Vertebrates Comparative Anatomy Abbreviated reference

Vertebrates Comparative Anatomy Abbreviated reference 1

Index The History of Anatomy 4-8 The relation between Anatomy & Art 9-20 The Nervous system of vertebrates 21-24 The Respiratory system of vertebrates 25-27 The Circulatory system of vertebrates 28-29 The Digestive system of vertebrates 30-32 The Muscular system of vertebrates 33-35 The Skeletal system of vertebrates 36-39 Anatomy in Islam 40-41 2

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The History of Anatomy The Beginnings 3rd Century B.C. Anatomy is the oldest scientific discipline of medicine. The first documented scientific dissections on the human body are carried out as early as the third century B.C. in Alexandria. At that time, anatomists explore anatomy through dissections of animals, primarily pigs and monkeys. Claudius Galen (129-199) is the most prominent physician in Ancient Greece whose conclusions are purely based on the study of animals and whose faulty theories on human anatomy dominate and influence the medical science until the Renaissance, i.e. for over 1,000 years. Although anatomy is not officially banned by the Church, social authorities reject the dissection of human corpses until the 12th and even 13th century. This is why anatomical research stagnates. A change in attitude towards the teaching anatomy only happens during the 13th and 14th century. However, teaching consists primarily of lectures from the canonical works of Galen—without verification through actual dissections. 4

Modern Age 15th/16th Century Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), today’s most well-known Renaissance artist and scientist, performs many anatomical dissections of human corpses that form the basis for his famous, highly detailed anatomical sketches. 5

Anatomical study of the arm, by Leonardo da Vinci, (about 1510) 6

From the 16th Century onwards The actual science of anatomy is founded during the Renaissance with the work of anatomist and surgeon, Andreas Vesalius. Vesalius describes what he observes during the public dissection of human corpses. By dissecting human bodies, preparing muscles, tendons, and nerves down to the smallest detail, Vesalius is able to prove more than 200 errors in Galen’s anatomical works. With his comprehensive scientific studies of human bodies, the young professor of medicine not only revolutionizes anatomy, but consequently, the whole science of medicine. During the Renaissance, the dissections are not only of interest to a medical forum, but also access by the broader public. This becomes evident on the frontispiece illustration for Andreas Vesalius’ 7-volume opus, “On the Fabric of the Human Body”. It shows Vesalius performing a dissection in a crowded theatre. 7

Modern Anatomy 19th/20th Century After the principles of human macroscopic anatomy —the study of dissected organs—is established. The field of anatomy becomes more specialized, and the microscopic anatomical realm opened up to anatomical scholarship. The public interest in anatomy does not wane for several centuries. It is not until the 19th century, when anatomy becomes a science, that the public is excluded from witnessing dissections. The BODY WORLDS exhibitions succeed in reviving a culture of public anatomy, inspiring millions of people to take an interest in anatomy. 8

The Relation between Anatomy and Art Art and science cannot be eluded; the one cannot exist without the other. One of the most obvious examples of this unbreakable bond is the relationship between visual arts and anatomy, encompassing illustration of the body for anatomists and the study of anatomy by artists. 9

Anatomical illustration is fundamentally important to the teaching and study of anatomy, and at least since the Renaissance, artists have recognized the importance of anatomical knowledge for their own creative work. Naturally, the basis of anatomy, is and has always been, dissection of human corpses, which though practiced by the ancient Greeks, did not become part of accepted medical research until the 16th century. 10

During the Middle Ages—a time when the vast majority of ordinary people were uneducated and superstitious—anatomy was based on a sprinkling of facts derived from Greek sources and a large amount of guesswork. The internal workings of the body were not explained by scientific theories, but by the influence of supernatural forces, spirits, and demons. The picture of a “Zodiac Man”, taken from a 14th century manuscript, demonstrates how doctors thought that the stars and the planets influenced the body. The Renaissance may be best known for its artworks, which certainly shaped the course of art history; yet, during this formative period in art history, one primary source of inspiration for artists was actually anatomical sciences. The population was becoming wealthier; the rise in prosperity generated an interest in education, supported the flourishing of the arts, and promoted scientific discoveries and new inventions. Traditional theories were challenged and doctors looked for a better understanding of the workings of the body; by the early 1500s, dissections were, thus, increasingly being carried out in medical universities around Europe. 11

