their body structure and hydraulically operated structures on often spherical in shape. SEA ICE Ice formed directly on the trapping energy for cell processes. See the surface of echinoderms, used for sea, unlike icebergs and ice shelves, also Chemosynthesis. respiration or movement. Podia for RADULA A belt-shaped rasping organ which originally formed on land before walking and grasping usually have found in the mouths of many mollusks entering the sea. PHYLUM (pl. PHYLA) A category in suckered ends and are called tube feet. and equipped with horny teeth. biological classification, above a class See also Tube feet, Water-vascular system. SEAGRASS One of many flowering and below a kingdom. Examples of REFRACTION The change of direction grasslike plants in the order. Alismatales phyla include cnidarians, mollusks, POLYP One of the main body forms of waves, including light waves, when that have become adapted to live arthropods, and chordates. See also of cnidarians, consisting of an attached they pass from one medium to another, under saline water. Class, Kingdom. cup-shaped body with a mouth on the and water waves when they reach top surface surrounded by tentacles. shallow water. SEAMOUNT An undersea mountain, PHYTOPLANKTON Planktonic A sea anemone is a polyp. See also usually formed by volcanic activity. organisms that photosynthesize, Cnidarians, Medusa. RHIZOME A horizontal underground See also Guyot. mainly microscopic algae and stem of a plant. cyanobacteria. See also Alga, PREDATOR An animal that catches SEAWEEDS Any of several groups Cyanobacteria, Plankton. and eats other animals. RHIZOSPHERE The region of soil or of relatively large marine, plantlike mud around a root that is influenced organisms traditionally classified PINCER A claw or similar structure PREY Animals that are food for a by the root\u2019s activities and metabolism. as multicellular algae. One group, for grasping objects and for attack given predator within a food chain. the green seaweeds, is closely related and defense. ROOKERY A breeding colony of to land plants. PROSOMA A word for cephalothorax, penguins, and sometimes of other PLANKTON All the life forms that especially in horseshoe crabs and seabirds or seals. SEDIMENT Particles carried in water drift in the open ocean and are spiders. See also Cephalothorax. that are capable of settling out under carried along by ocean currents. SALINITY The degree of saltiness of the force of gravity, or deposits formed See also Nekton. PROTANDRY A form of seawater. by such particles, including sand, silt, hermaphroditism where an organism or mud. PLATE BOUNDARY A boundary is first male, then female. See also SALPS Free-floating colonial tunicates between two of Earth\u2019s tectonic Hermaphrodite, Protogyny. that consume phytoplankton. See also SEXUAL REPRODUCTION plates. A constructive (or divergent) Phytoplankton, Tunicates. Reproduction involving the fusion boundary is where two plates are PROTISTS A broad category covering of two sex cells (typically an egg and being pushed apart by new molten organisms that are not classified as SALT MARSH An ecosystem that sperm) followed by development of rock rising between them, as at mid- animals, plants, or fungi. Most are may develop on the upper intertidal a new individual from the fertilized ocean ridges. At a destructive microscopic, although traditionally zone of sheltered, muddy coastlines, egg. See also Asexual reproduction. (convergent) boundary, two plates seaweeds are also included. Protists all mainly in cooler parts of the world, are pushed together, often with one have cells with nuclei and so do not and consists of a community of small, SHELL The hard protective covering being subducted beneath the other. include cyanobacteria. See also salt-tolerant land plants. In the tropics, of animals such as mollusks, See also Subduction. Cyanobacteria. mangrove forests generally grow in brachiopods, and turtles. Also, the similar situations. See also Intertidal, outer covering of an egg. PLATE TECTONICS All the processes PROTOGYNY A form of Mangroves relating to the movement and collision hermaphroditism where an organism SIPHON A tubelike structure that of the enormous tectonic plates into is first female, then male. See also SCALES Small, often overlapping draws in or expels water. Bivalve which Earth\u2019s crust and upper mantle Hermaphrodite, Protandry. protective structures on the skin of mollusks and tunicates have a pair are divided. See also Mid-ocean ridge, fish, reptiles, and some invertebrates. of siphons that are used for filter Subduction. RADIAL SYMMETRY The form of feeding, as well as for obtaining symmetry exhibited by a star-shape, SEA Sometimes used as another oxygen from the water. PNEUMATOPHORE Part of a as opposed to one with left and right word for ocean, but can also refer mangrove plant root that is exposed sides. Sea anemones, starfish, and sea to a relatively small, often shallower SIPHONOPHORES An order of above the ground and can absorb air. urchins have radial symmetry. See region of an ocean partly marked off floating colonial hydrozoans Siphonophores, such as the Portuguese also Bilateral symmetry. by land, such as the North Sea. resembling jellyfish, that includes the","Portuguese man o\u2019 war. See also SUBTIDAL Below the lowest level of THORAX The chest region of a by wind blowing parallel to a coastline 404 \u2022 405 glossary Hydrozoans, Jellyfish. the tides on a shoreline. vertebrate, or the central region of or by an underwater obstruction such the body of an arthropod. as a seamount interrupting a deep-sea SPAWN Masses of small eggs released SUCKER A structure used by an current. Upwelled water often enriches by many marine animals. \u201cTo spawn\u201d animal to attach to a surface. TIDE The regular variation in the the surface of the ocean with nutrients. is to release these eggs. height of the ocean surface at a given See also Downwelling. SURFACE CURRENT A current at the point, caused by the gravitational SPECIES A particular kind of ocean surface, usually driven by wind. attraction of the Moon and Sun VALVE Either of the two hinged shells organism, such as a polar bear or combined with Earth\u2019s rotation. In of a bivalve mollusk. an emperor penguin. If a species SUSPENSION FEEDER An animal that coastal regions, it results in horizontal reproduces sexually, it can be defined feeds by extracting small food particles movements of water. VENTRAL Relating to the front or as comprising individuals that are able suspended in the water. Filter feeding underside of an animal. See also to breed with each other to produce is a form of suspension feeding. See TISSUE An assemblage of cells of a Dorsal, Invertebrate. fertile offspring that resemble their also Filter feeder. particular type in the body, such as parents. See also Genus. nervous tissue or muscle tissue. Organs VERTEBRATE A backboned animal. SWASH Moving of turbulent water up are formed of different types of tissue Forming a subphylum of the phylum SPICULE One of the small skeletal a shoreline after a wave breaks. combined together. Chordata, vertebrates include fish, units embedded in the bodies of many amphibians, reptiles, birds, and sponges and some cnidarians. Spicules SWIM BLADDER A gas-filled structure TRENCH A large-scale, naturally mammals. See also Chordates. come in many shapes and sizes and are in most bony fish that regulates the forming chasm on the ocean floor important in sponge classification. buoyancy of the fish and stabilizes it where the ocean is deepest and one WARNING COLORATION The in the water. tectonic plate is forced under another. coloration of an animal signaling SPIRACLE One of the openings behind The deepest is the Mariana Trench in to predators that the animal is the eyes of a ray through which water SYMBIOSIS The close association the Pacific Ocean. See also Subduction. poisonous or venomous. for the gills enters. The term is also between two kinds of animal. When applied to other structures, such as the this is mutually beneficial, it is called TROPICAL CYCLONE A large-scale WATER-VASCULAR SYSTEM The breathing holes of insects. mutualism. See also Mutualism. circulating weather system in tropical hydraulic system of echinoderms, and subtropical regions, powered by which operates their tube feet (podia). SPIRALIANS A large group of TAGMA (pl. TAGMATA) One of the warm ocean water and producing See also Podia, Tube feet. invertebrate phyla all thought to be main sections into which the bodies violent winds and heavy rain. Also related, named after the spiral pattern of arthropods and some segmented known as hurricanes, typhoons, or WHISKER A stiff, modified hair on the of early cell divisions in their fertilized worms are divided. simply as cyclones depending on which face of a mammal. The \u201cwhiskers\u201d of eggs. Spiralians include mollusks, part of the world they occur in. catfish are actually long, thin barbels. lamp shells, segmented worms, ribbon TELSON The hindmost segment of See also Barbel. worms, and others. an arthropod. In crustaceans such as TSUNAMI A large, fast-moving ocean lobsters and some crabs, it forms the wave generated by an undersea ZOOID An individual unit of a SPONGES A phylum of simple-bodied central part of the tail fan. earthquake or a large coastal landslip. colonial invertebrate animal that is slow-moving animals that live by physically connected by strands of straining food particles from the water. TENTACLE A long, fleshy structure TUBE FEET Another name for the tissue to other individuals. The term is used for capturing food or other podia of echinoderms, especially when used in connection with moss animals STENOHALINE Able to tolerate only purposes. Many marine invertebrates they have suckered ends and are used and tunicates but not cnidarians. a narrow range of salinities. See also have multiple tentacles. for walking or clinging. See also Podia, Euryhaline, Salinity. Water-vascular system. ZOOPLANKTON Animals and animal- THERMOCLINE Any layer at a like organisms living in the plankton. SUBDUCTION The process in which particular depth in an ocean where the TUNICATES A subphylum of See also Plankton, Protists. the oceanic crust of one tectonic plate average temperature changes rapidly invertebrate animals that are related is slowly forced under the edge of with depth. Thermoclines can also to vertebrates and include the sea ZOOXANTHELLAE Symbiotic another plate. See also Oceanic crust, occur in the atmosphere. squirts and salps. See also Chordates. dinoflagellates that live in the bodies Plate tectonics, Trench. of many corals and some other THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION TUSK An enlarged tooth of a mammal animals and create food for them by SUBMERGENT COAST A coast where A worldwide circulation of deepwater such as a walrus or narwhal. photosynthesis. See also Dinoflagellates. the land surface has become lower currents driven by differences in relative to the current sea level. See temperature and salinity between UPWELLING The rising of deep ocean also Emergent coast. different water masses. water to the surface. It can be caused","index anemones 333 art continued bills