Fossils

["Plants | 301 CORDAITALES MEMBERS OF THIS GROUP of plants veins. Their reproductive structures were ancestors of the conifers. They were were loosely aggregated cones, distinguished by long, leathery leaves, producing flat seeds with a membranous spirally arranged, with many parallel outer \u201cskirt\u201d. Group: CORDAITANTHALES Subgroup: CORDAITACEA Informal name: Cordaite strap-like Cordaites leaves An ancestor of the true conifers, Cordaites was a tree-sized Typical height plant that bore huge, strap-shaped leaves in tight spirals 10m (33ft) about the stem. The leaves have distinctive linear venation. The cones were loose, terminal aggregations of spore Occurrence: capsules or seeds. Some members of the genus were thought to be mangroves, with arching stilt-roots. HABITAT Cordaites Cordaites angulostriatus was an inhabitant of Grand Eury; Coal Measures; mangrove swamps and Late Carboniferous; UK. elevated hummocks. Range: Late Carboniferous\u2013Early Permian Distribution: Worldwide CONIFERS THESE ARE USUALLY shrubs or trees temperate and subtropical genera, distinguished by the production of but are flat and broad in tropical woody cones of various shapes and sizes. podocarps. The seeds are produced The leaves are often needle-shaped in mainly in cones. Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: PINACEAE Informal name: Pine Pityostrobus Pityostrobus dunkeri (Mantell) Seward; Wealden Beds; Early The form-genus represents the cones of Cretaceous; UK. various pine-like trees common in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. They were about curved three times longer than broad. The cones were cone woody, with the curved to reflexed cone leaves leaves or bracts arranged helically about a central axis. Seeds were attached to the bract bases and fell out of the cone when mature. HABITAT Pityostrobus grew in Typical height Carbonized subtropical forests. 20m (65ft) cone Range: Jurassic\u2013Cretaceous Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence:","302 | Plants Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: TAXODIACEAE Informal name: Coast redwood Sequoia globular shape This genus includes very large trees also known as coast redwoods. Small, very globular cones are a feature of Pine cones these plants. The woody cone leaves (or bracts) are arranged helically about a central axis, and have a seed with a scale-leaf on the upper surface, near the base or point of attachment. The cones do not often disintegrate (as disassociated bracts), even as fossils, but open to let the seeds fall out. HABITAT Redwoods once formed Sequoia dakotensis Brown; Hell Creek extensive forests in subtropical Formation; Late Cretaceous; USA. regions of the world. These forests, as found today in California, are of an open nature, with few other tree species present. ironstone carbonized Typical height interior 70m (230ft) Range: Jurassic\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence: Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: TAXODIACEAE Informal name: Wellingtonia compression fossil Sequoiadendron leaves in These giant redwood trees are not as tall as Sequoia, opposite pairs but are distinguished by the huge diameter of the shale trunk. They have small leaves or needles, in Sequoiadendron common with many other conifers. The affinis (Lesquereux); leaves are scale-like, arranged alternately Oligocene; USA. along either side of the twig. They are very Occurrence: small, with a blunt, tooth-like shape, and are pressed closely to the stem. Wood from the tree is of softwood or gymnospermic type, with no conducting tubes but often with growth rings. small leaves HABITAT Trees of this genus grew in the same subtropical forest habitats as the Sequoia. REMARK Counting the rings shows that the plants can live to impressive ages. Over 1,000 years is by no means uncommon for the larger examples seen growing in California, USA. Range: Jurassic\u2013Recent Typical height 60m (200ft) Distribution: Worldwide","Plants | 303 Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: Unclassified Informal name: Softwood Conifer wood dark-stained Silicified conifer wood; outer layer Lower Greensand; Conifer wood is distinguished by its very uniform Early Cretaceous; UK. appearance, and is commonly called \u201csoftwood\u201d. Growth rings can often be seen, as can resin canals or ducts. The bulk of the tissue is made up of a single type of woody cell called a tracheid. Generic and species distinctions between softwoods is difficult, and can usually only be made at microscopic level from the study of ground sections. Similar wood is produced by Ginkgo, and by some progymnosperms and pteridosperms. HABITAT Conifer wood is found in a wide selection of plant community types, including tropical to temperate forests, woodlands, parklands, and mangroves. Typical height wide growth silicified 30m (100ft) rings preservation Range: Permian\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence: Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: TAXODIACEAE Informal name: Dawn redwood Metasequoia Metasequoia occidentalis (Newberry) Chaney; Shale; These are large trees with small leaves in the form Oligocene; Canada. of flattened needles, in opposite pairs along the twig. Seed cones are produced upon long short, stalks and the cone leaves or bracts are in feather-like cross-pairs. At the base of the tree, where shoots it joins the roots, vertical growths of wood called \u201cknees\u201d are produced. carbonized preservation HABITAT Metasequoia grows in subtropical swampland, thriving in very wet areas with its roots immersed in water. REMARK The plant was known only as a fossil until 1941, when it was found growing in Szechuan, China \u2013 a remarkable example of a \u201cliving fossil\u201d. Typical height mudstone leaves in 30m (100ft) opposite pairs Range: Cretaceous\u2013Recent Distribution: Northern hemisphere Occurrence:","304 | Plants Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: ARAUCARIACEAE Informal name: Monkey puzzle Araucaria all tissues preserved This genus of large trees includes the Monkey Puzzle Tree and Norfolk Island Pine. The leaves are small and Cut section tooth-like, spirally arranged, and closely pressed to of cone the twig, hiding it completely. The cones are large, almost spherical, and very spiny. The seeds surface is formed of the closely packed within woody ends of cone leaves or bracts. cone Seeds are present at the base of the bracts. HABITAT This genus grew in subtropical mountain forests. Recent genera are restricted to the southern hemisphere. REMARK The famous fossil forest buried by volcanic ash at Cerro Cuadrado, Patagonia, is made up of Araucaria trees. Silicified twig, cone, and wood remains from there are common. woody surface silicified preservation Side view broken surface interlocking diamond pattern Top view rusty colour Typical height 30m (100ft) Araucaria mirabilis seeds in Range: Jurassic\u2013Recent (Spegazzini) Windhausen; diamond- Cerro Alto Beds; Early shaped cavities Cretaceous; Argentina. Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence:","Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: UNCLASSIFIED Plants | 305 Silicified wood Informal name: Softwood Petrification of wood involves the Silicified coniferous replacement of the original tissue by wood; Red beds; minerals in solution, usually silica or Triassic; USA. calcium carbonate. Recrystallization of silica, due to pressure and heat, together with impurities in the solution, causes new forms of this mineral \u2013 usually agate or, more rarely, opal \u2013 to grow. It also results in the destruction of the wood anatomy. HABITAT Silicified wood is found wood structure no growth rings in a very wide variety of habitats. destroyed REMARK It is often impossible to attribute silicified or similarly preserved woods to particular plants or trees. All that can be said is that the wood is of a broadly soft wood type (as illustrated). Silicified wood is often attractive and multi-coloured. Estimated height 30m (100ft) Range: Permian\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence: Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: PINACEAE Informal name: Spruce Picea Carbonized Picea sp.; Thanet cone This is a large group of mainly tall, narrowly Formation; Late conic trees that today is confined to the northern Paleocene; UK. hemisphere. Many spruce trees have characteristic drooping branches, giving a distinctive tiered effect woody to the whole plant. The stiff, needle-like leaves are bracts arranged spirally about the stem, and are two diamond pattern to three centimetres (\u00be\u20131\u00bcin) long. They grow from small pegs, which remain if the leaves are Typical height 40m (130ft) shed. The woody cones are pendulous, ovoid, or cylindrical, and often have strongly recurved bracts, which open to shed seeds as the cone matures. HABITAT The wood is of softwood type, often with strongly marked growth rings, in keeping with the seasonal montane climate found in most pine habitats. Range: Early Cretaceous\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence:","306 | Plants Group: CONIFERALES Subgroup: Not applicable Informal name: Amber Amber and Copal Kauri gum; Pleistocene; Amber is fossilized resin or gum produced by New Zealand. some fossil plants. The earliest recorded fossil resins are of Carboniferous age, but ambers do not occur stalactitic until the Early Cretaceous. Famous amber deposits flow include those from the Baltic region and the Dominican Republic. It is likely that ambers were mainly ancient gymnosperm (probably conifer) resins, but today such gums are also produced by flowering plants. Baltic amber occasionally contains insect and plant remains. It is supposed to have been formed in forests of a primitive species of pine, Pinus succinifera. Recent and semi-fossil copal resins differ from amber in that they are still readily soluble in organic solvents. Resins are exuded from within the tree when it is traumatized due to attack or growth splits. Today they are gathered commercially, one example being the copals derived from Kauri pine in New Zealand. Baltic amber is used in jewellery; copals in varnish manufacture. Mixed clear and cloudy amber cloudy area rich in succinic acid red patina Baltic amber (Succinite); Late Eocene; Denmark. Clear gem- Carved Dominican amber Tree quality amber (Pinus sp.) Distribution: Worldwide Range: Early Cretaceous\u2013Recent Typical height 30m (100ft) Occurrence:","Plants | 307 GINKGOS THIS WAS FORMERLY an extensive during the Early Permian and was group of plants, but it is now represented at its height during the Jurassic. All by a solitary relict genus, the Ginkgo or members had characteristic fan-shaped maidenhair tree. The group appeared leaf architecture. Group: GINKGOALES Subgroup: GINKGOACEAE Informal name: Maidenhair tree Ginkgo Ginkgo sp.; Ardtun Leaf Bed; These very tall trees have a distinctive fan- or Paleocene; UK. wedge-shaped foliage. The leaves may be notched or almost entire. The trees produce fan-shaped spherical seeds. leaf HABITAT A \u201cliving\u201d fossil, the compression Ginkgo\u2019s natural habitat is China, fossil but it has been introduced as an mudstone ornamental tree in many parks and gardens. Occurrence: Typical height 35m (115ft) Range: Late Triassic\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide EUDICOT ANGIOSPERMS EUDICOTS ARE A MAJOR GROUP leaves range from herbaceous to tree of angiosperm flowering plants types. All reproduce sexually by seeds. that have two seed leaves and a The earliest record of the group is from particular pollen structure. The Early Cretaceous pollen. Group: PLATANALES Subgroup: UNKNOWN Informal name: Extinct sycamore Betulites ironstone nodule The leaves of this genus have some similarity to those of Betula or the birch family. They were round, heart- oval, or heart-shaped, and always had teeth shaped leaf along the margin. Venation consisted of a central vein, with secondary veins Betulites sp.; coming off at about 45 degrees. They Dakota Sand- are usually found disassociated from stone; Late twigs, which indicates that at least Cretaceous; USA. some were dropped seasonally. HABITAT This genus grew in temperate Typical height 10m (33ft) climates and usually damp habitats. Range: Late Cretaceous\u2013Miocene Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence:","308 | Plants Group: PLATANALES Subgroup: Unclassified Informal name: Extinct plane simple Araliopsoides venation This genus is characterized by large leaves. three-lobed Typically, they were coarsely three-lobed, but leaf were sometimes of very variable appearance. Occurrence: The leaf margins were smooth with no teeth or serrations. The venation was simple \u2013 a central vein with straight secondary veins coming off at about 45 degrees. They were very thick and resilient, which explains their survival in sandstones. HABITAT Araliopsoides grew in warm, temperate to subtropical, deciduous forests. Araliopsoides cretacea (Newberry); Dakota Sandstone; Late Cretaceous; USA. Sandy- Typical height 10m (33ft) ironstone cast Range: Late Cretaceous Distribution: Worldwide Group: SAPINDALES Subgroup: ACERACEAE Informal name: Maple Acer Acer sp.; Freshwater These are small to large trees of temperate limestone; regions, popularly called maples. The Miocene; leaves are usually of a basic three-lobed Croatia. appearance, toothed, with a long stalk, and are shed in the autumn. The wood is zoned, with noticeable spring-wood composed of large conducting tubes. Flowers are produced in drooping clusters, and are followed by the distinctive winged fruits. These are always produced in pairs, but they can become separated when