Andreas Vesalius, born in Brussels in 1514, studied medicine in Paris where he became skilled in dissection. In 1537, he joined Padua University where he became Professor of Surgery, and in 1543, he published On the Fabric of the Human Body, which would change the medical view of the human structure. 12

Image of early rendition of anatomy findings 13

13th century anatomical illustration 14

Surgical instruments were invented for the first time in history by Abulcasis in the 11th century 15

An anatomy thangka, part of Desi Sangye Gyatso's The Blue Beryl, 17th century 16

Anatomy of the eye for the first time in history by Hunayn ibn Ishaq in the 9th century 17

Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt –  Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer, 1617 18

One of the large, detailed illustrations in Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica 16th century, marking the rebirth of anatomy 19

A dissected body, lying prone on a table, by Charles Landseer 20

The nervous system of  vertebrates The nervous system of vertebrates has two main divisions: the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which in humans includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and the autonomic, or involuntary, nervous system. Anatomic structures such as the nervous system are described according to their position. In four-legged animals the upper (back) surface is called dorsal and the lower (belly) surface ventral. The terms anterior, cranial, cephalic, and rostral refer to the head end of the body, posterior and caudal to the tail end. In humans, since they stand erect, the situation is more complicated: dorsal becomes equivalent to posterior, and ventral is the same as anterior; cranial is often called superior, and caudal inferior. Objects near the middle plane of the body are medial and those farther away are lateral. Proximal refers to structures nearest the central bulk of a structure and distal to ones away from it. In referring to another structure, if it is located on the same side of the body, it is known as ipsilateral; if it is on the opposite side, it is contralateral. 21

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The respiratory system of  vertebrates The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide. The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and exhale (breathe out), it: A. Allows you to talk and to smell. B. Brings air to body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level your body needs. C. Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body. D. Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale. E. Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants The operculum or gill cover of a pike has been pulled open to expose the gill arches bearing filaments. 25

The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe. Each group of parts has many separate components. Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that includes your: Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory system. Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and humidity of the air you inhale. Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe). Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs. Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung. Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood. From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues. Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the bones and muscles in the respiratory system include your: Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body. Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include: Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli. Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide. Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs – three lobes in the right lung and two in the left lung. Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the chest wall. Some of the other components of your respiratory system include: Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of your airways. Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to keep food and liquids out of your airway. Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when air moves in and out. 26

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The Circulatory system of  vertebrates All vertebrates have circulatory systems based on a common plan, and so vertebrate systems show much less variety than do those of invertebrates. Although it is impossible to trace the evolution of the circulatory system by using fossils (because blood vessels do not fossilize as do bones and teeth), it is possible to theorize on its evolution by studying different groups of vertebrates and their developing embryos. Many of the variations from the common plan are related to the different requirements of living in water and on land. 28

Multicellular animals do not have most of their cells in contact with the external environment and so have developed circulatory systems to transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Components of the circulatory system include A. blood: a connective tissue of liquid plasma and cells B. heart: a muscular pump to move the blood C. blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins that deliver blood to all tissues There are several types of circulatory systems. The open circulatory system is common to molluscs and arthropods. Open circulatory systems (evolved in insects, mollusks and other invertebrates) pump blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory system between cells. Blood is pumped by a heart into the body cavities, where tissues are surrounded by the blood. The resulting blood flow is sluggish. The vertebrate cardiovascular system includes a heart, which is a muscular pump that contracts to propel blood out to the body through arteries, and a series of blood vessels. The upper chamber of the heart, the atrium (pl. atria), is where the blood enters the heart. Passing through a valve, blood enters the lower chamber, the ventricle. Contraction of the ventricle forces blood from the heart through an artery. The heart muscle is composed of cardiac muscle cells. 29

The Digestive system of  vertebrates Vertebrates have evolved more complex digestive systems to adapt to their dietary needs. Some animals have a single stomach, while others have multi-chambered stomachs. Birds have developed a digestive system adapted to eating un-masticated (un-chewed) food. A. Monogastric animals have a single stomach that secretes enzymes to break down food into smaller particles; additional gastric juices are produced by the liver, salivary glands, and pancreas to assist with the digestion of food. B. The avian digestive system has a mouth (beak), crop (for food storage), and gizzard (for breakdown), as well as a two-chambered stomach consisting of the proventriculus, which releases enzymes, and the true stomach, which finishes the breakdown. C. Ruminants, such as cows and sheep, are those animals that have four stomachs; they eat plant matter and have symbiotic bacteria living within their stomachs to help digest cellulose. D. Pseudo-ruminants (such as camels and alpacas) are similar to ruminants, but have a three- chambered stomach; the symbiotic bacteria that help them to break down cellulose is found in the cecum, a chamber close to the large intestine. 30