continued anatomy 199 Photorealism 64\u201365 short-billed dowitcher 92 Page numbers in bold refer to main entries. beadlet 30\u201331 Romantic movement 70\u201371 spoonsbill 97 dahlia 138 wandering albatross 286 A daisy 30 arthropods 212 firework tube 198\u2013199 asexual reproduction bioelectrogenesis 233 Aboriginal art 164\u2013165 Haddon\u2019s carpet 138\u2013139 bioluminescence19,192\u2013193,267,271,282\u2013283 abyssal plain 265 jewel 30 coral 129 abyssal zone 19 life cycle 129 turtle seagrass 190 phytoplankton 258 Acanthaster planci (crown-of-thorns star) 223 mutualistic relationships 166\u2013167 astaxanthin 154 red 283 Acanthocardia echinata (prickly cockle) 80 nutrition 136 Astrocaneum spinosum (spiny gorgon star) 268 biomass, marine 301 Acanthurus mata (elongate surgeonfish) 175 plumose 30 Atlantic Ocean 12, 15 birds of prey 391 acidity levels Triactis 157 atolls, coral 141 Birgus latro (coconut crab) 212 tube 199 Aurelia limbata (brownbanded moon jelly) 271 bivalves 80\u201381, 147, 202, 343 effect on coral 140 avalanches 76 bladed fish 172\u2013173 effect on shells 297 angelfish, emperor 46 Avicennia mangroves 107 Blaeu, Joan 281 kelp forests and 189 anglerfish 19, 381 blacksmith damselfish 189 Acropora cervicornis (staghorn coral) 134 Anglo-Dutch War 94 B blennies Acropora cytherea (table coral) 135 Anguilla anguilla (European eel) 46 flametail or bicolor 175 Acropora palmata (elkhorn coral) 134 anguilliform fish 46 Backhuysen, Ludolf 94 hair-tail 46 Acropora sp. (stony coral) 126\u2013127 annelid worms 145, 200\u2013201 bacteria blood, antifreeze proteins 303 Actinia equina (beadlet anemone) 30\u201331 antennae blood stars, Pacific 222 adhesive chemicals 25, 221 and detritus 159 blubber adipose cells 308 American lobster 213 hydrothermal vents 262, 263 cetaceans 308 adventitious roots 28 crabs 41, 115 Balaenoptera musulus (blue whale) 288\u2013289 polar bear 317 Aegean Sea 181 golden fireworm 200 baleen plates 288 seals 310, 313 Aeginopsis laurentii (golf tee jelly) 270 isopods 266 Balistapus undulatus (orange-lined triggerfish) walrus 308 aeolid nudibranchs 210\u2013211 krill 301 blue, in nature 160\u2013161 aeolid sea slugs 148 scarlet skunk shrimp 154 184 bony fish Aequorea victoria (crystal jelly) 192\u2013193 Antennarius maculatus (warty frogfish) 46 Balistoides conspicillum (clown triggerfish) fins 49, 178\u2013179 Age of Exploration 281 anthius, flame 184 swim bladders 230\u2013231 Aivazovsky, Ivan 71 Anthomastus (mushroom coral) 135 178\u2013179 boobies 240, 389 Alatina alata (winged box jelly) 270 antifreeze proteins 303 balloonfish 162 Bothus leopardinus (Pacific leopard flounder) 46 albatrosses 387 Aporia crataegi (black-veined white butterfly) 28 bannerfish 170 Boudin, Eug\u00e8ne 118 wandering 286\u2013287 Aptenodytes forsteri (emperor penguin) 307 barbels 44, 236\u2013237, 283 \u00c9tretat. The Cliff of Aval 118 Alca torda (razorbill) 55 Aptenodytes patagonicus (king penguin) barbs, stingrays 84 box jellyfish 336 algae bark paintings 165 brachiopods 346 on anemones 138, 167 306\u2013307, 311 barnacles 36\u201337, 349 Braque, Georges 52 benthic 175 aragonite 297 Port-Miou 52\u201353 on coral 126, 130, 132, 183 archerfish, banded 116\u2013117 acorn 38\u201339 breaking, waves 43 on giant clams 147 arches 27 Montagu\u2019s stellate 39 breathing giant kelp 188\u2013189 Architeuthis (giant squid) 267 barracudas 374 American crocodile 72 ice shelves 314 Arctic Ocean 12 chevron 230\u2013231 mangrove roots 107 lichens 22 Arctic tundra 92 barramundi 165 southern elephant seal 310 mangrove roots 105 Arenaria interpres (ruddy turnstone) 92 barrier islands 68 stingrays 85 phytoplankton 258 argonite 134 barrier reefs 141 breeding sites polar regions 301 Argopectan irradians (bay scallop) 202\u2013203 basal lamina 167 gannets 56 on rocks 34, 35 Arg yropelecus olfersii (deep sea hatchetfish) 305 basalt 265 humpback whales 248 symbiotic 106, 126, 136 ark shell 80 Bathynomus giganteus (western Atlantic giant salmon 90\u201391 on zoanthids 142 Armeria maritima (sea thrift) 28\u201329 bristlemouth 279 see also seaweeds armor isopod) 266\u2013267 bristles, annelids 201 alkaloids 142, 143 Baudelaire, Charles 71 bristleworm 304 Allostichaster palmula (paddle-spined sea star) lobster 212 beaches 68\u201369 brittle stars 25, 268, 355 sea butterfly 297 European common 218\u2013219 222 western Atlantic giant isopod 266 life on 74\u201375 Brotulotaenia nielseni (cusk-eel) 304\u2013305 Amblyrhynchus cristatus (marine iguana) arms sandy 60 Bruguiera mangroves 107 brittle stars 218 beak bubble-net feeding 248 50 \u2013 51 common sun star 220\u2013221 diamondback terrapin 121 bubble-rafts 260\u2013261 ambush tactics 233, 276 cuttlefish 205 excavating parrotfish 182, 183 buoyancy American crocodile 72\u201373 European squid 208, 209 pa snipe eel 47 and body size 267 ammonites 14\u201315 feather stars 214, 215 bear, polar 316\u2013317, 399 bony fish 230\u2013231 Ammophila arenaria (common marram grass) gorgon stars 268 bells cuttlefish 204\u2013205 octopus 150, 151 cubozoa 270 eggs 279 62\u201363 starfish 222\u2013223, 268\u2013269 jellyfish 109, 193 lobsters 212 Amphioctopus marginatus (coconut octopus) 40 Arnhem Land 165 benthic fish 184\u2013185 osprey 99 amphipods 350 art Berghia norvegica (nudibranch) 210 violet snails 261 19th-century US 32\u201333 Bering Sea 12 butterfly, black-veined white 28 giant 19 Aboriginal 164\u2013165 Berry Islands 18\u201319 butterflyfish ampullae 221 ancient 180\u2013181 betacyanin 102 bannerfish 170 ampullae of Lorenzini 89, 226 Asian sea deities 196\u2013197 Bierstadt, Albert 33 copperband 171, 184 anadromous fish 90 Dutch Golden Age 94\u201395 billfish 285, 374 lined 170 anchovies 239, 366 Fauvism 52\u201353 bills yellow longnose 170 Impressionism 118\u2013119 adaptations 92 by-the-wind sailor 261 Japanese woodcuts 216\u2013217 brown pelican 242, 243 maps 280\u2013281 horned puffin 54 natural history illustration 152\u2013153 osprey 99 razorbill 55 rockhopper penguin 57 sailfish 284, 285","C chelae cliff-nesting birds 54\u201355 cormorants 389 406 \u2022 407 index American lobster 213 coral 127, 129, 130, 132\u2013135, 136 Corphella verrucosa (nudibranch) 210\u2013211 Calappidae 304 coconut crab 212 gannetries 56 Corynactis viridis ( jewel anemone) 30 calcium carbonate 127, 134, 145, 212 fiddler crab 114, 115 ground-nesting birds 85 Coryphopterus hyalinus (glass gobi) 184 Calidris pygmaea (spoon-billed sandpiper) 92 hermit crab 41 horned puffin 55 Coscinodiscus 259 Calliostoma zizyphinum (painted topshell) 34\u201335 horseshoe crab 111 hydrozoans 261 counter-illumination 282 calyx 215 spider decorator crab 156 king penguins 307 crabs 352 Cambrian period 111 phytoplankton 258\u2013259 camouflage Chelmon rostratus (copperband butterflyfish) siphonophores 256 anatomy 41 171, 184 southern elephant seals 310\u2013311 box 304 antlered sculpin 302 tunicates 105 coconut 212 flamboyant cuttlefish 204 Chelonia mydas (green turtle) 191 zoanthids 142 hermit 40\u201341 harlequin ghost pipefish 176\u2013177 chemoautosynthesis 262 color horseshoe 110\u2013111, 347 hooded plover eggs 75 chemoreceptor organs 236 cryptic 233 pom-pom 157 light as 282 chimaeras 362 nudibranchs 210 red-jointed fiddler 114\u2013115 nudibranchs 210 Chironex fleckeri (common box jelly) 270 reef fish 175 spider decorator 156\u2013157 short-billed dowitcher 93 chitin 34, 110, 201 seaweeds 186\u2013187 velcro 157 southern stingray 84 chitons 341 as warning signal 142, 149, 204, 282 Cranchia scabra (glass squid) 305 spider decorator crab 156\u2013157 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 259 color change Cretaceous period 14, 15 stargazers 233 Chloeia flava (golden fireworm) 200\u2013201 cephalopods 151 crocodiles 385 stonefish and scorpionfish 86 chlorophyll 63, 186 day octopus 150\u2013151 American 72\u201373 Camposcia retusa (spider decorator crab) 156\u2013157 chloroplasts 136, 186 harlequin ghost pipefish 176\u2013177 Crocodylus acutus (American crocodile) 72\u201373 Capnella imbricata (Kenyan tree coral) 134 Chlorurus microrhinos (steephead parrotfish) ribbon moray 168\u2013169 cross-fertilization 191 Caranx melampygus (bluefin trevally) 175 Colpophyllia natans (boulder brain coral) 135 cross-flow filtration 273 carapace 183 comb jellies 192, 338 Crossaster papposus (common sun star) American lobster 213 chromatophores 150, 160 common box jelly 270 crabs 41 Chromodoris elisabethina (nudibranch) 211 compressiform fish 46 220\u2013221, 222 hermit crab 40 Chrysoara melanaster (northern sea nettle jelly) cone snails 201 crustaceans 212 horseshoe crab 110 continental plates 290 shrimp 262 271 continental shelf 76 appendages 115 carbon dioxide Chthamalus fragilis (gray acorn barnacle) continents 14, 15 krill 300\u2013301 carbon sinks 189, 190, 258, 288, 297 convection towers 206 crypsis 176, 233 hydrothermal vents 262 38\u201339 copepods 348 cryptobenthic fish 184 increased atmospheric 16 Chthamalus montagui (Montagu\u2019s stellate Copernicus, Nicolaus 281 ctenidia 147 Carcharodon carcharias (great white shark) coral 126\u2013127, 333\u2013334 Cubism 52 barnacle) 39 bleaching 136 cubozoa 270 276 \u2013277 ciguatoxin\/ciguatera 142 boulder brain 135 curlew, far eastern 92 Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (mangrove cilia 144, 215 cabbage 140 currents 274\u2013275 cirri 200\u2013201, 214, 215 camouflage among 176 and climate 16 horseshoe crab) 110\u2013111 clams carnation 134 and coastal erosion 27 Cardiapoda placenta (sea elephant) 305 cold-water 19 upwelling and downwelling 250 cardinalfish, bullseye 184 giant 146\u2013147 colonies 132\u2013133 cushion stars 222, 354 Caretta caretta (loggerhead turtle) 66\u201367 Indo-Pacific blood 81 colorful sea rod 130\u2013131 honeycomb 223 carotenoid pigments 96 Clavelina moluccensis (bluebell tunicate) 105 elkhorn 134 Panamic 222 Carta Marina (Magnus) 280\u2013281 clavus 278 fire hyrdocorals 136\u2013137 cusk-eels 304\u2013305 cartilaginous fish 84 claws fossil 15 cuttlebone 205 cartography 280\u2013281 isopods 266 gorgonians 131, 135, 162-3, 176 cuttlefish Carukia barnesi (Irukandji jelly) 270 terrapins 121 Kenyan tree 134 buoyancy 204, 205 caruncle 200, 201 cleaner fish 154, 155 leather 132\u2013133 color change 151, 204 Cassiopea andromeda (Indo-Pacific upside- client fish 154\u2013155 mushroom 135 elegant 205 cliffs, bird colonies 54\u201355 organ-pipe 131 flamboyant 204\u2013205 down jellyfish) 108\u2013109 climate pillar 135 Cyanea capillata (lion\u2019s mane jellyfish) 271 catadromous fish 90 currents and 274 sea pen 135, 334 cyanobacteria 258, 324 catfish 367 ocean 16\u201317 sexual reproduction 128\u2013129 cyanophores 160 climate change 16, 288 soft 131, 134\u2013135, 334 cysts 136 striped eel 236\u2013237 clingfish, urchin 184 spaghetti finger leather 135 Caulerpa lentilifera (sea grapes) 186\u2013187 Clio recurva (sea butterfly) 304 staghorn 134 D caves 27 Clione limacina (sea angel) 304 stony 126\u2013127, 134\u2013135, 333 cells, sponges 125 clones table 135 day octopus 150\u2013151 Celmins, Vija 64 tunicates 105 tube 135 dead material, recycling 158\u2013159 turtle seagrass 190, 191 types of 134\u2013135 Dead Sea 112\u2013113 Ocean Surface 64 clownfish 167 