they fall to the ground. HABITAT This genus single wing is an inhabitant with venation of temperate, deciduous forests. limestone Winged fruit Typical height 25m (80ft) Range: Oligocene\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence:","Plants | 309 Group: UNKNOWN Subgroup: UNKNOWN Informal name: Fig Ficus \u2018Ficus\u2019 sp.; Early pointed Eocene; USA. end A large genus of shrubs and trees, the figs have thick, oval to fiddle-shaped leaves, with a noticeable central vein. The fruit is a globular, flat-topped, and stalked structure, woody with seeds embedded in a fleshy surround. covering HABITAT This is a tropical to temperate genus. blunt end REMARK The single quotation marks around the name Ficus indicates that striations it is the closest genus available but that there is some Fruits doubt that it has been correctly identified. Typical height 30m (100ft) Range: Eocene\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence: Group: FAGALES Subgroup: FAGACEAE Informal name: Oak Quercus Quercus sp.; Miocene; USA. A genus of large trees with distinctive foliage and fruits, the leaves of Quercus are a variety of shapes, from lobed to fiddle-shaped distinct or holly-like. The leaves may be shed in the autumn or they ray may be evergreen. The fruit is the familiar acorn, with the ornament of the cup varying from species to structure species. Usually the wood has very large conducting tubes and distinct growth rings. HABITAT Quercus grows in temperate, deciduous to semi-evergreen forests and woodlands. REMARK Although Quercus has been recorded from the Late Cretaceous, the oldest substantial pollen based records are from the Palaeocene of Europe. Typical oak foliage, acorns, and wood are known from the Middle to Late Eocene of North America. growth rings silicified wood Typical height 40m (130ft) mineral impurities cause coloration Range: Palaeocene\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence:","310 | Plants Group: SAXIFRAGALES Subgroup: HAMAMELIDACEAE Informal name: Sweetgum tree Liquidambar limestone five-lobed Liquidambar leaf europeanum These small to large trees are often called Braun; sweetgum. The twigs sometimes have Freshwater corky flanges or wings, and the leaves are limestones; distinctively lobed or star-shaped, with Miocene; five to seven points and toothed margins. Switzerland. Leaf venation consists of a single, central vein for each lobe, with nets of veins on either side. Leaves are shed in the autumn. Fruits are aggregates of woody, burr-like capsules, borne on a long stem. The wood is fine grained, with small conducting tubes. HABITAT They grow in temperate, deciduous to semi-evergreen, forests and woodlands. Typical height 25m (80ft) simple venation carbonaceous film Range: Oligocene\u2013Recent Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence: Group: FAGALES Subgroup: BETULACEAE Informal name: Birch Betula Betula sp.; Brown This is a small tree, with bark that is often distinctively coal; Miocene; patterned or coloured in modern representatives. The Germany. leaves are usually small with toothed margins, and they are shed during the autumn. Trees of this mudstone genus reproduce with catkins and seeds, with seed leaves or bracts. The wood is fine grained, with very small conducting tubes and sometimes with complex wood rays. HABITAT Betula was a common component of northern ice-age forests. Today it is found in temperate climates, often in waterside habitats. simple venation toothed leaf margins Typical height 15m (50ft) Distribution: Worldwide Occurrence: Range: Miocene\u2013Recent","Plants | 311 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS THIS IMPORTANT GROUP of plants bewildering range of flowers and is characterized by their mode of reproduction strategies. Fossil forms germination \u2013 with a single seed leaf \u2013 are recognized from the Late Cretaceous and by leaves with parallel venation. as palms and rushes, while grasses do Included in the group are grasses, not appear until the Early Cenozoic Era. narcissi, sedges, rushes, orchids, lilies, A possible monocot is recorded from irises, and palms \u2013 all of them with a the Triassic of America. Group: ARECALES Subgroup: ARECACEAE Informal name: Palm tree Palmoxylon Palmoxylon sp.; Mio-Pliocene; Fossil palm-tree wood is quite homogeneous, Antigua. and typically has many round, dark spots on a lighter background in cross-section. visible These spots are conducting or vascular conducting tissues, and distinguish the genus tissue from dicotyledonous angiosperms and conifer Silicified woods. There are no stem growth rings. Occurrence: HABITAT Palmoxylon grew in subtropical, semi-evergreen forest and woodland. Typical height 20m (65ft) Range: Paleocene\u2013Pliocene Distribution: Worldwide Group: ARECALES Subgroup: ARECACEAE Informal name: Stemless palm Nypa Nypa burtinii (Brongniart); Sables This is a palm with little or no stem. The leaves de Bruxelles; Middle or fronds are large, with long, pointed, Eocene; Belgium. sub-opposite leaflets. Coconut-like fruits are produced near the base of the frond, and sub-spherical within the fibrous husk are several seeds. shape HABITAT Stemless palms grow in Typical height woody mangrove swamps and are restricted 1.5m (5ft) outer to south-east Asia. layer REMARK These plants were a distinctive Fruit feature of some Early and Middle Eocene plant communities. Range: Late Cretaceous\u2013Recent Distribution: Northern hemisphere Occurrence:","312 | Glossary GLOSSARY THE USE OF SOME technical expressions illustrations. The definitions given below is unavoidable in a book of this nature. have been simplified and generalized, Commonly used technical words are and are appropriate for this book only. often defined in the text itself, and many Words in bold type are explained terms are explained by the annotated elsewhere in the glossary. \u25a0 Adductor muscles \u25a0 Axis \u25a0 Capitilum The muscles controlling the valves In trilobites, the ridge that runs from A portion of a crustacean or chelicerate, of bivalves and brachiopods. anterior to posterior, down the usually composed of armoured plates, midline; in vertebrates, the first or protecting the food-gathering organs. \u25a0 Adipose fin second element of the backbone. In fish, a fleshy dorsal fin. \u25a0 Carapace \u25a0 Barbel In crustaceans and chelicerates, the \u25a0 Alate plate A slim, sensitive process near the mouth external shield covering head and trunk; A flap-like extension on the interior of some fish. in vertebrates, the upper shell. hinge line of the brachial valve of a brachiopod. \u25a0 Basal \u25a0 Cardinal teeth At, or pertaining to, the base. The articulating structures on the hinge \u25a0 Alveolus of a brachiopod. A tooth socket in vertebrates; a \u25a0 Benthonic cavity containing phragmocone Living on the sea floor. \u25a0 Carina (pl. Carinae) in