coral atolls 141 decapod crustaceans 115 cephalic lobes 229 common 168 coral reefs 140\u2013141 deep-sea currents 274 cephalofoils 226 maroon 166\u2013167 feeding on 170\u2013171 Dendrog yra cylindrus (pillar coral) 135 cephalopods cnidarians 138, 270\u2013271 reef fish 174\u2013175 dentine 319 coastal erosion 26\u201327 sponges 124 depth, ocean 18\u201319 color change 150\u2013151 coastal seas 184\u2013253 symbiotic relationships 154\u2013155 Derain, Andr\u00e9 52 jet propulsion 208\u2013209 coccolithophores 326 coralivores 170\u2013171 Dermasterias imbricata (leather star) 222 Ceramaster granularis (cushion star) 222 cockles, prickly 80 Corallina 187 dermis, cetaceans 308 cerata 148, 210, 211 cod 371 corallite 127 Desmoceras latidorsatum (fossil) 14\u201315 Ceratium hirundinella 259 Atlantic 46 Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave de 275 detritivores 158\u2013159 Cereus pedunculatus (daisy anemone) 30 coenenchyme 132 Coriolis effect 206, 274, 275 detritus 158 cetaceans 293, 308 Cole, Thomas 33 Diademichthys lineatus (urchin clingfish) 184 chaetae 201 collagen 125, 308 diatoms 258\u2013259, 301, 326 Chaetoceros debilis 259 collar-flagellate cells 125 Chaetodon lineolatus (lined butterflyfish) 170 Colochirus quadrangularis (thorny sea Challenger, HMS 153 Champsocephalus gunnari (mackerel icefish) 303 cucumber) 158\u2013159 colonialism 71 colonies","dichotomous branching 130 eggs continued feathers continued flowering plants Didemnum (sea squirt) 124 guillemot 55 great frigatebird 240 coastal 28\u201329 digestion, anemones 199 hooded plover 75 horned puffin 58 seagrasses 190\u2013191 digitigrade feet 58 horseshoe crab 111 osprey 99 dikes 265 king penguin 307 roseate spoonbill 97 fluorescence 143, 193 dinoflagellates 136, 142, 258\u2013259, 324 marine turtle 66, 67 short-billed dowitcher 93 flying fish 240, 373 Diodogorgia nodulifera (colorful sea rod) 130\u2013131 violet snail 260\u2013261 food chains Diodon holocanthus (long-spine porcupinefish) wandering albatross 287 feeding zooplankton 304 Antarctic krill 301 detritivores 158\u2013159 162\u2013163 barnacles 38, 39 hydrothermal vents 262 Diomedea exulans (wandering albatross) 286\u2013287 El Ni\u00f1o 16 bivalves 81 toxins passed along 142 displacement, water 76, 235 electric charge 233 bubble-net 248 food webs 19, 258, 301, 304 dog whelks 41 electrical fields, sensing 89, 226, 276 butterflyfish 170 foraminiferans 16, 325 dolphins 394 electroreceptors 88, 276 coral 127, 132 Forcipiger flavissimus (yellow longnose elegant unicornfish 172\u2013173 dugong 247 Atlantic spotted 252\u2013253 Ellisella ceratophyta (gorgonian sea whip) 135 echinoderms 221 butterflyfish) 170 orca 292\u2013293 embayed beaches 68 feather stars 214\u2013215 forests, kelp 188\u2013189 dorid nudibranchs 210\u2013211 endothermic animals 276 feeding frenzies 239 Forman, Zaria 64 dorid sea slugs 148 Eng yprosopon xenandrus (lefteye flounder) 305 fiddler crabs 115 dories 370 Enhydra lutris (sea otter) 244\u2013245 giant clams 147 Maldives No. 11 64\u201365 dottyback, magenta 184 Enophrys diceraus (antlered sculpin) 302\u2013303 mobula and manta rays 229 fossils 14\u201315 dowitchers enzymes 193, 282 sea fan 130, 131 Asian 92 epaulette shark, small 44\u201345 spoonbills 97 foraminifera 16 short-billed 92\u201393 epaulette soldierfish 140 upside-down jellyfish 108 Lingula brachiopods 111 downwelling 250 epidermis see also filter feeding; hunting; living 110\u2013111 dragonfish 369 photosynthesis; suspension feeding Fragilaria 259 smalltooth 283 cetaceans 308 Franklin, Sir John 71 Dromiidae 157 coral 126 feeding webs, mucus 297 Fratercula corniculata (horned puffin) 54\u201355 Dugong dugon (Indo-Pacific dugong) 246\u2013247 marram grass 62, 63 feet freezing 298 Dugong Hunt (Wurrabadalumba) 165 epithelium, sea fans 130 Fregata minor (great frigatebird) 240\u2013241 dugongs 393 erosion, coastal 26\u201327 clawed 121 fresh water 13 Indo-Pacific 246\u2013247 estuaries 72, 78 osprey 98 physiological changes needed for 90 dunes 68\u201369 changing salinity 120, 121 plantigrade 58 frigatebirds 389 marram grass 62 \u00c9tretat. The Cliff of Aval (Boudin) 118 webbed 58, 121, 245 great 240\u2013241 nesting birds 74 Eudyptes chrysocome (rockhopper penguin) 58\u201359 fighting fringing reef 141 Dutch Ferry Before a Breeze, A (de Vlieger) 94 Euphausia superba (Antarctic krill) 300\u2013301 southern elephant seal 310 frogfish, warty 46 Dutch Golden Age 94\u201395, 281 euryhaline species 121 walrus 308 frond stripes (stems) 24, 25 eurypterids 110 filiform fish 46 fruits 191 E evaporation 16, 28, 62 filter feeding 215 fungi, lichens 22 evolution bivalves 81, 147 fur eagles 98, 391 convergent 88 blue whale 288 polar bear 317 Earth horseshoe crabs 110 giant clams 147 sea otter 245 Lingula brachiopods 111 mobula and manta rays 229 seal 312, 313 land and water 13 exoskeletons 266 sponges 124 walrus 308, 309 rotation 16, 82, 250, 274, 275 lobsters and crabs 212 tunicates 105 fusiform fish 46 tilt 301 eyes whale shark 272\u2013273 earthquakes antlered sculpin 302 fins G coastal erosion 27 dugong 247 giant ocean sunfish 278, 279 and new ocean floor 265 hammerhead shark 226 locking mechanism 178 Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) 46 subduction zones 290 isopods 267 ray-finned fish 178\u2013179 Gal\u00e1pagos Islands 50, 51 and tsunamis 76 king penguin 307 sailfish 284, 285 gamete bundles 128, 129 echinoderms krill 300 types of 49 gannetries 56 body support 218 painted topshell 35 fireworm, golden 200\u2013201 gannets 242, 389 detritivores 158\u2013159 red-jointed fiddler crab 114 fish spiny skin 224\u2013225 reef stonefish 86, 87 antifreeze proteins 302\u2013303 northern 56\u201357 starfish 222\u2013223 scallop 202 on land 44\u201345 gar, longnose 46 tube feet 220\u2013221 scarlet skunk shrimp 155 lobe-finned 363 gas bladders 261 echolocation, dolphins 248 southern elephant seal 310 migration 90\u201391 gas exchange 62, 221 ecosystems 147, 158, 297 stargazers 233 ray-finned 178\u2013179 Gauguin, Paul 52 ectoparasites 273 eyespots reef 174\u2013175 geology 15 ectothermic animals 51 common sun star 221 shapes 46\u201347 geothermal activity 262 Edmundsella pedata (nudibranch) 210 false 151 shoals and schools 239 G\u00e9ricault, Th\u00e9odore 71 eels 365 mid-Atlantic ridge shrimp 262 shooting down prey 116 germination 191 European 46 teeth and diet 182 Gersemia fruticosa (carnation coral) 134 migration 90 F types of fin 49 ghost pipefish, harlequin 176\u2013177 moray 154 Fishing Boat at Sea, A (van Gogh) 52 Gigantocypris muelleri (ostracod) 305 pale snipe 47 Facelina bostoniensis (nudibranch) 210 Fjordia chriskaugei (nudibranch) 211 gill chambers 45 ribbon moray 168\u2013169 fan worm, star 144\u2013145 flagella 136, 258, 259 gill rakers 229 eggs Fauvism 52\u201353 flamingos 96 gill slits 85 clownfish 167 feather stars 214\u2013215, 353 flatfish 375 gills coral 128, 129, 132 feathers flippers 313 floating 279 flotsam 74 bivalves 80, 81 gannet 56 blue 160 flounders giant tube worms 263 giant clams 147 brown pelican 243 lefteye 305 nudibranchs 210 Pacific leopard 46 sea slugs 148, 149 whale sharks 273 glaciers 76, 314 Glaucus atlanticus (nudibranch) 211","global warming hair follicles, seal whiskers 312 Hydractinia echinata (snail fur) 40 Kakadu National Park (Australia) 165 408 \u2022 409 index carbon sinks 190, 297 Haliclustus auricula (kaleidoscope stalked hydrothermal vents 262 keels 285 hurricanes and typhoons 206 hydrozoans 136, 192, 194\u2013195, 270\u2013271, keelworm 145 ice shelves 314 jellyfish) 270 kelp, giant 188\u2013189 sea ice 298 Haliclustus salpinx (stalked jelly) 270 337 killer whale see orca sea-level change 235 halophytes 103 colonial 261 kleptoparasites 240, 242 hammerhead sharks 226\u2013227 eight-strand jelly 270 Knossos 181 globiform fish 46 haptera 25 golf tee jelly 270 krill 288, 350 gnathobases 111 harems 310 Portuguese man o\u2019 war 256, 261, 270 gobies 155 hatchetfish, deep sea 19, 282, 305 Hypanus americanus (southern stingray) Antarctic 300\u2013301 hawks 98, 391 Kunstformen der Natur (Haeckel) 30, 153, glass 184 headlands 27 84\u201385 goblet cells 167 heliocentric theory 281 Hyperrealism 64\u201365 194\u2013195 gods and goddesses 196\u2013197 Hemiscyllium ocellatum (small epaulette shark) hyphae 22 Kurodai and Kadai Fish with Bamboo Shoots godwit, black-tailed 92 Goniodoris castanea (nudibranch) 210 44\u201345 I, J, K and Berries (Hiroshige) 217 gonozooids 195 hemoglobin 303 gorgon stars Henricia leviuscula (Pacific blood star) 222 Ice Age, last 235 L herding 293 ice crystals 298, 303 Arctic 268\u2013269 hermaphrodites 128, 147 ice floes 298 La Ni\u00f1a 16 bushy 268 ice sheets 76, 314 Labroides dimidatus (bluestreak cleaner spiny 268 scallops 202 ice shelves 314\u2013315 gorgonians 162\u2013163 sequential 168 icebergs 314\u2013315 wrasse) 155 sea fan 130\u2013131, 134 hermit crab, European common lachrymal glands 121 sea whip 135 calving 76, 314 ladyfish 364 gorgonin 130, 131 40 \u2013 41 icefish, mackerel 303 lagoons 68, 141 Gorgonocephalus arcticus (Arctic gorgon star) herons 390 Iceland 265 Lamellodysidea chlorea (Indo-Pacific blue herrings 366 iguana, marine 50\u201351, 383 268\u2013269 Hexabranchus sanguineus (nudibranch) 211 Ilulissat Icefjord 314\u2013315 sponge) 124 Gorgonocephalus eucnemis (bushy gorgon star) hexacorals 131 Impressionism 118\u2013119 lamp shells 346 Hiroshige, Utagawa, Kurodai and Kadai Fish Indian Ocean 12 lampreys 359 268 inflation, body 162\u2013163 lancelets 358 Goyen, Jan van 94 with Bamboo Shoots and Berries 217 infrared radiation 262 land gravitational pull 82 history, ocean 14\u201315, 113, 235 ink, defensive 148 grazing Hokusai, Under the Great Wave off Kanagawa inland seas 113 fish on 44\u201345, 48 interbrachial web, octopus 151 marine turtles 66\u201367 dugong 247 216\u2013217 intertidal zone landmasses, ancient 14, 15 herbivorous snails and limpets 34\u201335 holdfasts 24, 25, 189 Landseer, Sir Edwin 71 grease ice 298 holoplankton 304\u2013305 adaptations 30 landslides 27, 76, 290 Great Barrier Reef 140 Homarus americanus (American lobster) fish 45 Lane, Fitz Henry 33 great white shark 276\u2013277 limpets 36\u201337 lanugo 313 Greeks, ancient 181, 281 212\u2013213 plants 102\u2013103 lanternfish 282, 310, 370 grenadier fish 19, 371 Homer, Winslow 33 iridescence 160 Larus atricilla (laughing gull) 242 guanine 160 iridophores 160 Larus heermanni (Heermann\u2019s gull) 242 guard hairs 317 The Life Boat 33 Isla Magdalena 68\u201369 larvae guillemots 55 West Point, Prouts Neck 32\u201333 island arcs 290 clownfish 167 Guinardia striata 258 horseshoe crabs 347 islands, coral 141 hydrozoans 195 gular sacs 240 Atlantic 111 isopods 349 nudibranch 210 Gulf Stream 274, 275 mangrove 110\u2013111 western Atlantic giant 266\u2013267 open ocean fish 279 gulls Hudson River School 33 Istiophorus platypterus (sailfish) 284\u2013285 planktonic coral 127, 129 great black-backed 59 human activity 16 jacks 372 scallop 202 Heermann\u2019s 242 Humboldt current 50 Janthina 260\u2013261 tunicate 105 laughing 242 humpback whale 248\u2013249 jaws violet snail 260 gunnel, crescent 46 hunting American crocodile 72 zooplankton 304 Gymnodinium 258 American crocodile 72 