belemnites. A ridge- or keel-shaped structure. \u25a0 Bicipital surface \u25a0 Ambulacra A bulbous surface at the proximal end \u25a0 Carnassial tooth The plated zones of echinoderms of the upper arm bone in vertebrates. A molar or premolar specialized associated with tube feet. for cutting. \u25a0 Biconic \u25a0 Anal fin Pointed at both ends. \u25a0 Caudal fin An unpaired posterior fish fin. The tail fin of a vertebrate. \u25a0 Bifid \u25a0 Anal tube Divided into two. \u25a0 Cenozoic The projecting part of the arm that The fourth era of time in the history carries the anus in crinoids. \u25a0 Bifurcating of the Earth, 65 to 2 million years ago. Dividing into two parts. \u25a0 Antennules \u25a0 Centrum (pl. Centra) The sensory appendages towards the \u25a0 Boreal The main body of a vertebra. front of a trilobite. Suggesting a fauna with preference for a cold climate. \u25a0 Cephalon \u25a0 Anterior The head of a trilobite. Towards the front. \u25a0 Brachial valve One of the two valves that form the \u25a0 Cephalothorax \u25a0 Aperture brachiopod shell. The combined head and trunk region The opening surrounded by the shell of an arthropod. margin in molluscs. \u25a0 Brachiole An arm-like appendage to a brachiopod. \u25a0 Cerci \u25a0 Apical disc The sensory appendages at the posterior The upper central disc of a sea urchin, \u25a0 Bract of the abdomen of insects. from which the ambulacra radiate. A modified leaf associated with plant reproductive structures. \u25a0 Chela (pl. Chelae) \u25a0 Aragonite The pincer-like end of limb of crustaceans A crystalline form of calcium \u25a0 Bunodont or chelicerates. carbonate. A condition in which molar teeth possess rounded cusps and tubercles. \u25a0 Chelicerae \u25a0 Aristotle\u2019s Lantern The biting appendages of spiders. The five-sided feeding and \u25a0 Byssal notch locomotor structure sited around The notch near to the hinge of some \u25a0 Chevron bones the mouth of sea urchins. bivalve shells, associated with In reptiles, the pair of bones, often fused attachment threads. to form a \u201cY\u201d, that hang below the tail \u25a0 Articular bones vertebrae. The bones incorporated in the \u25a0 Byssus articulation between the skull and The attachment threads of a bivalve. \u25a0 Chitin lower jaw in some vertebrates. A horny substance, forming all or \u25a0 Calice part of the skeleton of arthropods. \u25a0 Auricles The upper portion of a coral skeleton. The ear-like structure on a bivalve shell. \u25a0 Cilia \u25a0 Callum Tiny, hair-like structures on a cell. \u25a0 Avicularia The dome of calcite in molluscs. The defensive individuals in a \u25a0 Cirri bryozoan colony. \u25a0 Calcareous A tendril-like animal appendage; the Made of calcium carbonate; chalky. jointed thoracic appendages of barnacles. \u25a0 Axial boss The raised node at the centre of the \u25a0 Calyx \u25a0 Claspers corallites in corals. In crinoids, a cup-shaped structure to The specialized pelvic fins of sharks, rays, which the arms are attached; in plants, the and rabbitfishes. outer circle of a flower made up of sepals.","Glossary | 313 \u25a0 Coenosteum \u25a0 Dermal armour \u25a0 Facial suture The calcareous skeleton of a The bony plates situated in the skin A line on the head of a trilobite bryozoan and some corals. of some vertebrates. along which splitting occurred during moulting. \u25a0 Columella \u25a0 Dermal denticle The column that surrounds the shell\u2019s A tooth-like structure found in the \u25a0 Fenestrule axis in gastropods. skin of sharks. An opening located between the branches of a bryozoan colony. \u25a0 Columnal \u25a0 Detritus The stem ossicles in crinoids. Fine particles of organic matter. \u25a0 Filter feeder An organism that gains nutrition by \u25a0 Commissure \u25a0 Diagenesis filtering particles from the water. The line along which two valves of The process involved in turning a shell meet. sediment into a rock. \u25a0 Flagellum A whip-like appendage. \u25a0 Compression fossil \u25a0 Diastema A flattened fossil. The space between two types \u25a0 Foot of teeth. In invertebrates, the base from \u25a0 Condyle which the organism grows, or A convex articular surface in some \u25a0 Dissepiment by which it is cemented to skeletal joints. In corals, a vertical plate sited the substrate. between septa. \u25a0 Consolidated \u25a0 Foramen (pl. Foraminae) (of sediment) hardened and\/or \u25a0 Dorsal A small opening or perforation compacted. The upper surface or back. in brachiopods. \u25a0 Corallite \u25a0 Dorso-ventrally flattened \u25a0 Form-genus In corals, an individual polyp\u2019s skeleton. Compressed from top to bottom. A genus containing many similar species but which may not actually \u25a0 Cornua \u25a0 Elytra be related. A horn-like structure in fish. The modified anterior wings that act as protective covers for the \u25a0 Frontal bone \u25a0 Costae membranous hindwings in beetles. In vertebrates, one of a pair of bones Fine, concentrically arranged ribbing. situated in the skull. \u25a0 Enameloid \u25a0 Cotyle Mineralized dental tissue similar to \u25a0 Fusiform The concave articular surface in mammalian enamel. Tapering at each end. some skeletal joints. \u25a0 Entoplastron \u25a0 Genalangle \u25a0 Coxa (pl. Coxae) The anterior, median bony plate of the The angle between the back and The proximal or base region of a limb, lower shell in turtles. lateral margins of a trilobite\u2019s head. which articulates with the body in insects and some other arthropods. \u25a0 Epidermis \u25a0 Genal spine The bloodless, non-sensitive portion A trilobite\u2019s cheek spine. \u25a0 Cranium of the skin in vertebrates. The part of the skull enclosing the \u25a0 Girdle brain. \u25a0 Epiphyseal plate In chitons, the outer portion of The plate from which elongation the mantle; in vertebrates, the \u25a0 Cuticle (growth) takes place in a mammal\u2019s hoop-like group of bones that The hardened outer surface of the long bone. support the limbs. external skeleton of arthropods. \u25a0 Epiplanktonic \u25a0 Glabella \u25a0 Cyst The area of the sea from the surface to In trilobites, the central region of the A thick-walled cell in plants. about 100 fathoms. head; in vertebrates, the prominent front bone which joins the ridges \u25a0 Degenerate \u25a0 Epiplastron above the eyes. Not fully formed. One of the anterior pair of bony plates of the lower shell in turtles. \u25a0 Glauconitic \u25a0 Deltoid Containing the mineral glauconite, A \u201cV\u201d-shaped plate in the cup of a \u25a0 Epistome the presence of which indicates blastoid. The area covering the mouth and that a sediment was deposited in second antennae, and the plate covering marine conditions. \u25a0 Deltoid crest this region, in crustaceans. The projection of the upper arm \u25a0 Gonads bone for the attachment of muscles \u25a0 Escutcheon Sex glands. in vertebrates. A depression found behind the umbones of a bivalve shell. \u25a0 Gracile \u25a0 Demosponge Lightly built. A sponge with a skeleton possessing \u25a0 Evolute one- to four-rayed sponge fibres. Loosely coiled. \u25a0 Guard A massive, bullet-shaped calcite \u25a0 Dentary \u25a0 Exoskeleton structure in belemnites. The bone of the lower jaw in The hard outer casing of vertebrates. arthropods. \u25a0 Hadrosaurian crest A bony crest found on the skulls of \u25a0 Denticle \u25a0 External mould hadrosaurian dinosaurs. A small, tooth-like structure. An impression of the outside of an organism. \u25a0 Denticulate Serrated; housing denticles.","314 | Glossary \u25a0 Halteres \u25a0 Ligament pit \u25a0 Microconch The pair of structures representing Depression housing elastic structure The smaller form of a shell in a species in hindwings in flies. joining valves of a bivalve. which males and females differ in size. \u25a0 Heterocercal tail \u25a0 Lithological unit \u25a0 Microsculpture The tail of a fish with unequal- The name and\/or type of rock. Small patterns of ornamentation. sized lobes. \u25a0 Living fossil \u25a0 Montane climate \u25a0 Hinge plate An animal or plant species that has Hilly areas below the timberline. In molluscs, the portion of valve remained almost unchanged for that supports the hinge teeth; in millions of years. \u25a0 Monticule brachiopods, the socket-bearing A hummock on the surface of a portion of the dorsal valve. \u25a0 Lobolith bryozoan colony. A large globose float at the base of the \u25a0 Hinge teeth stem of some Palaeozoic crinoids. \u25a0 Morphology Articulating structures in mollusc The structure and form of plants shells. \u25a0 Locally occuring and animals. Found only at certain, specific localities. \u25a0 Holdfast \u25a0 Mould A basal structure that attaches a plant \u25a0 Loph An impression obtained from an to the substrate. A crest or ridge. original form. \u25a0 Homocercal tail \u25a0 Lunule \u25a0 Mucillage A symmetrical fish tail. A crescent-shaped structure or mark in A carbohydrate found in certain plants, the test of some sea urchins. which can be secreted. \u25a0 Hyoplastron The paired, second lateral, bony plate \u25a0 Macroconch \u25a0 Mucron of the lower shell of a turtle. The larger form of a shell in a species in A short tip or process. which males and females differ. \u25a0 Hypocercal tail \u25a0 Mucronate A type of fish tail in which the \u25a0 Malleus Ended by a short tip or process. notochord ends in the extended The outermost bone of the inner ear lower lobe. in vertebrates. \u25a0 Nacre An iridescent internal layer of \u25a0 Hypoplastron \u25a0 Mantle a mollusc shell. The paired, third lateral, bony plate of The external body wall, lining the shell of the lower shell of a turtle. some invertebrates. \u25a0 Nacreous Made of nacre. \u25a0 Incus \u25a0 Mantle cavity The central of the three bones of the The space between the body and \u25a0 Nema inner ear of vertebrates. mantle of a bivalve. The attachment thread found in some graptolites. \u25a0 Interambulacral \u25a0 Marine indicators The area between two radial plates, Characteristics denoting saltwater \u25a0 Neotony along which the tube feet of conditions. A condition in which development is echinoids are arranged. terminated at a pre-adult stage but \u25a0 Marl sexual maturity is reached. \u25a0 Interarea A calcareous mudstone. The flat area on a brachiopod shell \u25a0 Neural plate between the hinge line and beak areas. \u25a0 Matrix a series of bony plates sited in The material on which an organism rests the midline of the upper shell \u25a0 Internal mould or is embedded. of turtles. An impression of the inside of an organism. \u25a0 Maxillary lobes \u25a0 Neural arch A part of the mouth of an arthropod. The upper portion of a vertebra. \u25a0 Involute Tightly coiled. \u25a0 Median tooth \u25a0 Neural canal A tooth placed in the midline of The channel through which the spinal \u25a0 Ischium the mouth. cord passes. One of the paired hindlimb girdle bones of vertebrates. \u25a0 Mesial tooth \u25a0 Neural spine A tooth placed near the middle of The blade- or prong-like structure \u25a0 Keel the jaw. located on the dorsal aspect of a A raised midline structure that runs vertebra. longitudinally along the medial surface \u25a0 Mesoplastron of the shell venter in some ammonites. In turtles, one of a pair of bony plates \u25a0 Nodes forming the lower shell. Bumps or protruberances; in plants, the \u25a0 Labial attachment point of leaf stem. Pertaining to the lips. \u25a0 Mesosuchian A primitive crocodile. \u25a0 Notochord \u25a0 Labial spines A skeletal rod located above the nerve The spines situated on the aperture \u25a0 Mesozoic chord of fish. of certain gastropods. The second era of the Phanerozoic aeon, from 248 to 65 million years ago. \u25a0 Nutritive groove \u25a0 Lamina Food channel. A thin sheet or layer of tissue. \u25a0 Metamorphism A change in an organism\u2019s structure \u25a0 Nymph \u25a0 Lateral teeth during development. An immature insect, or, in bivalves, In bivalves, articulation structures the narrow ledge on the hinge behind towards the margin of the hinge. \u25a0 Metatarsal the umbo. pertaining to the bones in the ankle.","Glossary | 315 \u25a0 Occipital \u25a0 Phosphatic \u25a0 Prop-root A bone at the rear of the skull which Composed of phosphate, in fossils A root that helps to support articulates with the spinal column. usually calcium phosphate. a plant. \u25a0 Occlusal \u25a0 Pinnae \u25a0 Proximal The cutting or grinding surface of Small leaflets on plants. At or towards the near, inner, or a tooth. attached end. \u25a0 Pinnule \u25a0 Operculum A part of the fan-like structure of the \u25a0 Pseudopelagic The structure attached to a arms of a crinoid. Refers to the life style of organisms gastropod\u2019s foot, used to close that live attached to floating objects the shell\u2019s aperture. \u25a0 Pith in the sea. A spongy plant tissue (of plant stem). \u25a0 Orbit \u25a0 Pubic bone An eye socket. \u25a0 Planispiral One of the paired girdle bones in Coiled in one plane. vertebrates. \u25a0 Ornithopod A group of dinosaurs with bird- \u25a0 Plankton \u25a0 Pustule like feet. Weak-swimming or passively floating A small, raised mound or tubercle. animals or plants. \u25a0 Orthocone \u25a0 Pygidium The long, straight shell of a nautiloid \u25a0 Plastron The tail of a trilobite. cephalopod. The lower bony shell of turtles. \u25a0 Pyrite \u25a0 Ossicles \u25a0 Pleotelson Gold-coloured mineral composed of In invertebrates, the calcareous In crustaceans and chelicerates, the iron sulphide. bodies that make up the skeleton. plate formed by the fusion of tail plates with abdominal segments. \u25a0 Quadrate \u25a0 Ossified The bone that produces the Turned to bone. \u25a0 Pleural lobes articulation of the skull and lower The lateral parts of the thoracic jaw in some vertebrates. \u25a0 Otolith segments