brittle star 218 lateral line 236, 237 gyres 250, 274 anemones 138, 199 butterflyfish 170, 171 lava 265 archerfish 116\u2013117 dugong 247 leaves H Atlantic spotted dolphin 252 ember parrotfish 183 mangrove 106 barracudas 230 sea urchins 225 marram grass 62 habitats bioluminescence 282 jellyfish 270\u2013271, 335\u2013336 legs, rockhopper penguin 58 cliffs 55 brown pelican 242 bioluminescence 192\u2013193 lenticels 107 coral reefs 140, 154 cone snail 201 brownbanded moon jelly 271 Lepidochelys olivacea (olive ridley turtle) 67 depth zones 19 gannets 56 common box jelly 270 Lepidophanes guentheri (lanternfish) 283 intertidal zone 37, 45, 105 gorgon star 268 crystal jelly 192\u2013193 Lepisosteus osseus (longnose gar) 46 kelp forests 189 great frigatebird 240 golf tee jelly 270 Leptonychotes weddellii 312\u2013313 and light 187 great white shark 276 horned stalked jellyfish 270 Liaohe River delta 103 rock pools 48\u201349 humpback whale 248 Indo-Pacific upside-down 108\u2013109 lichens rocky coasts 25 king penguin 307 Irukandji jelly 270 sunburst 22\u201323 salt marshes 102\u2013103 narwhal 319 kaleidoscope stalked jellyfish 270 tufted 22 splash zone 22\u201323 orca 293 mauve stinger\/night light jelly 271 Licmophora flabellata (brackish water diatom) starfish 222 osprey 90\u201391 medusae 195 reef stonefish 86 northern sea nettle jelly 271 258\u2013259 hadal zone 19 sailfish 284, 285 rhizostome 109 Life Boat, The (Homer) 33 Haddon\u2019s carpet anemone 138\u2013139 sea otter 245 thick-rimmed stalked jellyfish 270 life cycle Haeckel, Ernst 30, 153, 194\u2013195 southern elephant seal 310 winged box jelly 270 Haematopus longirostris (pied oystercatcher) southern stingray 84 coral (sexual) 129 spoonbills 97 hydrozoan (sexual) 195 75 stargazers 233 scallop 202 hagfish 159, 359 Weddell seal 312 tunicates 105 hurricanes 206\u2013207","light marlins 285, 374 Morus bassanus (northern gannet) 56\u201357 nests depth zones 19 marram grasses 62\u201363 moss animals 347 American crocodile 72 and habitat 187 Marrus orthocanna (siphonophore) 256 mouths cliff nesting 54\u201355 refraction 242 mating gannets 56 wavelengths 160, 186\u2013187, 310 brittle stars 218 ground-nesting birds 75 see also bioluminescence; photosynthesis bioluminescence 282 feather stars 214, 215 hooded plover 74, 75 butterflyfish 170 reef stonefish 86, 87 marine turtles 66, 67 Limacia clavigera (nudibranch) 210 fiddler crab 114, 115 rhizostome jellyfish 109 wandering albatross 287 Limacina helicina (sea butterfly) 296\u2013297 gannet 56 scalloped hammerhead shark 226 Limnadromus semipalmatus (Asian dowitcher) great frigatebird 240 stingrays 84, 85 Noctiluca scintillans 258 horseshoe crab 111 movement Northwest Passage 71 92 humpback whale 248 American crocodile 72 Norwegian-Greenland Sea 250 Limnodromus griseus (short-billed dowitcher) king penguin 307 brittle stars 218 nostrils orca 293 cephalopods 208\u2013209 92\u201393 sea otter 245 echinoderms 220\u2013221 catfish 237 Limosa limosa (black-tailed godwit) 92 southern elephant seal 310 epaulette shark 44 walrus 309 limpet, common 34, 36\u201337 wandering albatross 286, 287 fish shapes 46\u201347 notochord 105 Limulus polyphemus (Atlantic horseshoe crab) Matisse, Henri 52 gorgon stars 268 Nova totius terrarum orbis tabula (Blaeu) 281 Maupassant, Guy de 118 jellyfish 109 nudibranchs 153, 210\u2013211, 342 111 Maury, Matthew Fontaine 153 mobula and manta rays 229 Numenius madagascarensis (eastern curlew) 92 Linckia laevigata (blue linckia) 222 Mazu\/Tianfei 196, 197 penguins 59 Lingula brachiopods 111 Mediterranean Sea 12, 113, 181 plankton 279 O lionfish, red 184 medusae scallops 202 Lipophrys pholis (shanny) 48\u201349 cubozoa 270 sea butterfly 297 oaten pipes 195 liver, sharks and rays 231 hydrozoans 195, 270, 271 starfish 218, 268 Obelia 195 living fossils 110\u2013111 jellyfish 271 swim bladders 231 Ocean Life (Sommerville) 152\u2013153 lizards 383 Megaptera navaeangliae (humpback whale) zooplankton 304 Ocean Surface (Celmins) 64 lobe-finned fish 363 mucopolysaccharides 25 oceanic crust 265, 290 lobsters 352 248\u2013249 mucus oceanic plates 290 Meiacanthus grammistes (striped fangblenny) 175 anemones 198 octocorals 130, 131, 134 American 212\u2013213 Melicertum octocostatum (eight-strand jelly) 270 brittle stars 218 octopus 205, 208, 345 Lofoten Islands 234\u2013235 meroplankton 304\u2013305 clownfish 167 loggerhead turtle 66\u201367 mesoglea 199 limpets 37 coconut 40 Loligo vulgaris (European squid) 208\u2013209 Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (colossal squid) 267 mandarinfish 160 color change 150\u2013151 longshore drift 68 mesophyll 63 painted topshell 34, 35 day 150\u2013151 Lophelia pertusa (cold-water coral) 19 mesophytes 103 sea butterfly 297 wonderpus 304 Lucernaria quadricornis (horned stalked Metasepia pfefferi (flamboyant cuttlefish) 204\u2013205 secreting 167 Octopus cyanea (day octopus) 150\u2013151 Metridium senile (plumose anemone) 30 violet snail 260, 261 Odobenus rosmarus (walrus) 308\u2013309 jellyfish) 270 microalgae 329 mud, feeding in 92 odontophore 34 luciferase 282 mid-ocean ridges 113, 235, 265, 290 mudflats 45, 78, 92, 115 olive ridley turtle 67 luciferin 282 midnight zone 19 mudskippers 45 Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (pink salmon) 90\u201391 lugworms 201 migration Atlantic 45 opahs 372 Luidia senegalensis (nine-armed star) 222 Mundy, Peter 94 open ocean 254\u2013293 Luminist style 33 fish 90\u201391 muscular foot operculum 34, 144 lures 233 humpback whale 248 bivalves 80 Ophiothrix fragilis (European common brittle Lutjanus apodus (schoolmaster snapper) 184 sardine run 238\u2013239 limpets 37 Lutjanus campechanus (northern red snapper) Millepora (fire hydrocorals) 136\u2013137 nudibranchs 211 star) 218\u2013219 mimicry 176\u2013177 painted topshell 34, 35 oral arms 108, 109 182 minerals scallops 202 oral disk 138, 139 Lybia (pom-pom crab) 157 coral reefs 127 sea butterfly 297 orca 292\u2013293, 301 Lysmata amboinensis (scarlet skunk shrimp) dissolution from land 113 violet snail 261 Orcinus orca (orca) 292\u2013293 hydrothermal vents 262 mutual fencing 56 osculum 124, 125 154\u2013155 Minoan civilization 181 mythology osmosis 28, 102, 103 Minuca minax (red-jointed fiddler crab) Asian 196\u2013197 osprey 98\u201399 M Greco-Roman 181 ossicles 218 114\u2013115 Scandinavian 281 ostium 124, 125 mackerel 19, 56, 226, 377 Mirounga leonina (southern elephant seal) Ostorhinchus fleurieu (bullseye cardinalfish) 184 Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp) 188\u2013189 N ostracod 305 magma 265, 290 310 \u2013311 otters 399 Magnus, Olaus 280, 281 Mola mola (giant ocean sunfish) 278\u2013279 Najombolmi 164\u2013165 Malaclemys terrapin (diamondback terrapin) mollusks narwhal 318\u2013319 sea 244\u2013245 Naso elegans (elegant unicornfish) 172\u2013173 oystercatcher, pied 75 120 \u2013121 bivalves 80\u201381, 202 Naso lituratus (lipstick tang) 172\u2013173 oysters 147 Maldives No. 11 (Forman) 64\u201365 cephalopods 208\u2013209 nautiluses 205, 346 manatees 393 herbivorous snails and limpets 34\u201335 neap tides 82 P nutrition 136 nectosome 256 Atlantic 247 soft-bodied 148\u2013149 needlefish 373 Pachycerianthus multiplicatus (firework tube mangroves 100, 106\u2013107, 331 molting nematocysts 138, 148, 167, 193, 210, 270 anemone) 198\u2013199 lobsters 212 Nembrotha kubaryana (variable neon sea slug) colonized roots 104\u2013105, 107 seals 310, 312 Pachystomias microdon (smalltooth dragonfish) red 106\u2013107 Monet, Claude 118 148\u2013149, 210 283 mannitol 24 Impression, Sunrise 118\u2013119 Nemichthys scolopaceus (pale snipe eel) 47 mantle Monodon monoceros (narwhal) 318\u2013319 Neoerdina cumingi (Cuming\u2019s sea star) 222 Pacific Ocean 12, 13, 15 cuttlefish 204 Moon El Ni\u00f1o effect 16 Earth\u2019s 265 and coral spawning 128, 129 subduction zones 290 nudibranchs 210 and tides 82 waves 43 squid 209 and turtle hatchlings 66 map-making 280\u2013281 moray, ribbon 168\u2013169 Paestum 181 marine turtles 384 green 191 loggerhead 66\u201367 olive ridley 67","Pagurus bernardus (European common hermit pillow lava 265 Pseudocolochirus violaceus (sea apple) 158 rock type 410 \u2022 411 index crab) 40\u201341 pincers see chelae pseudopaxillae 222 and coastal erosion 27 pinnipeds 308 Pteraeolidia ianthina (nudibranch) 211 and sand color 68 painted topshell 34\u201335 pinnules 215 Pterois volitans (red lionfish) 184 palatal fold 94 pipefish 376 pteropods 297 rocky coasts 20\u201359 palatal valve 94 Ptolemy 281 Romans 180\u2013181 paleontology 15 harlequin ghost 172\u2013173 Ptychodera flava 304 Romantic movement 33, 71 palps 81, 144, 145, 200 pits, sensory 88, 89 pufferfish 162, 279, 382 rookeries, turtle 67 pancake ice 298 plankton 132, 135 puffin, horned 54\u201355 roots 28 Pandion haliaetus (osprey) 98\u201399 pupils papilla, cuttlefish 204 giant 278\u2013279 mangroves 104\u2013107 parapodia 200, 297 Planktoniella sol 258 king penguin 307 marram grasses 62 parasites 154, 155, 167 plantigrade feet 58 octopus 151 rorquals 288 parrotfish 378 Platalea ajaja (roseate spoonbill) 96\u201397 Pycnopodia helianthoides (sunflower sea star) Rosalina globularis (living foraminifera) 16 plate boundaries 265, 290 ember 182\u2013183 pleuston 261 223 S excavating 183 Pliny the Elder 181 Pyrocystis pseudonoctiluca 258 queen 182 Plotosus lineatus (striped eel catfish) 236\u2013237 sabelids 145 steephead 183 plover, hooded 74\u201375 R Saccharina latissima (sugar kelp) 24\u201325 yellow-finned 182\u20133 plumage see feathers sagittiform fish 46 passive ram filtration 273 plunge-diving 242 radiolarians 325 sailfish 284\u2013285 Patella vulgata (common limpet) 34, 36\u201337 pneumatocysts 189 radioles 144 St. Elmo\u2019s fire 197 paws pneumatophores 107, 256 radula 34, 35, 201 salmon 368 polar bear 317 pocket beaches 68 rafts sea otter 245 pods body changes 91 pebble beaches 68 bubble 260\u2013261 pink 90\u201391 pedalia 270 dolphins 252 sea otters 245 salt cycle 113 pedicellaria 225 narwhal 319 rainfall 15, 16, 206 salt marshes 100, 102\u2013103 Pelagia noctiluca (mauve stinger\/night light orca 293 Ramalina siliquosa (sea ivory) 22 salt tolerance polar bear 316\u2013317, 399 Ramayana 197 adapting to changing salinity 120\u2013121 jelly) 271 polar ice caps 235 ram\u2019s horn 205 American crocodile 72 Pelecanus occidentalis (brown pelican) 242\u2013243 polar oceans 294\u2013319 ramuli 187 conformers and regulators 120 pelicans 390 sea ice 298\u2013299 raptors 98\u201399 flowering plants 28 polar regions, light 301 ray-finned fish 178\u2013179 halophytes 103 brown 242\u2013243 pollen 191 rays 361 intertidal plants 102 Pelurosigma angulatum 259 pollination 28 buoyancy 231 mangroves 106 penguins 301, 388 Polycera quadrilineata (nudibranch) 211 manta 229 nasal salt glands 51 polyps mobula 228\u2013229 wandering albatross 287 emperor 307 anemones 138 sawfish 88\u201389 salt water 112\u2013113 king 306\u2013307, 311 coral 127, 128, 132, 134\u2013135, 140 senses 88, 89 volume on Earth 13 rockhopper 58\u201359 cubozoa 270 razorbill 55 sand Pentaceraster alveolatus (honeycomb cushion hydrozoans 195, 271 recycling 158\u2013159 beaches and dunes 68\u201369 jellyfish 271 Red Sea 15, 113 