of trilobites. A calcareous concretion in a \u25a0 Radial vertebrate\u2019s ear. \u25a0 Pleural spine Diverging from the centre. The body spine of a trilobite. \u25a0 Palaeozoic \u25a0 Radula The first era of the Phanerozoic aeon, \u25a0 Pneumatic bone A horny or tooth-like structure 545 to 248 million years ago. In birds, the bones connected by canals located in the mouth of all molluscs, to the respiratory system. except bivalves. \u25a0 Pallets The burrowing structure of molluscs. \u25a0 Polymorphic \u25a0 Ramus A species with more than one form. A process projecting from a bone. \u25a0 Pallial line In bivalves, an impressed line inside \u25a0 Polyp \u25a0 Recurved the valve, parallel to the margin, An individual member of a coral colony. Curved backwards. caused by the attachment of the mantle. \u25a0 Posterior \u25a0 Reflexed Towards the rear. Turned backwards. \u25a0 Pectoral fin One of a pair of forward-pointing fins \u25a0 Presacral vertebrae \u25a0 Reticulum in fish. Part of the backbone in front of the A fine network. hindlimb girdle. \u25a0 Pedicle \u25a0 Rhizome A cuticle-covered appendage for the \u25a0 Prismatic An underground root-like stem attachment of a brachiopod shell to A shell structure of minute, columnar bearing roots and shoots. the substrate. prisms. \u25a0 Rock-former \u25a0 Pedipalps \u25a0 Proboscis Animals that occur in sufficient The first pair of post-oral appendages In insects, a tubular feeding abundance and frequency as to form in chelicerates. structure; in mammals, a flexible, the major bulk of a rock. elongated snout. \u25a0 Peduncle \u25a0 Rostral plate In some invertebrates, the stalk that \u25a0 Process One of the plates covering a barnacle supports most of the body. An extension or appendage to (also known as a rostrum). a organism. \u25a0 Pelvic fin \u25a0 Rugae In fish, one of a pair of fins placed \u25a0 Pustule Wrinkles on a shell surface. towards the back. A small, rounded protuberance, smaller than a node. \u25a0 Sacculith \u25a0 Pen The largest otolith in the inner ear. The horny internal skeleton of squids. \u25a0 Pronotum The back of the first body segment \u25a0 Sacral \u25a0 Periderm in insects. Associated with the hip girdle. A horny, cuticular covering. \u25a0 Pro-ostracum \u25a0 Sagittal crest \u25a0 Phragmocone The thin, tongue-like extension The median crest sited on the In belemnites and other molluscs, the in front of the guard in belemnites. posterior portion of the skull. cone-like internal shell that is divided into chambers by septa and \u25a0 Proparian \u25a0 Scale-leaf perforated by a siphuncle. A form of suture in trilobites that A tough, membranous leaf reaches the edge in front of the that often has a protective genal angle. function.","316 | Glossary \u25a0 Sclerosponge \u25a0 Stipe \u25a0 Tracheid A calcified demosponge. A branch supporting a colony of An elongate plant cell with thickened individuals. secondary walls. \u25a0 Sclerotic ring A ring of bony plates around \u25a0 Striae \u25a0 Tritors the eye socket in reptiles Minute lines, grooves, or channels. Specialized dentine in certain fish. and birds. \u25a0 Strobilus (pl. Strobili) \u25a0 Tube feet \u25a0 Scute A cone-like fruiting body present on Tentacle-like structures found in sea The bony, scale-like structure many land plants consisting of urchins. found in reptiles. sporangia-bearing structures. \u25a0 Tubercle \u25a0 Sedentary \u25a0 Stromatolite A raised mound or bump. Not, or barely moving. A cushion-like, algal growth. \u25a0 Tumid \u25a0 Selenizone \u25a0 Sub-chelate Raised, swollen. A groove in a gastropod shell. Having a claw without a fixed finger, and a movable finger operating against a \u25a0 Tympanic bones \u25a0 Septum (pl. Septa) short outgrowth of the hand. Bones of the ear. A thin dividing wall. \u25a0 Substrate \u25a0 Umbilicus \u25a0 Sexual dimorphism The base on which an animal or The first-formed region of a coiled A condition in which the sexes differ plant lives. shell. in form. \u25a0 Sulcus \u25a0 Umbo (pl. Umbones) \u25a0 Shelf sea A depression on a shell\u2019s surface. The beak-like first-formed region of Shallow seas around land masses. a bivalve shell. \u25a0 Suspension feeder \u25a0 Sicula An organism that derives its nourishment \u25a0 Uropod The cone-shaped skeleton of a from food particles suspended in water. A limb on the sixth trunk segment of graptolite colony. crustaceans; generally fan-like. \u25a0 Suture \u25a0 Siltstone A line on gastropod shells where whorls \u25a0 Venter A rock formed from silt deposits. connect. In arthropods, the undersurface of the abdomen; in molluscs, the external, \u25a0 Sinus \u25a0 Suture (of ammonites) convex part of a curved or coiled shell. A cavity or recess in gastropods. The septum, often highly convoluted, separating adjacent chambers. \u25a0 Ventral \u25a0 Siphon Towards the underside. A tubular element used for the intake \u25a0 Symbiosis of water in molluscs. The mutually beneficial inter- \u25a0 Water column relationship between two different Water depth from surface to bed. \u25a0 Siphuncle species. A tubular extension of the mantle \u25a0 Weberian ossicles passing through all chambers of \u25a0 Symphyseal tooth A chain of three to four bones that shelled cephalopods. A tooth located in the midline, near the connect the swim bladder to the apex of the jaw. inner ear of some fish. \u25a0 Somite A body segment of a crustacean. \u25a0 Tabula \u25a0 Whorl A transverse septum that shuts off the One complete turn of a shell. \u25a0 Spicule lower region of a polyp cavity in some A spike-like supporting structure extinct corals. \u25a0 Xiphiplastron in many invertebrates, especially A paired, bony plate of the lower sponges. \u25a0 Tabulate shell of a turtle. Flat, table-like. \u25a0 Spinneret \u25a0 Zonal marker An organ that spins fibre from the \u25a0 Talonid See zone Fossil. secretion of silk glands. The posterior part of the lower molar tooth in certain mammals. \u25a0 Zone fossil \u25a0 Spinule A fossil species that characterizes A small, spine-like process. \u25a0 Tegmen (pl. Tegmina) strata deposited at a particular time The thickened forewing of certain in Earth\u2019s history. \u25a0 Spire insects, such as beetles. A complete set of whorls of a \u25a0 Zooid spiral shell. \u25a0 Telson An individual of a colonial animal, In crustaceans, the last segment of the such as corals, graptolites, and \u25a0 Sporangiophore body, containing the anus and\/or spines. bryozoans. A spore producing structure within a strobilus. \u25a0 Test \u25a0 Zygomatic arch A hard external covering or shell. In mammals, a bony bar located on \u25a0 Squamosal the side of the face below the eye. A skull bone situated behind the ear \u25a0 Tethys Ocean in many vertebrates. An ancient seaway which stretched from Europe to eastern Asia. \u25a0 Sternite The ventral plate in an arthropod \u25a0 Thallus segment. Leaf-like structure in primitive plants. \u25a0 Stilt-root \u25a0 Theca The aerial roots that help to support In graptolites, the organic-walled tubes trees such as mangroves. housing zooids.","A INDEX Index | 317 Acadagnostus 56 Betulites 307 coprolite 10 Acadoparadoxides 57 Bibio 78 corals 50 Acanthochirana 70 Bienotherium 262 cordaitales 301 acanthodians 210 Bifericeras 150 Cordaites 301 Acanthoteuthis 165 birds 256 Cothurnocystis 193 Acer 308 Birgeria 211 Crepidula 124 Acidaspis 63 Birkenia 195 crinoids 166 Acrodus 199 Bison 281 Crioceratites 151 Acrosterigma 108 bivalves 94 crustacea 66 Acroteuthis 161 Blapsium 78 Cruziana 42 Actinoconchus 85 blastoids 190 Cryptoclidus 234 Actinocrinites 169 Bositra 98 Cupressocrinites 167 Actinocyathus 52 Bostrychoceras 159 Cyamocypris 68 Actinostroma 35 Bothriolepis 196 Cyamodus 232 Aepyornis 257 Bourguetia 119 Cyathocrinites 167 agnathans 194 brachiopods 79 Cyclosphaeroma 68 Aioloceras 152 Brotia 120 Cyclothyris 84 Alethopteris 296 Bryozoa 36 Cylindroteuthis 163 algae 286 bryozoan limestone 39 Cynognathus 262 Alveolina 32 Bulla 132 Cyrnaonyx 271 Amaltheus 146 buying fossils 23 Cyrtina 88 amber 306 Bythotrephis 288 Cyrtoceras 134 Amblotherium 263 cystoids 191 ammonites 144 C Ammonoids 141 D amniotes 225 Calamites 291 amphibians 221 Calliostoma 118 Dactylioceras 149 Andrias 223 Calonectris 258 Danocrania 92 Apateon 222 Calymene 61 Dapedium 213 Aphaneramma 222 Campanile 121 Dasornis 257 Apiocrinites 173 Cancellothyris 93 Daspletosaurus 246 Arachnophyllum 53 Carcharodon 203 Declivolithus 58 Araliopsoides 308 Cardinia 107 Deinotherium 275 Araucaria 304 carpoids 193 Deltoblastus 190 Archaeocidaris 176 Cenoceras 138 Dentalium 114 Archaeogeryon 72 Cenoceras simillimum 139 Derbyia 89 Archaeopteris 300 Centroberyx 219 Deshayesites 158 Archaeopteryx 247 Cephalaspis 195 Desmana 266 Archeria 224 Ceratites 143 Dicoelosia 80 Archimylacris 76 Ceratodus 211 Dicroidium 299 Arctica 108 Ceriocava 37 Dictyothyris 87 Arvicola 269 Cetiosaurus 248 Didelphis 264 Asaphus 64 Chama 105 Didymograptus 48 Aspidorhynchus 215 Charniodiscus 43 Digonella 90 Asteroceras 154 Cheiracanthus 210 Dimetrodon 260 asteroids 186 chitons 114 Dinilysia 231 Asterophyllites 291 chondrichthyans 198 dinosaurs 245 Atrypa 84 Chondrites 42 Diodora 116 Aturia 140 Chonetes 83 Diopecephalus 244 Aulacophoria 86 Cimochelys 239 Diplacanthus 210 Australorbis 133 Cirsotrema 127 Dipleurocystis 191 Aviculopecten 98 classification 7 Diplocaulus 221 Clavilithes 129 Diplocynodon 243 B Clifton black rock 168 Diplodocus 249 Clymenia 141 Diplomystus 217 Baculites 160 Clypeaster 180 Diprotodon 265 Balaena 270 Coccosteus 197 Discinisca 92 banded flint 10 Cockerellites 220 Discitoceras 136 Baragwanathia 295 Coelodonta 279 Dolomedes 75 Basilosaurus 269 Coleopleurus 179 Douvilleiceras 147 Batrachosuchus 223 Collenia 286 Bathytormus 107 Colpophyllia 54 E Belemnitella 163 Compsognathus 245 belemnite limestone 164 Concavus 66 early land plants 289 belemnites 161 Concoryphe 17 Echinocorys 182 Bellerophon 115 conifer wood 303 echinoids 175 Belodon 240 conifers 301 Echioceras 155 bennettites 300 Constellaria 36 Ecphora 128 Betula 310 Conulus 180 Edaphodon 209 Cooksonia 289 Edaphosaurus 261 copal 306 Edmontosaurus 252","318 | Index Hemicidaris 178 Mammites 152 Hemipristis 206 Mammut 275 Eldredgeops 60 hepatophytes 290 Mammuthus 276 Elginia 226 Hesperornis 256 Mangyschlakella 104 Elrathia 64 Heterodontosaurus 250 Mantelliceras 156 Enchodus 215 Hexagonocaulon 290 Mariopteris 298 Encope 181 Hibolites 161 Marsupites 173 Encrinurus 62 Hildoceras 150 Mastopora 287 Encrinus 171 Hipponix 123 Mawsonites 43 Eoconus 130 Hippoporidra 39 Medullosa 296 Eosurcula 131 Hippopotamus 280 Megalocephalus 221 Epithyris 87 Homeosaurus 227 Megatherium 268 Equicalastrobus 291 Homo habilis 283 Meiolania 237 Equisetites 290 Homo neanderthalensis 283 Melonechinus 175 Equus 278 Homo sapiens 284 Meristina 85 Eryon 69 Hoplopteryx 219 Merocanites 142 eudicot angiosperms 307 Huntoniatonia 62 Merycoidodon 281 Euhoplites 156 Huronia 135 Mesoleuctra 77 Euomphalus 115 Hyaenodon 270 Mesolimulus 74 Euoplocephalus 254 Hydnoceras 33 Metaldetes 35 Euproops 73 Hydrophilus 77 Metasequoia 303 Eusarcana 73 Hymenocaris 66 Metopaster 188 Eutrephoceras 137 Hyperodapedon 235 Micraster 185 Exogyra 101 Hypsilophodon 251 mineralization 11 Expansograptus 46 Mixosaurus 233 IJK Modiolus 96 F monocotyledonous angiosperms 311 Ichthyosaurus 233 Monograptus 48 Favosites 51 identification key 24 Mortoniceras 157 Fenestella 37 Idonearca 95 Mucrospirifer 86 ferns 292 Iguanodon 251 mummification 10 Ficopsis 126 insects 76 Murexsul 127 Ficus 309 invertebrates 32 Myliobatis 207 Fimbria 105 Ischadites 287 finding fossils 16 Ischyrhiza 207 N Flexicalymene 63 Isocrinus 174 Foraminifera 32 Jeletzyktes 160 Natica 125 fossilization 11 Jobaria 249 nautiloids 134 Kingena 91 Neithea 100 G Kosmoceras 148 Neocrassina 106 Ktenoura 59 Neohibolites 162 Galeocerdo 206 Kuehneosuchus 228 Neptunea 128 Gallimimus 248 Nerinea 132 gastropods 115 L Neuquensaurus 250 Geochelone 239 Neusticosaurus 232 Geocoma 189 Laosciadia 33 Nipponites 158 geological time 14 Leithia 268 Notorynchus 202 Gervillaria 96 Leonaspis 61 Nucula 103 Gigantopithecus 282 Lepadocrinites 192 Nuculana 94 Ginkgo 307 Lepidodendron 294 Nummulites 32 Glomerula 41 Lepidotes 212 Nypa 311 Glossopteris 297 Leptaena 80 Glycymeris 95 Leuciscus 218 O Glyptodon 267 Lingula 79 Goniatites 143 Linthia 183 Odontochile 65 Goniopholis 242 Linuparus 71 Ogygopsis 65 Goniophyllum 50 Liopleurodon 235 Olenellus 56 Goniorhynchia 90 Liquidambar 310 Onychiopsis 293 Graeophonus 75 Lirophora 109 Ophiuroids 189 Granosolarium 131 lissamphibians 224 Orthoceras 134 Gracilineustes 241 Listromycter 228 Orthoceras limestone 135 graptolites 45 lobolith 166 Orthograptus 47 Gryphaea 101 Loganograptus 46 Osmunda 293 Gyrodus 213 Lovenia 185 osteichthyans 211 Luther, Martin 6 Ostrea 102 H lycopods 294 Otodus megalodon 205 Lystrosaurus 261 Otodus obliquus 204 Halysites 53 Lytoceras 144 Oxynoticeras 145 Hardouinia 182 Oxytoma 99 Harpoceras 149 M Helicoprion 198 P Heliobatis 208 Macaca 267 Heliophora 181 Macrauchenia 273 Pachycormus 214 Heliophyllum 50 mammals 263 Pachydiscus 151 Helminthochiton 114 Hemiaster 183","Pachydyptes 258 progymnosperms 300 Index | 319 Pachypteris 299 Proliserpula 40 Pachyteuthis 162 Promicroceras 154 Stegosaurus 253 Pachythrissops 216 Protoceratops 255 Stenaster 187 Pagurus 71 Pseudocrinites 192 Stereosternum 226 Palaeocarpilius 67 Pseudoliva 130 Stramentum 67 Palaeochiropteryx 266 Psiloceras 146 Striatolamia 202 Palaeocoma 189 Pteraspis 194 Strophomena 88 Palaeoniscus 212 Pterichthyodes 197 Struthiolaria 122 Palaeophis 231 pteridosperms 295 Symmetrocapulus 117 Palastericus 186 Pterocoma 171 Synapsids 260 Palidiplospinax 200 Ptilodictya 36 Palmoxylon 311 Ptychodus 201 T Panopea 110 Pugnax 82 Panthera 272 Puppigerus 238 Taeniolabis 263 