excreting 183 star) 223 octocorals 130, 131 red tides 258 sand spits 68 Pentaceraster cumingi (Panamic cushion star) siphonophores 256 reef building 127 sandhoppers 350 tentacled 105 Reeves, John 153 sandpipers 222 zoanthids 142 refraction 117, 242 East-Asian 92 perches 379 Pomacanthus imperator (emperor angelfish) 46 remora 273 spoon-billed 92 Periophthalmus barbarus (Atlantic mudskipper) Pomatostegus stellatus (star fan worm) 144\u2013145 respiration Terek 92 Pompeii 181 coral 135, 136 Sarcophyton (leather coral) 132\u2013133 45 Pop Art 64 echinoderms 221 Sardina pilchardus (European pilchard) 238\u2013239 periwinkles 37\u201338, 41 Porcellanaster ceruleus (deep-sea star) 223 fish on land 45 sardine run 238\u2013239 petrels 387 porcupinefish 162 jellyfish and hydrozoans 271 Sargocentron spiniferum (sabre squirrelfish) 175 Pholis laeta (crescent gunnel) 46 long-spined 162\u2013163 marram grass 62 satellite images 12 photophores 192, 193, 282, 283 pores, pressure sensitive 239 shannies 49 sawfish, smalltooth 88\u201389 Photorealism 64\u201365 porphyrins 35 star fan 145 sawsharks 88 photosynthesis Port-Miou (Braque) 52\u201353 Rhincodon typus (whale shark) 272\u2013273 scales Portuguese man o\u2019 war 256, 261, 270 Rhinomuraena quaesita (ribbon moray) 168\u2013169 bladed fish 172\u2013173 algae on coral 126, 132, 135, 136 Postimpressionists 52 rhinophores 148, 149, 210 light-scattering 239 algae on jellyfish 108, 138 posture, penguins 59 rhizines 22 scallop, bay 202\u2013203 algae in lichens 22 pouches rhizomes 62, 190 Scarus flavipectoralis (yellow-finned parrotfish) algae on zoanthids 142 brown pelican 242 Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) 106\u2013107 giant kelp 189 king penguin 307 Rhizophora mangroves 107 182\u2013183 marram grass 62, 63 sea otter 245 rhizostome jellyfish 109 Scarus rubroviolaceus (ember parrotfish) 182\u2013183 phytoplankton 258, 301 Premnas biaculeatus (maroon clownfish) rhopalia 270 Scarus vetula (queen parrotfish) 182 seagrasses 190 Riftia pachyptila (giant tube worm) 263 scavenging 159, 267 seaweeds 24, 25, 186\u2013187 166\u2013167 Rimicaris exoculata (mid-Atlantic ridge schools zooxanthellae 136 pressure changes 236, 237 phycobiliproteins 187 Pristis pectinata (smalltooth sawfish) 88\u201389 shrimp) 262\u2013263 herding 284, 285 Physalia physalis (Portuguese man o\u2019 war) proboscis Ring of Fire 290 mobula rays 229 rip-currents 27, 68 sardines 238\u2013239 256, 261, 270 cone snail 201 rivers scalloped hammerhead sharks 226\u2013227 phytoplankton 19, 250, 258\u2013259, 288, 301, elephant seal 310 Schussele, Christian 152\u2013153 protandry 168 minerals carried by 113 scorpion, giant water 110 304 protists 189 tidal 72 scorpionfish 86, 380 Pictichromis poryphyrea (Magenta dottyback) protogyny 168 rock pools, territories 48\u201349 scrapes 75 Pseudanthias ignitus (flame anthius) 184 184 pigment blue 160\u2013161 color change 150\u2013151 seaweeds 186 zoanthids 142 pilchard, European 238\u2013239","sculpin, antlered 302\u2013303 sex changes skeletons continued sponges continued scyphozoa 271 clownfish 167 rockhopper penguin 59 demosponges 125 sea angel 304 fish 168 sea fan 130\u2013131 glass 125 sea apple 158 parrotfish 183 stony corals 127 Indo-Pacific blue 124 sea blites ribbon moray 168\u2013169 nutrition 136 skin Australian 102 sexual dimorphism 115, 310 Atlantic spotted dolphin 252 spoonbill, roseate 96\u201397 Eurasian 102\u2013103 sexual reproduction brittle stars 218 spring tides 82 sea butterfly 296\u2013297, 304 cetaceans 308 squalene 231 sea cucumbers 357 coral 128\u2013129 diamondback terrapin 121 squid 19, 205, 208, 301, 344 thorny 158\u2013159 scallops 202 echinoderms 224\u2013225 sea elephant 305 turtle seagrass 191 giant ocean sunfish 279 colossal 267 sea fan 130\u2013131, 134, 334 see also mating marine iguana 50\u201351 European 208\u2013209 sea grapes 186\u2013187 shanny 48\u201349 polar bear 317 giant 267 sea hare 148 shape-changing, octopus 151 reef stonefish 86 glass 305 sea ice 298\u2013299 sharks 360 sawfish 89 squirrelfish, sabre 175 sea ivory 22 basking 273 starfish 218 stalked jellyfish 336 sea level, changing 234\u2013235 buoyancy 231 walrus 308 starfish 218, 221, 222\u2013223, 268, 354 sea lilies 353 great white 276\u2013277 crown-of-thorns star 223 sea lions 189, 245, 293, 308, 397 hammerhead 88 skulls, dugong 247 deep-sea star 223 sea otters 244\u2013245 megamouth 273 Slave Ship, The (Turner) 70\u201371 leather star 222 sea pens 135, 334 scalloped hammerhead 226\u2013227 slavery 71 nine-armed star 222 sea rod, colorful 130\u2013131 scavenging 159 slime see also brittle stars; gorgon stars; sea stars; sea slaters 349 senses 88, 89 sea slugs 148, 342 small epaulette 44\u201345 sea slugs 148 cushion stars variable neon 148\u2013149 swell 162 turtle seagrass 191 stargazers 86 sea snakes 86, 383 whale 272\u2013273 smell, sense of sea spiders 348 shearwaters 387 rays and skates 88 Atlantic 233 sea squirts 124, 148, 149, 358 shells salmon 91 whitemargin 232\u2013233 sea stacks 27 acorn barnacles 36 sea otter 245 staurozoa 270 sea stars ammonites 14 sharks 88, 226, 276 Stenella frontalis (Atlantic spotted dolphin) Cuming\u2019s 222 bivalves 80, 81 walrus 309 paddle-spined 222 cephalopods 205 smelts 369 252\u2013253 sunflower 223 coconut octopus 40 smooth giant clam 146-7 stenohaline species 121 sea thrift 28\u201329 fossil 111 snail fur 40 Stichodactyla haddoni (Haddon\u2019s carpet sea urchins 221, 356 giant clams 147 snails 342 collector 224\u2013225 hermit crab 40\u201341 cone 201 anemone) 138\u2013139 purple 25 painted topshell 35 painted topshell 34\u201335 stingers, storing 148 seagrasses 330 sea butterfly 297 sea butterfly 296\u2013297 stingrays, southern 84\u201385 turtle 190\u2013191 and sea temperature 16 violet 260\u2013261 stings see venom seahorses 376 violet snail 261 snappers stomata, marram grass 62, 63 seals 301, 396 waves and shell shape 37 northern red 182 stonefish, reef 86\u201387 fur 397 shipbuilding 94 schoolmaster 184 Storck, Abraham 94\u201395 southern elephant 310\u2013311 shoals 239 snouts storms Weddell 312\u2013313 hunting in 117 epaulette shark 44 seascapes 71 shockwaves 76 harlequin ghost pipefish 177 coastal erosion 27 seaweed shorebirds 74\u201375, 92\u201393, 392 ribbon moray 168, 169 hurricanes and typhoons 206\u2013207 brown 186, 327 shoreline sailfish 285 waves 43 food sources in 74, 75 coastal erosion 26\u201327 sawfish 88\u201389 striped fangblenny (Meiacanthus grammistes) green 186, 329 sea-level change 234\u2013235 solenia 130, 132 photosynthesis 186\u2013187 shrimp 352 Solenostomus paradoxus (harlequin ghost 175 pigments 186\u2013187 mantis 351 sturgeons 364 red 186, 187, 328 mid-Atlantic ridge 262\u2013263 pipefish) 176\u2013177 Suaeda australis (Australian sea-blite) 102 rocky coasts 24\u201325 scarlet skunk 154\u2013155 Sommerville, James M. 152\u2013153 Suaeda salsa (Eurasian sea-blite) 102\u2013103 sediment Silfra Canyon 264\u2013265 sound waves 236 subduction zone 290 beaches 68 silicon 258 Southern Ocean 12, 43 submarine slides 76 coastal erosion 27 Sinularia flexibilis (spaghetti finger leather spawning sugar kelp 24\u201325 colliding plates 290 sugars 24, 138, 167, 186\u2013187, 262 hunting in 84, 85 coral) 135 coral 128\u2013129, 132 Sulculeolaria biloba (cup-bearing living in 80\u201381 siphonophores 271, 337 salmon 90\u201391 seeds 191 Sphyraena putnamae (chevron barracuda) siphonophore) 256\u2013257 Semibalanus balanoides (acorn barnacle) colonial structure 256 sulfur 159 cup-bearing 256\u2013257 230 \u2013231 Sun 39 siphons Sphyrna lewini (scalloped hammerhead shark) sensory data bivalves 81 gravitational pull 82 cephalopods 208, 209 226 \u2013227 heat from 16 catfish 236\u2013237 cone snails 201 spicules 125 sun star, common 220\u2013221, 222 dragonfish 283 siphosome 256 spines sunfish, giant ocean 278\u2013279 rhinophores 149 sirenians 247 sunlit zone 19 tusks 319 skates 88, 229, 361 echinoderms 224\u2013225 supercell thunderstorms 16 whiskers 312 skeletons elegant unicornfish 172\u2013173 Supergorgia (gorgonian sea fan) 134 Sepia elegans (elegant cuttlefish) 205 crabs 212 pufferfish, balloonfish, and porcupinefish surf 43 sequential hermaphrodites 168 fire hydrocorals 136 surface currents 16, 274 serpulids 145 great black-backed gull 59 162\u2013163 surgeonfish setae 39 great frigatebird 240 starfish 222, 223 elegant unicornfish 172\u2013173 lobsters 212 spiracles 85 elongate 175 Spirobranchus lamarki (keelworm) 145 suspension feeding 214\u2013215 splash zone 22\u201323 swell 43 sponges 124\u2013125, 332 swim bladders 230\u2013231 calcareous 125 Swima bombiviridis (green bomber worm) 221 crab dec\u00f3r 156, 157 swimming bells 256 swordfish 285, 374","symbiotic relationships tides 82\u201383 urchins see sea urchins whiskers 412 \u2022 413 index cleaner fish 154, 155 coastal erosion 27 uropods 41 dugong 246 tube worms 263 iceberg formation 314 Urticina felina (dahlia anemone) 138 sea otter 245 Utica 180\u2013181 seals 312, 313 Synanceia verrucosa (reef stonefish) 86\u201387 toes walrus 308 Synchiropus splendidus (small mandarinfish) osprey 98, 99 V rockhopper penguin 58 white shark see great white shark 160\u2013161 van Gogh, Vincent 52, 217 wind Tomopteris (Johnstonella) helgolandica A Fishing Boat at Sea 52 T (bristleworm) 305 and climate 16 Varuna 197 and currents 274 tactile receptors 213 tools, sea otter 245 Velde, Willem van de 94 dunes 68 tactolocation 97 touch, sense of Velella velella (by-the-wind sailor) 261 hurricanes and typhoons 206\u2013207 taeniform fish 46 veligers 202 and upwelling and downwelling 250 tails sea otter 245 venom and waves 43 seals 312 winged box jelly 270 giant ocean sunfish 278, 279 walrus 308 anemones 138, 167, 198 wings sailfish 285 toxins, bioaccumulation of 142 annelids 201 great frigatebird 240 stingrays 84 trade, Dutch Golden Age 94 cnidarians 138 osprey 98 talons 98 trenches, ocean 290 cone snails 201 rockhopper penguin 59 tang, lipstick 172\u2013173 trevally, bluefin 175 coral 132 sea butterfly 297 tap roots 28 Triactis anemones 157 cubozoa 270 wandering albatross 287 tarpons 364 Triceratium favus 258 fire hydrocorals 136 woodcuts, Japanese 216\u2013217 taste buds 236 Tridacna derasa (smooth giant clam) 146\u2013147 hydrozoans 261 woodlice 266, 267 Taxotes jaculatrix (banded archerfish) Tridacna gigas (giant clam) 146\u2013147 jellyfish 193, 271 worms triggerfish pufferfish, balloonfish, and porcupinefish annelid (segmented) 145, 200\u2013201, 340 116 \u2013117 clown 178\u2013179 arrow 339 tears, diamondback terrapin 121 orange-lined 184 162 as detritivores 159 tectonic activity 27, 141, 235, 265, 290 Tripneustes gratilla (collector urchin) reef stonefish 86 fan 144\u2013145 teeth sea slugs 148\u2013149 flatworms 339 224\u2013225 sea urchins 225 giant tube 263 American crocodile 72 Tripos lunula 259 stingrays 84 golden fireworm 200\u2013201 common limpet 34 tropicbirds 391 zoanthids 142 green bomber 201 and diet 182 tropics 16 vibrations 236 ribbon 339 epaulette shark 44 trout 368 Vlieger, Simon de, A Dutch Ferry Before a wrasse 155, 378 great white shark 276 tsunamis 76\u201377, 290 bluestreak cleaner 155 marine iguana 50 Tubastraea coccinea (tube coral) 135 Breeze 