Paraceratherium 279 pyritization 13 Tealliocaris 69 Paraconularia 44 Temnocidaris 177 Paraisobuthus 74 QR Terebratula 93 Parajuresania 81 Terebrirostra 91 Paranthropus 282 Quercus 309 Teredina 111 Parasaurolophus 252 Rana 224 Teredo 111 Paripteris 295 Raphidonema 34 Tessarolax 122 Parka 288 Raphus 259 Tetragraptus 47 Pavlovia 148 Rastellum 102 Tetralophodon 274 Pecopteris 292 Rastrites 49 tetrapods 221 Pecten 98 Rayonnoceras 136 Thalassina 70 Pelusios 236 reference books 23 Thecosmilia 54 Pentacrinites 172 reptiles 225 Thylacoleo 264 Pentamerus 82 Reptoclausa 38 Titanohyrax 277 Pentasteria 186 Retiolites 45 Torynocrinus 170 Pentremites 190 Rhabdinopora 49 Toxodon 273 Perisphinctes 147 Rhacolepis 217 trace fossils 42 Petalodus 198 Rhamphosuchus 242 Trachyphyllia 55 Petalura 76 Rhizopoterion 34 Trachyteuthis 164 petrification 11 Rhyncholites 140 Triarthrus 57 Phalium 126 Rillyarex 133 Triceratops 254 Phenacodus 272 Rimella 123 Trigonocarpus 298 Phiomia 274 Riojasuchus 240 trilobites 56 Pholadomya 113 Rotularia 40 Trionyx 237 Phorusrhacos 256 Trisalenia 178 phosphatization 13 S Tropidaster 187 Phylloceras 144 Turritella 120 Phyllodus 216 Saccocoma 170 Tylocidaris 177 Phyllograptus 45 safety 18 Tylosaurus 230 Phymosoma 179 Sagenocrinites 168 Picea 305 Samotherium 280 UV Pinna 97 Sandalodus 209 Pityostrobus 301 scaphopods 114 Uintacrinus 174 Placenticeras 153 Schizaster 184 Umbilia 125 Placocystites 193 Schizoretepora 38 Unio 104 placoderms 196 Schloenbachia 157 Ursus 271 plants 286 Selenopeltis 60 Vaccinites 112 Platyceras 117 Septastraea 55 Varanus 229 Platypterygius 234 Sequoia 302 Velates 118 Platystrophia 79 Sequoiadendron 302 Venericor 106 Plegiocidaris 175 Serpula 41 vertebrates 194 Pleuroceras 155 sieving 20 Vestinautilus 137 Pleurocystites 191 silicification 12 da Vinci, Leonardo 6 Pleuropugnoides 83 silicified wood 305 Viviparus 119 Pleurotomaria 116 Siphonodendron 51 Volutospina 129 Polymesoda 109 Slava 94 Volviceramus 98 Portunites 72 Solenomorpha 112 Potamomya 110 Soliclymenia 142 W preparing specimens 20 Sperata 214 preservation 12 Sphaerexochus 59 Wetherellus 220 Primapus 259 sphenopsids 290 Whiteavesia 103 Problematica 43 Spiriferina 89 Wilkingia 113 Proceratosaurus 246 sponges 33 Williamsonia 300 Procolophon 225 Spriggina 44 worms 40 Procoptodon 265 Squalicorax 201 Productus 81 squids 161 XZ Proganochelys 236 Stauranderaster 188 Prognathodon 229 Stegoceras 253 Xenicohippus 277 Xenophora 124 Xystridura 58 Zeilleria 292 Zosterophyllum 289","320 | Acknowledgments ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The original edition of this book could not have been Janos Marffy for airbrush artwork; Will Giles and Sandra completed without access to the magnificent specimens Pond for illustrations; Andy Farmer for the illustrations in the collections of the Department of Palaeontology on pp.11, 14, and 15; Adam Moore for computer back-up; at the Natural History Museum, London, UK and the Ziggy and Nina at the Right Type; and Caroline Church for assistance of both the scientific staff and the members Endpaper illustrations. of the photographic unit. Dorling Kindersley would like to thank Ankita Gupta and Additional specimens were supplied by Matt Dale, Mr Wood\u2019s Rishi Bryan for editorial assistance in this edition. Fossils, Edinburgh, Scotland; Mark & Karen Havenstein, Lowcountry Geologic, Charlton, USA; Steve Tracey, London, PICTURE CREDITS UK; Vinnie Valle, V&L Crafts, N. Venice, Florida, USA; Hmad (Key: a-above; b-below\/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; and Hamid Segaoui, Segaoui Brothers Erfoud, Morocco and r-right; t-top) Moha Ouhouiss, Rich, Morocco. Finally, I must thank Charlie Underwood, University of London, UK; Emma Bernard, Photography by Colin Keates and David J. Ward except: Natural History Museum, London, UK; Andy Gale, University 13 Dorling Kindersley \/ Colin Keates: (t). 16 Nature of Portsmouth, UK and Martin Munt, Dinosaur Isle Museum, Photographers \/ Paul Sterry: (cr); M. J. Thomas: (bl). Sandown, Isle of Wight, UK for their encouragement, 17 Dorling Kindersley \/ Colin Keates: (tl); Frank Lane assistance, and advice. Picture Agency \/ W. Broadhurst: (tr); E. J. Davis: (cl). 22 The Natural History Museum: (cl); Dorling Kindersley The authors would also like to acknowledge the staff \/ Colin Keates: (bl). 23 Dorling Kindersley \/ Colin and freelancers (Susie Behar, Peter Cross, Jonathan Keates: (t). 25 Dorling Kindersley \/ Colin Keates: (tr). Metcalf, Mary-Clare Jerram, Gill Della Casa, and Clive 240 Dorling Kindersley \/ Colin Keates: (tr). 247 Dorling Hayball) at Dorling Kindersley, for their enthusiasm, Kindersley \/ Colin Keates: (br). 255 Dorling Kindersley \/ patience, and encouragement that made the original Colin Keates: (tr). edition so successful. For this revised edition, the author would like to thank Angeles Gavira at DK London and Dr David Ward is a Research Associate based at London\u2019s Hina Jain at DK India for their valuable editorial work, Natural History Museum. His main professional interests and Matthew Miller at the Smithsonian National Museum are the study of fossil sharks and rays and sieving of Natural History for his expert guidance. sediments to extract microvertebrates. He started his career in the early 1970s as a companion-animal Dorling Kindersley would like to thank the following for veterinarian but switched to palaeontology following their work on the original edition of the book: Susie Behar, a major dinosaur collecting trip in west Africa in the Jonathan Metcalf, Alison Edmonds, Angeles Gavira, and late 1980s. Since then, he has led or participated in Andrea Fair for editorial help; Ailsa Allaby for editorial numerous geological expeditions in Europe, the USA, guidance; Scientific editors Cyril Walker and David Ward; north Africa and the former Soviet Union. David\u2019s Cyri Peter Cross, Clive Hayball, Elaine Hewson, Alastair passions include education and outreach and bridging Wardle, Kevin Ryan, and Ian Callow for design help; the divide between amateur, commercial, and academic Caroline Webber in production; Contributors: Dr Andy palaeontologists. He has contributed to more than a Gale, David Sealey, Dr Paul Taylor, Dr Richard Fortey, hundred scientific papers and received awards for Dr Brian Rosen, Sam Morris, Dr Ed Jarzembowski, his work from the Geological Society, London, the Dr Neville Hollingworth, Steve Tracey, Dr Chris Duffin, Palaeontological Association, the Marsh Christian Dr David Ward, Dr Angela Milner, Cyril Walker, Andy Trust, and the Society of Vertebrate Palaeontology. Current, Miranda Armour-Chelu, Robert Kruszynski, Dr Jerry Hooker, Mark Crawley; Consultants Dr Chris All other images \u00a9 Dorling Kindersley Cleal, Dr Peter Forey, Dr Andrew Smith, David Sealey; Michael Allaby for compiling the index and glossary; For further information see: www.dkimages.com"]