94 sex change 168 narwhal 319 tube feet 215 vocalization see also parrotfish retractable 276 Wunderpus photogenicus (wonderpus octopus) sawfish 88, 89 brittle stars 218 Atlantic spotted dolphin 252 scalloped hammerhead shark 226 echinoderms 220\u2013221 humpback whale 248 304 whale shark 273 sea urchins 208 orca 293 Wurrabadalumba, Jabbargwa \u201cKneepad,\u201d telsons starfish 218, 222 volcanic activity 76, 113, 141, 265, 290 hermit crab 41 tubercules 208 Dugong Hunt 165 horseshoe crab 110 tubes, fan worms 145 W temperature Tubipora musica (organ-pipe coral) 131 X, Y, Z coral reefs 136, 140 Tubularia indivisa (oaten pipes) 195 walruses 308\u2013309, 398 depth zones 19 tubules 319 waste recycling 147 Xanthoria parietina (sunburst lichen) 22\u201323 giant kelp 189 tuna 377 water Xenus cinereus (Terek sandpiper) 92 and sex determination 67 tunicates 104\u2013105, 358 Xiphasia setifer (hair-tail blenny) 46 tendrils, gorgon stars 268 bluebell 105 freezing 298 yellow-finned parrotfish 182\u2013183 tentacles life cycle 105 gulping 162 Yol\u014bu people 165 anemones 138, 167, 198\u2013199 Turner, J. M. W. 71 plants 103 young coral 19, 127, 129, 132 The Slave Ship 70\u201371 volume in oceans 13 hydrozoans 195, 261, 270 turnstone, ruddy 92 water purification 147 American crocodile 72 jellyfish 193, 271 turtles see marine turtles water vapor 15, 206 Atlantic spotted dolphin 252 mollusks 35 tusks water-vascular system 208, 218, 221, black-tailed godwit 92 nudibranchs 210 narwhal 319 clownfish 167 sea apple 158 walrus 308 223 giant ocean sunfish 279 sea cucumber 159 twilight zone 19 waterfowl 386 great white shark 276 siphonophores 256 typhoons 206\u2013207 wave washing 293 hammerhead shark 226 squid 208, 209, 267 waves 12, 42\u201343 humpback whale 248 zoanthids 142, 143 U king penguin 307 Tergillarca granosa (Indo-Pacific blood clam) beaches 68 loggerhead turtle 66\u201367 ukiyo-e 216\u2013217 and coastal erosion 27 orca 293 81 Under the Great Wave off Kanagawa (Hokusai) and shell shape 37 razorbill 55 terrapin, diamondback 120\u2013121 tides 82\u201383 spoonbill 97 test 208 216\u2013217 tsunamis 76\u201377 Weddell seal 313 Thalassia testudinum (turtle seagrass) underfur 245, 317 weather 16 see also larvae unicornfish 172 West Point, Prouts Neck (Homer) 32\u201333 Zheng He 197 19 0 \u2013191 uplift 27, 235 whales zoanthids 142\u2013143 thick-rimmed stalked jellyfish 270 upwelling baleen 273, 288, 301, 395 zones, depth 19 Thinornis cucullatus (hooded plover) 74\u201375 blue 267, 288\u2013289 zooids 256 thorny sea cucumber 158\u2013159 currents 250 carcasses 159 Zoological Society of London 153 thunderstorms 206 volcanic material 265 humpback 248\u2013249 zooplankton 304\u2013305 tidal currents 27 Uranoscopus scaber (Atlantic stargazer) killer see orca zooxanthellae 126, 135, 136, 147, 167 tidal pools 30 narwhal 318\u2013319 tidal range 82 233 toothed 288, 394 Uranoscopus sulphureus (whitemargin stargazer) 232\u2013233","acknowledgments Jenny E. Ross \/ www.jennyross.com.: (br). Taylor (tr). 116-117 Dreamstime.com: 56 Nat Geo Image Collection: Klaus Marcel De Grijs (ca). 118-119 Alamy DK would like to thank the following The publisher would like to thank the Nigge (bl). 56-57 Rebecca Nason Stock Photo: Heritage Image Partnership people at Smithsonian Enterprises: following for their kind permission to Photography. 58-59 Nat Geo Image Ltd. 118 Alamy Stock Photo: Peter reproduce their photographs: Collection: Thomas P. Peschak. 58 Horree (tl). 120-121 Getty Images: Paul Product Development Manager Alamy Stock Photo: Arco Images GmbH Starosta \/ Stone. 121 Getty Images: Jay (Key: a-above; b-below\/bottom; c-centre; \/ C. Kutschenreiter (tr). 60-61 Fleming \/ Corbis Documentary (crb). Kealy Gordon f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) Shutterstock.com: Andrey Oleynik. 62 122-123 Dreamstime.com: Jeneses Alamy Stock Photo: Blickwinkel \/ H. 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Bo for their comments on the text; Barry Jonathan Need (tl). 22-23 Getty Images: Pardau: (ftr). 136-137 Alamy Stock Allday, Ping Low, Peter Mundy, and VW Pics \/ Universal Images Group. 24-25 Image from the Biodiversity Photo: Pete Niesen. 136 Getty Images: James Nutt at the Goldfish Bowl, Oxford, Alamy Stock Photo: Jennifer Booher. 25 Heritage Library: The Birds of Australia Oxford Scientific (tc). 138 Science Photo for their help with photoshoots; Steve Alamy Stock Photo: Mark Conlin (tc). By John Gould (cra). 76-77 Getty Library: Andrew J. Martinez (tl). 140-141 Crozier for Photoshop retouching; 26-27 Getty Images: Warren Ishii \/ Images: The AGE \/ Fairfax Media. 78-79 Yen-Yi Lee, Taiwan. 142-143 BioQuest Rizwan Mohd for work on high-resolution 500px. 28 SuperStock: Silvia Reiche \/ Alamy Stock Photo: World History Studios. 144-145 Maurizio Angelo images; Katie John for proof-reading; and Minden Pictures (bc). 29 Alamy Stock Archive. 80-81 Dreamstime.com: Pasi. 145 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Helen Peters for compling the index. Photo: Florilegius. 30 Alamy Stock Yodsawaj Suriyasirisin. 80 Alamy Stock Photographers Ltd \/ Paul R. Sterry (tr). Photo: Scott Camazine (bc). Photo: Natural Visions \/ Heather Angel 146-147 Getty Images: BigBlueFun \/ For their contributions to the jacket, iStockphoto.com: AlbyDeTweede (tc). (tr). 82-83 Fortunato Gatto \/ 500px. 147 Kunstformen der Natur by DK would also like to thank: 30-31 naturepl.com: Alex Hyde. 32-33 Fortunato Photography. 84-85 Andy Ernst Haeckel: (tc). 148 Alamy Stock Alamy Stock Photo: Artokoloro. 33 Deitsch Photography. 84 Andy Photo: Blickwinkel \/ W. Layer (tl). Senior Jacket Designer: Smithsonian Design Museum: Cooper Deitsch Photography: (cl); naturepl. Suhita Dharamjit Hewitt Collection \/ Donated By Charles com: Shane Gross (tr). 85 Andy Deitsch 148-149 Nat Geo Image Collection: Savage Homer, Jr. (tr). 34 naturepl.com: Photography: (tr). 86 Alamy Stock David Doubilet. 150-151 Alamy Stock Senior DTP Designer: Jason Smalley (tr). Ian Frank Smith | Photo: Helmut Corneli (bc). 86-87 Photo: David Fleetham. 151 Salty Black Harish Aggarwal \u2018Morddyn\u2019: (bl, bc, br). 35 Ian Frank Wesley Jay Oosthuizen. 88-89 Science Photography by Ernie Black: (tr). 152 Smith | \u2018Morddyn\u2019. 36-37 \u00a9 Pixelda Photo Library: Sandra J. Raredon, Alamy Stock Photo: Agefotostock. 153 Senior DTP Designer: Software Limited. 37 RonWolf@ National Museum Of Natural History, 123RF.com: Antonio Abrignani (tr). Harish Aggarwal EyeOnNature.com: (tr). 38-39 Igor Smithsonian Institution. 88 Rex by Siwanowicz. 39 SuperStock: Nico van Shutterstock: Rob Griffith \/ AP (clb). 90 Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst Jackets Editorial Coordinator: Kappel \/ Minden Pictures (cb). 40-41 SuperStock: Jelger Herder \/ Buiten-beeld Priyanka Sharma FLPA: Ingo Arndt \/ Minden Pictures. 40 \/ Minden Pictures (cra). 90-91 Alamy Haeckel. 154 Alamy Stock Photo: Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Stock Photo: Design Pics Inc. 92-93 Nat Reinhard Dirscherl (tr). 155 Image from Senior Jacket Designer: Library \/ Constantinos Petrinos (tl, cla, cl). Geo Image Collection: Joel Sartore Suhita Dharamjit 42-43 Alamy Stock Photo: Media Drum - National Geographic Photo Ark. 92 the Biodiversity Heritage Library: World. 46 Alamy Stock Photo: National Alamy Stock Photo: Buiten-Beeld \/ Atlas Ichthyologique Des Indes Orientales Managing Jackets Editor: Geographic Image Collection \/ Joel Sartore Astrid Kant (clb). 94 Alamy Stock Photo: N\u00e9\u00earlandaises : Publi\u00e9 Sous Les Auspices Saloni Singh (br); WaterFrame (cla); Nature Picture The Picture Art Collection (tl). 94-95 Du Gouvernement Colonial N\u00e9\u00earlandais Library \/ Constantinos Petrinos (bl). Amsterdam Museum: SA 5611. 96-97 (tc). 158-159 \u00a9 Arthur Anker. 158 SuperStock: Wil Meinderts \/ Minden Pedro Jarque Krebs. 97 Alamy Stock Alamy Stock Photo: Stephen Frink Pictures (tl). 47 naturepl.com: David Photo: Harry Collins (tr). 98 Taiwanese Collection (br). 162 Dreamstime.com: Shale. 48-49 Tim Hunt Photography. Photographer Wilson Chen. 99 Isselee (clb); Isselee (bc, crb). 163 48 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Dreamstime.com: Izanbar. 164 Getty Library \/ Alex Hyde (bl). 50-51 Alamy Taiwanese Photographer Wilson Images: DEA \/ N. Cirani \/ De Agostini. Stock Photo: Bill Attwell. 50 Nat Geo 165 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image Image Collection: Greg Lecoeur (tr). Chen. 100-101 iStockphoto.com: Partnership Ltd \/ Werner Forman Archive 52-53 Alamy Stock Photo: Peter Horree. Ilbusca \/ Digitalvision Vectors. 102 Black \/ Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney 52 Saint Louis Art Museum: Gift of Mr. Diamond Images: (tr). 102-103 Ke (tl); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd \/ and Mrs. Joseph Pulitzer Jr. (tl). 54 Kirt Guo. 104-105 Phil\u2019s 1stPix. 105 Werner Forman Archive \/ Private Edblom. 55 Alamy Stock Photo: Mike SuperStock: Christian Ziegler \/ Minden Collection, Prague (cl). 167 Getty Read (tl). Image from the Biodiversity Pictures (tr). 106 Rex by Shutterstock: Images: Giordano Cipriani \/ The Image Heritage Library: British Oology (tr). \u00a9 Auscape \/ UIG (tr). 106-107 SuperStock: Bank (crb). 168-169 Dreamstime.com: Kevin Schafer \/ Minden Pictures. 108-109 Isselee. 168 Getty Images: Hal Beral \/ Nat Geo Image Collection: David Corbis (tr). 169 Dreamstime.com: Liittschwager. 109 Nat Geo Image Isselee (b). 170 Alamy Stock Photo: Jane Collection: David Liittschwager (tr). 111 Gould (bl). 174 iStockphoto.com: Alamy Stock Photo: Florilegius (br). Marrio31 (cr). Minden Pictures: Becca Ariane M\u00fcller: (cb). 112-113 Getty Saunders (tl). Nat Geo Image Images: Ruslan Kalnitsky \/ 500px. 114 Collection: Joel Sartore - National iStockphoto.com: Mccluremr (t); Geographic Photo Ark (tr). naturepl.com: Mccluremr (b). 115 iStockphoto.com: Georgette Douwma (cl); Alex Mustard (tc); Mccluremr (bc). 116 naturepl.com: Kim Alex Mustard (c); Georgette Douwma (bl); Linda Pitkin (br). 175 Alamy Stock","Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl (cl); Andrey naturepl.com: Georgette Douwma (br); Bank. 278-279 \u00a9 Jordi Chias Pujol. 279 And Terror In The Years 1839-1843. (cra). 414 \u2022 415 acknowledgements Nekrasov (bl). naturepl.com: Fred Norbert Wu (cl); David Shale (bl). 224 Alamy Stock Photo: Minden Pictures \/ 329 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Bavendam (c); Alex Mustard (tl). 176-177 Alamy Stock Photo: Panther Media Norbert Wu (tr). 280-281 Getty Images: Library \/ Nick Upton (bl); Nature Picture Alamy Stock Photo: Blue Planet Archive. GmbH \/ Jolanta W\u00c3\u00b3jcicka (bc). 226-227 Fine Art \/ Corbis Historical. 281 Alamy Library \/ Sue Daly (bc\/Codium). 176 Getty Images: Michael Aw \/ Edwar Herreno. 226 James Ferrara: Stock Photo: Art Collection 2 (tr). 282 Dreamstime.com: Seadam (bc). Stockbyte (bc). 177 Getty Images: (b). 228-229 Jorge Cervera Hauser \/ Alamy Stock Photo: Solvin Zankl (t). 283 iStockphoto.com: Ashish Kumar (br). Giordano Cipriani \/ The Image Bank (tr). Getty Images: E. Widder \/ HBOI. 180 Getty Images: DEA \/ Archivio J. Pelagic Fleet. 229 Dreamstime.com: 284-285 Shawn Heinrichs. 285 Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst Lange \/ De Agostini. 181 Alamy Stock Sergey Uryadnikov (tc). 230-231 Taxidermy by Kevin Halle: (bc). 286 Haeckel: (cr). 330 Alamy Stock Photo: Photo: Azoor Travel Photo (tr); The SuperStock: Minden Pictures. 232 Alamy Stock Photo: David Tipling Photo The History Collection (cra); Steve. History Collection (cl). 182-183 Fran\u00e7ois Science Photo Library: Alex Mustard \/ Library (br). 286-287 Paul Cottis. Trewhella (bl); Nature Picture Library \/ Nature Picture Library. 233 Alamy Stock 288-289 naturepl.com: Doc White. Constantinos Petrinos (bc\/Enhalus); Nature Libert | flickr.com\/photos\/zsispeo\/: Photo: Imagebroker (br); Andrey Nekrasov 290-291 NASA: Earth Observatory image Picture Library \/ Jurgen Freund (bc). (b). 182 Alamy Stock Photo: David (cb). naturepl.com: Visuals Unlimited created by Robert Simmon, using EO-1 Dreamstime.com: Seadam (br). 331 Fleetham (t). 183 Alamy Stock Photo: (cra). 234-235 Getty Images: Yuichi ALI data provided courtesy of the NASA Alamy Stock Photo: Blickwinkel (br); The David Fleetham (tr). 184-185 Sahacha \/ 500Px Plus. 238-239 Davide EO-1 team. 292-293 Jorge Cervera Natural History Museum (cra); Juergen iStockphoto.com: Ilbusca. 186-187 Lopresti. 239 iStockphoto.com: Hauser \/ Pelagic Fleet. 293 naturepl. Freund (bl). 332 Alamy Stock Photo: John Getty Images: Aukid Phumsirichat \/ Clintscholz \/ E+ (tr). 240-241 Malcolm com: Doug Allan (bc). 294-295 Anderson (bl); Daniel L. Geiger \/ SNAP EyeEm. 187 Alamy Stock Photo: NZ Thornton Photography. 240 Getty iStockphoto.com: Zu_09 \/ Digitalvision (bc). Dreamstime.com: Alexander Collection (bc). 188-189 Getty Images: Images: Wei Hao Ho \/ Moment (clb). 242 Vectors. 296 Alexander Semenov: (tl, tc, Ogurtsov (bc\/Demosponge). Image from Brent Durand \/ Moment. 189 Alamy National Audubon Society: (bc). bl, bc). 297 Alexander Semenov: (tl, bl). Stock Photo: Mauritius Images GmbH naturepl.com: Alan Murphy \/ BIA (t); 298-299 Florian Ledoux Photography. the Biodiversity Heritage Library: (bc). 190 Alamy Stock Photo: The Tui De Roy (br). 243 Alamy Stock 300 Nat Geo Image Collection: Keith Spongiaires de la mer Carai\u00a8be (cr). History Collection (tr). 190-191 Nat Geo Photo: Paul Barnes. 244-245 Alamy Ladzinski (tl). 300-301 naturepl.com: imagequestmarine.com: Jez Tryner (br). Image Collection: Cristina Mittermeier. Stock Photo: Design Pics Inc \/ Tom Ingo Arndt. 301 Alamy Stock Photo: 333 Alamy Stock Photo: Blue Planet 192 Science Photo Library: Alexander Soucek. 245 Science Photo Library: National Geographic Image Collection \/ Archive (bl); Science History Images (cr); Semenov (c). 193 Ocean Wise Thomas & Pat Leeson (tr). 246-247 Sheila Paul Nicklen (tr). 302 Alamy Stock Mark Conlin (bc). Getty Images: Wild Conservation Association: Neil Fisher Smart Photography. 247 iStockphoto. Photo: Andrey Nekrasov. 303 Alamy Horizon \/ Universal Images Group (br). \/ Vancouver Aquarium (bc). Science com: Cinoby \/ E+ (bc). 248-249 Gabriel Stock Photo: Paulo Oliveira (tr). 304 iStockphoto.com: Placebo365 (bc\/ Photo Library: Alexander Semenov (t). Barathieu: underwater-landscape.com. naturepl.com: Shane Gross (fcr); Solvin Heteractis magnifica). 334 Alamy Stock 250-251 NASA: Image By Norman Zankl (cl); Doug Perrine (cr); Solvin Zankl \/ Photo: Avalon \/ Photoshot License \/ 194 Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst Kuring, Nasa\u2019s Ocean Color Web. 252 Geomar (bc); David Shale (br); Solvin Zankl Oceans Image (br); Florilegius (cr); Alamy Stock Photo: Imagebroker (b). (fbr). 305 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Biosphoto \/ Bruno Guenard (bc\/Orange sea Haeckel. 195 Science Photo Library: 252-253 naturepl.com: Brandon Cole. Picture Library \/ Doug Perrine (t). pen). Getty Images: The Image Bank \/ Alexander Semenov (bc); Alexander 254-255 iStockphoto.com: Bitter. naturepl.com: Doug Perrine (c); Solvin Giordano Cipriani (bc). iStockphoto.com: Semenov (br). 196-197 Rijksmuseum, Zankl (cl); Solvin Zankl (bl); Solvin Zankl E+ \/ Michael Zeigler (bl). 335 Alamy Amsterdam: Gift of Mr and Mrs 256-257 Science Photo Library: (bc); Solvin Zankl (br). 306-307 Daisy Stock Photo: Cultura Creative Ltd \/ Dissevelt-van Vloten. 197 Alamy Stock Alexander Semenov. 256 NOAA: Kevin Gilardini Photography. 307 Getty George Karbus Photography (bc\/Moon Photo: The History Collection (tr). 199 Raskoff, Cal State Monterey \/ Hidden Images: Richard McManus \/ Moment jelly); Naturepix (br). Getty Images: Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Ocean Expedition 2005 \/ NOAA \/ OAR \/ (tr). 308 Alamy Stock Photo: ullstein bild \/ Reinhard Dirscherl (bl). Library \/ Richard Robinson (tr). 200-201 OER (ca). 258 Alamy Stock Photo: Agefotostock \/ Eric Baccega (b). 309 imagequestmarine.com: K\u00cc\u00b4re Telnes BioQuest Studios. 201 Dr. Karen Science History Images \/ Eric Grave (tc). Valter Bernardeschi. 310-311 Mike (bc). Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst Osborn: (tr). 202-203 David Science Photo Library: Wim Van Reyfman Photography. 310 naturepl. Haeckel: (cr). 336 Kunstformen der Moynahan. 202 Alamy Stock Photo: Egmond (tl, cl, cr); Raul Gonzalez (tr); com: Sylvain Cordier (b). 312-313 \u00a9 Natur by Ernst Haeckel: (cra. bc). 337 David Fleetham (c). 204 Ramiro Marek Mis (c). 259 Alamy Stock Photo: Rasch-Photography | Ralf Schneider. Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Gonzalez: (bc). 204-205 Todd Aki \/ Scenics & Science (tr). Jan van IJken 313 Dreamstime.com: Tarpan (t). Photographers Ltd \/ Paul R. Sterry (bc); Photography & Film: (br). Science 314-315 Alamy Stock Photo: National WaterFrame (bc\/Stinging hydrozoan). https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/ Photo Library: Wim Van Egmond (tl, tc, Geographic Image Collection \/ Marcin Getty Images: Cultura RF \/ Alexander photos\/90966819@N00\/albums. 205 cl); Marek Mis (ftl); M. I. Walker (fcl). Dobas. 316-317 Getty Images: Sergei Semenov (br); DEA Picture Library \/ De Alamy Stock Photo: StellaPhotography Gladyshev \/ 500px Plus. 317 Alamy Agostini (bl). Kunstformen der Natur by (tc). Science Photo Library: Power And 260-261 Science Photo Library: Stock Photo: Steve Davey Photography Ernst Haeckel: (cr). 338 Alamy Stock Syred (tr). 206-207 ESA: NASA \/ A.Gerst. Alexander Semenov. 261 Alamy Stock (tr). 318-319 Nat Geo Image Photo: AF Fotografie (cra); Book Worm Photo: Nature Photographers Ltd \/ Paul Collection: Paul Nicklen. 320-321 (bc). 339 Alamy Stock Photo: AAA 208-209 Science Photo Library: R. Sterry (tr). 262 naturepl.com: David Dreamstime.com: Andrii Oliinyk. 322 Collection (crb); Archive PL (cra). 340 Alexander Semenov (t); Alexander Semenov Shale (crb, cl). 262-263 naturepl.com: Getty Images: Robert Mallon \/ Moment. Alamy Stock Photo: Frank Hecker (br); (c). 208 Getty Images: Wild Horizon \/ David Fleetham. 263 Nat Geo Image Image Source \/ Alexander Semenov (bc\/ Universal Images Group (br). 210 Alamy Collection: Emory Kristof (tr). 264-265 323 Image from the Biodiversity Ragworm). Getty Images: De Agostini Stock Photo: Stocktrek Images, Inc. \/ Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Heritage Library:Kunstformen der Picture Library (cr); George Grall \/ National Ethan Daniels (fbr). naturepl.com: Alex Library \/ Alex Mustard. 266 Alamy Natur by Ernst Haeckel. 324 Getty Geographic Image Collection (bl). Mustard (c, cr, fcr, bc, br). 211 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Library \/ Images: De Agostini Picture Library (cra). iStockphoto.com: Damocean (bc). 341 Stock Photo: Nature Picture Library \/ Solvin Zankl. 267 Alamy Stock Photo: Alamy Stock Photo: Artokoloro (cra); Franco Banfi (cr). Getty Images: Antonio Chronicle (bc); Nature Picture Library \/ Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst National Geographic Image Collection \/ Camacho \/ Moment Open (cl). naturepl. Solvin Zankl (tr). 268 Dreamstime.com: Haeckel: (bc). 325 Image from the Joel Sartore (br). Dreamstime.com: com: Franco Banfi (bc); Alex Mustard (c); Aleksey Solodov (tl). Jonathan Lavan | Biodiversity Heritage Library: Die Velikanpiter (bl). Getty Images: Joao Solvin Zankl (bl); Norbert Wu (br). Radiolarien (Rhizopoda radiaria) (cra); Pedro Silva \/ Moment Open (bc). 342 Alexander Semenov: (t). 212 Alamy Underpressure Nature Photography: H.M.S. Challenger reports 1873-76 (bc). Alamy Stock Photo: Biosphoto \/ Mathieu Stock Photo: Blickwinkel (tl). 212-213 (br). 269 Alamy Stock Photo: Artmedia. 326 Alamy Stock Photo: Interfoto (bc); Foulquie (bc). Bridgeman Images: (cr). Getty Images: Maarten Wouters \/ Stone. 270 Alamy Stock Photo: Jeff Mondragon The Natural History Museum, London Dreamstime.com: Francofirpo (br); Toby 215 Alamy Stock Photo: Brandon Cole (bc); Visual&Written Sl \/ Kelvin Aitken (cr); (cra). 327 Alamy Stock Photo: Daniel Gibson (bl). iStockphoto.com: S.Rohrlach Marine Photography (bc). 216-217 Getty Andrey Nekrasov (bl). naturepl.com: Poloha Underwater (bc); The Natural (bc\/Bullina lineata). 343 Alamy Stock Images: Fine Art \/ Corbis Historical. 217 Gary Bell \/ Oceanwide (tr); David Shale History Museum, London (cr); Nature Photo: Blickwinkel (bl); Chronicle (cr); Alamy Stock Photo: Antiquarian Images (tl); Jurgen Freund (cl); Doug Perrine (c). Picture Library \/ Sue Daly (bl); Nature Martin Habluetzel (br). Shutterstock. (tc). 220-221 Alexander Semenov. 221 Science Photo Library: Andrew J. Picture Library \/ Sue Daly (bc\/ com: tank200bar (bc). 344 Alamy Stock naturepl.com: Sue Daly (tc). 222 Alamy Martinez (br). Alexander Semenov: (tc). Himanthalia). iStockphoto.com: Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl (bc); Z4 Stock Photo: Pulsar Imagens (tr); 271 Science Photo Library: Alexander DaCILD (br). 328 Alamy Stock Photo: Collection (cr); Genevieve Vallee (bl); WaterFrame (cr). iStockphoto.com: Semenov (tl, tr, c). Alexander Semenov: Nature Picture Library \/ Sue Daly (br); Imagebroker (br). iStockphoto.com: Searsie (bc). Museums Victoria: Chris (tc). 272-273 Jorge Cervera Hauser \/ Premaphotos (bl); Premaphotos (bc). Image Michael Zeigler (bc\/Sepia latimanus). 345 Rowley \/ CC BY 4.0 (cl). Nat Geo Image Alamy Stock Photo: Imagebroker \/ T. Collection: Joel Sartore - National Pelagic Fleet. 273 Getty Images: from the Biodiversity Heritage Eidenweil (br); UtCon Collection (cr); Geographic Photo Ark (br). naturepl. Torstenvelden (tc). 274-275 NASA: Library: The Botany Of The Antarctic WaterFrame (bc). Dreamstime.com: com: Sue Daly (tl); Georgette Douwma (tc); Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Voyage Of H.m. Discovery Ships Erebus Visuals Unlimited (c); Lynn M. Stone (bl). Visualization Studio. 276-277 Getty 223 iStockphoto.com: Tae208 (tl). Images: Benjamin Lowy \/ The Image","Wrangel (bc\/Common octopus). naturepl. com: Wrangel (bc). 363 Alamy Stock Victoria (cr). iStockphoto.com: Howard Aptenodytes). Image from the com: Fred Bavendam (bl). 346 Image Photo: Science History Images (cra). Chen (bc); Yann-Hubert (bl); Choi Ka Biodiversity Heritage Library: Report iStockphoto.com: Christophe Sirabella Kwan (br). 377 Alamy Stock Photo: on the collections of natural history made in from the Biodiversity Heritage (bl). SuperStock: Hoberman Collection Blickwinkel \/ F. Hecker (bc\/Sarda sarda); the Antarctic regions during the voyage of Library: Encyclopaedia londinensis, or, (br). 364 Image from the Biodiversity Nature Picture Library \/ Alex Mustard the \u201cSouthern Cross.\u201d (cr). 389 Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and Heritage Library: D. Marcus Elieser (bc). Image from the Biodiversity Depositphotos Inc: DonyaNedomam literature (cra). Kunstformen der Natur Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Zu Berlin (crb); Heritage Library: D. Marcus Elieser (bc). Dorling Kindersley: Judd Patterson by Ernst Haeckel: (bc). 347 Alamy Gemeinn\u00fczzige Naturgeschichte Des Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Zu Berlin (cra). (br). Dreamstime.com: Agami Photo Stock Photo: Alpha Stock (cra). Image Thierreichs Bd. 4 Plates (cra). 365 Alamy iStockphoto.com: Lunamarina (bl). Agency (bl). Image from the Stock Photo: Imagebroker \/ Christian naturepl.com: David Fleetham (br). 378 Biodiversity Heritage Library: The from the Biodiversity Heritage Guy (bl); WaterFrame (br). Getty Images: Alamy Stock Photo: Jaime Franch Birds Of Great Britain \/ London :Printed Library: The Naturalist\u2019s Miscellany, Or De Agostini Picture Library (cra). Wildlife Photo (bl). Image from the By Taylor And Francis, Published By The Coloured Figures Of Natural Objects. (crb). iStockphoto.com: Scubaluna (bc). 366 Biodiversity Heritage Library: D. Author,1873. (cr). iStockphoto.com: 348 Alamy Stock Photo: Florilegius (cra); Alamy Stock Photo: Arco Images GmbH Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Instants \/ E+ (bc\/Morus). 390 Historic Collection (bc). 349 Alamy Stock \/ G. Lacz (bc); Paulo Oliveira (br); National Zu Berlin (cra). iStockphoto.com: Denja1 Dreamstime.com: Assoonas (br); Photo: Artokoloro (bc); The Natural Geographic Image Collection \/ Ian (br); Marrio31 (bc\/Labroides dimidiatus); Donyanedomam (bl). iStockphoto.com: History Museum (cra). 350 Alamy Stock Mcallister (bc\/Pacific herring). Image Wrangel (bc). 379 123RF.com: Richard RCerruti (bc\/Ardea); RLWPhotos (bc). Photo: Actep Burstov (cr). iStockphoto. Whitcombe (bc). Alamy Stock Photo: National Audubon Society: (cr). 391 com: ZU_09 \/ DigitalVision Vectors (br). from the Biodiversity Heritage Minden Pictures (bc\/Serranus scriba); Image from the Biodiversity 351 Alamy Stock Photo: Helmut Corneli Library: D. Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, Paulo Oliveira (bl). Image from the Heritage Library: The Zoological (br); Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH (bl); Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Zu Berlin (cra). Biodiversity Heritage Library: D. Miscellany : London :Printed By B. Imagebroker (bc). Image from the iStockphoto.com: Feathercollector (bl). Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Mcmillan For E. Nodder & Son (cra). Mary 367 Dreamstime.com: Irko Van Der Zu Berlin (cra). iStockphoto.com: Evans Picture Library: \u00a9 J Salmon Biodiversity Heritage Library: Heide (bl); Wrangel (br). Image from the Pclark2 (br). 380 Alamy Stock Photo: Limited (bc). 392 Dreamstime.com: Dictionnaire universel d\u2019histoire naturelle. Biodiversity Heritage Library: D. Jes\u00fas Cobaleda Atencia (bc); Michael Brian Kushner (bc); Paul Reeves (bl); v. 3 1849 - Atlas (Zoologie-Botanique) (cr). Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Stubblefield (bc\/Scorpaena plumieri); Victortyakht (br). Image from the 352 Alamy Stock Photo: Helmut Corneli Zu Berlin (cra). 368 Alamy Stock Photo: Hemis \/ Rieger Bertrand (br). Biodiversity Heritage Library: The (bc\/Spotted porcelain crab); Nature Picture Blickwinkel (bl); Blickwinkel (bc\/Arctic Dreamstime.com: Vladyslav Siaber (bl). Birds of Australia By John Gould (cra). Library \/ Sue Daly (bc); SeaTops (br). char); Bill Brooks (bc); Nature Picture iStockphoto.com: Salinger (bc\/Eurasian Dreamstime.com: Kateryna Levchenko Library \/ Alex Mustard (br). Getty Image from the Biodiversity oystercatcher). 393 Alamy Stock Photo: (bl). Image from the Biodiversity Images: GraphicaArtis \/ Archive Photos Heritage Library: Ichthyology, Berlin, All Canada Photos \/ Wayne Lynch (br); Heritage Library: Voyage Autour Du (cra). 369 Getty Images: De Agostini Chez l\u2019auteur, 1796 (cra). 381 Alamy DejaVu Designs (bc). Image from the Monde (cr). 353 Alamy Stock Photo: Picture Library (cra). Image from the Stock Photo: Biosphoto \/ Mathieu Biodiversity Heritage Library: Pete Niesen (bc); Heiko der Urlauber (bc\/ Foulquie (bc\/Antennarius commerson); Biologia Centrali-Americana: Zoology, Anneissia bennetti). Dreamstime.com: Biodiversity Heritage Library: Paulo Oliveira (bl); WaterFrame (bc); Botany And Archaeology (cr). Toby Gibson (bl); Toui2001 (br). Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Imagebroker (br). Image from the iStockphoto.com: Lemga (bl). 394 Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer Alamy Stock Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst \u201cValdivia\u201d 1898-1899 (crb). 370 artscult. Biodiversity Heritage Library: (bc); The Natural History Museum, London Haeckel: (cr). 354 Alamy Stock Photo: com: (cra). Image from the Ichthyology, Berlin, Chez l\u2019auteur, 1796 (cra). Getty Images: Cultura \/ George Nature Picture Library \/ Alex Mustard (br); Biodiversity Heritage Library: The (cra). 382 123RF.com: Lotti Andersson Karbus Photography (bl). iStockphoto. Jeff Rotman (bl). Dreamstime.com: Zoology Of The Voyage Of The H.m.s. (bl); Richard Whitcombe (bc). Alamy com: tswinner (br). Shutterstock.com: Robertlasalle (bc\/Asterias rubens); Seadam Erebus & Terror, Under The Command Of Stock Photo: Biosphoto \/ Sergio Hanquet wildestanimal (bc\/Killer whale). 395 (bc). Kunstformen der Natur by Ernst Captain Sir James Clark Ross, During The (bc\/Mola mola). Image from the Alamy Stock Photo: Robertharding \/ Haeckel: (cr). 355 Alamy Stock Photo: Years 1839 To 1843. (crb). 371 Alamy Biodiversity Heritage Library: M.E. Michael Nolan (bl). Image from the blickwinkel \/ F. Hecker (bl); The Protected Stock Photo: Frank Hecker (bc\/Pouting); Blochii ... Systema ichthyologiae iconibus Biodiversity Heritage Library: British Art Archive (cr); Solvin Zankl (bc\/Gorgon\u2019s Paulo Oliveira (bc). Dreamstime.com: CX illustratum (cra). iStockphoto.com: Mammals (cra). naturepl.com: Nick head basket star). Dreamstime.com: Serg_dibrova (br); Slowmotiongli (bl). Miksov (br). 383 Alamy Stock Photo: Hawkins (br); Flip Nicklin (bc). 396 Alamy Seadam (br). Getty Images: De Agostini Blue Planet Archive (bc); Stock Photo: Papilio (bl). Dreamstime. Picture Library (bc). 356 Alamy Stock Image from the Biodiversity MichaelGrantWildlife (bl). Image from com: Jeremy Richards (br). Getty Photo: Blickwinkel (bc); Florilegius (cr); Heritage Library: Ichthyology, Berlin, Images: Fred Bruemmer \/ Stockbyte (bc\/ Helmut Corneli (bl). Dreamstime.com: Chez l\u2019auteur, 1796 (cra). 372 Alamy the Biodiversity Heritage Library: Hooded seal); De Agostini Picture Library Kelpfish (br); Ashish Kumar (bc\/Diadema). Stock Photo: Artokoloro (cra). Image Descriptiones Et Icones Amphibiorum. (cra). iStockphoto.com: Pum_Eva (bc). 357 Alamy Stock Photo: Blickwinkel Auctor Dr. Joannes Wagler (cra). 397 Alamy Stock Photo: Robertharding (bc); Florilegius (cr); Erik Schlogl (bc\/ from the Biodiversity Heritage iStockphoto.com: Carstenbrandt (br); \/ Michael Nolan (bl); Ariadne Van Colochirus). Dreamstime.com: Ethan Library: D. Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, USO (bc\/Amblyrhynchus cristatus). 384 Zandbergen (bc). Bridgeman Images: Daniels (bl); Ethan Daniels (br). 358 Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Zu Berlin (crb). 373 Alamy Stock Photo: Albatross (cra); Arco (cra). Dreamstime.com: Natalia Alamy Stock Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl Alamy Stock Photo: Anthony Pierce (bl); Images GmbH \/ F. Schneider (bl); Golovina (bc\/Australian sea lion); Ijdema (bl); Paulo Oliveira (bc\/European lancelet); Anthony Pierce (bc). Image from the Mauritius Images GmbH \/ Reinhard (br). 398 Alamy Stock Photo: ITAR- Imagebroker (bc). Getty Images: Antonio Biodiversity Heritage Library: D. Dirscherl (bc\/Green sea turtle); Andrew TASS News Agency (br); Tony Moss (bl). Camacho \/ Moment (br). Image from Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes Pearson (bc). scubazoo.com: Jason Isley Bridgeman Images: De Agostini Picture Zu Berlin (cra). iStockphoto.com: (br). 385 Dreamstime.com: Dirkr (br). Library (cr). 399 Alamy Stock Photo: the Biodiversity Heritage Library: Hansgertbroeder (br). 374 Alamy Stock Antiquarian Images (crb). Image from The Naturalist\u2019s Miscellany, Or Coloured Photo: Paulo Oliveira (bc); WaterFrame Image from the Biodiversity the Biodiversity Heritage Library: Figures Of Natural Objects. (cr). 359 (bl). Getty Images: Alastair Pollock Heritage Library: Historia Fisica, Wild Life Of The World : A Descriptive Alamy Stock Photo: Florilegius (cra); Photography \/ Moment (br). Image from Politica Y Natural De La Isla De Cuba. Survey Of The Geographical Distribution A.F. Lydon (crb). 360 Alamy Stock the Biodiversity Heritage Library: D. (cra). iStockphoto.com: Patrick_Gijsbers Of Animals (cra) Photo: Kelvin Aitken \/ VWPics (br); Mark Marcus Elieser Bloch\u2019s, Aus\u00fcbenden Arztes (bl). 386 Alamy Stock Photo: Andr\u00e9 Conlin (bc). Image from the Zu Berlin (cra). iStockphoto.com: Gilden (bl); National Geographic Image Endpaper Images: Front and Back: Tom Swimwitdafishes (bc\/Great barracuda). 375 Collection (cra); Andr\u00e9 Gilden (bc). Shlesinger Biodiversity Heritage Library: Alamy Stock Photo: Blickwinkel (bl); Dreamstime.com: Heinrich Von Natural history of Victoria. Prodromus of Nature Picture Library \/ Sue Daly (bc\/ Horsten (br); Mikael Males (bc\/Cygnus). All other images \u00a9 Dorling Kindersley the zoology of Victoria (cra). iStockphoto. Solea solea); Niels Poulsen (bc). 387 123RF.com: Dmytro Pylypenko (bl). com: June Jacobsen (bl). 361 Alamy Dreamstime.com: Slowmotiongli (br). Alamy Stock Photo: Renato Granieri For further information see: Stock Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl (bc\/ (bc); Robertharding \/ Michael Nolan (bc\/ www.dkimages.com Taeniura meyeni); Florilegius (cr); Image from the Biodiversity Fulmarus); Robertharding \/ Michael Nolan Imagebroker (bc). Depositphotos Inc: Heritage Library: A History Of The (br). Getty Images: DEA \/ A. De Lilithlita (br). Dreamstime.com: Roman Fishes Of The British Islands (cra). 376 Gregorio \/ De Agostini (cra). 388 Alamy Vintonyak (bl). 362 Alamy Stock Photo: Alamy Stock Photo: Imagebroker \/ Stock Photo: Auscape International Pty Kelvin Aitken \/ VWPics (bl); Imagebroker David & Micha Sheldon (bc\/Common (bc\/Rabbit fish); Minden Pictures \/ Norbert seahorse). Image from the Biodiversity Ltd \/ Ian Beattie (br); Philip Mugridge (bl); Wu (br). Image from the Biodiversity Heritage Library: Natural history of Avalon \/ Photoshot License (bc). Getty Heritage Library: Ichthyology, Berlin, Victoria : Prodromus of the zoology of Images: Martin Ruegner \/ Stone (bc\/ Chez l\u2019auteur, 1796 (cra). iStockphoto."]