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The Muscular system of  vertebrates The muscular system is the biological system of humans that produces movement. The muscular system, in vertebrates, is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles, like cardiac muscle, can be completely autonomous. Muscle is contractile tissue and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Its function is to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Much of muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought and is necessary for survival, like the contraction of the heart or peristalsis, which pushes food through the digestive system. Voluntary muscle contraction is used to move the body and can be finely controlled, such as movements of the finger or gross movements like those of the biceps and triceps. 33

A. Smooth muscle or “involuntary muscle” consists of spindle shaped muscle cells found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder, and blood vessels. Smooth muscle cells contain only one nucleus and no striations. B. Cardiac muscle is also an “involuntary muscle” but it is striated in structure and appearance. Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells contain only one nucleus. Cardiac muscle is found only within the heart. C. Skeletal muscle or “voluntary muscle” is anchored by tendons to the bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei peripherally located. Skeletal muscle is called ‘striated’ because of the longitudinally striped appearance under light microscopy. Functions of the skeletal muscle include: 1. Support of the body 2. Aids in bone movement 3. Helps maintain a constant temperature throughout the body 4. Assists with the movement of cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels through contractions 5. Protection of internal organs and contributing to joint stability Cardiac and skeletal muscle are striated in that they contain sarcomeres and are packed into highly-regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has neither. Striated muscle is often used in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions. 34

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The Skeletal system of  vertebrates A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the movement of an organism. There are three different skeleton designs that fulfill these functions: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton. 36

Hydrostatic skeleton  Hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton formed by a fluid- filled compartment within the body, called the coelom. The organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression. This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of the organism. This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates Movement in a hydrostatic skeleton is provided by muscles that surround the coelom. The muscles in a hydrostatic skeleton contract to change the shape of the coelom; the pressure of the fluid in the coelom produces movement. For example, earthworms move by waves of muscular contractions of the skeletal muscle of the body wall hydrostatic skeleton, called peristalsis, which alternately shorten and lengthen the body. Lengthening the body extends the anterior end of the organism. Most organisms have a mechanism to fix themselves in the substrate. Shortening the muscles then draws the posterior portion of the body forward. Although a hydrostatic skeleton is well-suited to invertebrate organisms such as earthworms and some aquatic organisms, it is not an efficient skeleton for terrestrial animals. 37

Exoskeleton An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on the surface of an organism. For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons (Figure 2). This skeleton type provides defence against predators, supports the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles. As with vertebrates, muscles must cross a joint inside the exoskeleton. Shortening of the muscle changes the relationship of the two segments of the exoskeleton. Arthropods such as crabs and lobsters have exoskeletons that consist of 30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a strong but flexible material. Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells. The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium carbonate in organisms such as the lobster. Because the exoskeleton is acellular, arthropods must periodically shed their exoskeletons because the exoskeleton does not grow as the organism grows. 38

Endoskeleton An endoskeleton is a skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms. An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicules of sponges. The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues (Figure 3). Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It has five main functions: providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting internal organs, and allowing for movement. The skeletal system in vertebrates is divided into the axial skeleton (which consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage), and the appendicular skeleton (which consists of the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle). 39

Anatomy In Islam Human bodies have been a mystery to mankind since the earliest of creations.  The functions of its parts – from the intricacies of its hands and feet to the mission of the heart – have been in the limelight for centuries and advancement in this field is unyielding.  Medical sciences have taken an important part and we have become dependent on the theories found in our textbooks, many of which originated during the Islamic Empire. Our current understanding of the human body takes its root in its analogy with animal structures.  The Greek physician Galen is credited with shifting the focus from the comparison of animals with humans to the understanding of human structure and function as its own using the existing field of anatomy.  The early dictionaries defined anatomy as “cutting of flesh from the bones” or “the expounding upon a question and thus exposing an obscurity.”  Knowing the Islamic views on the sacrilege of creation, it is important to understand its views regarding dissection of human bodies.  As evidence dictates, there were no legal or religious strictures banning the practice for educational purposes.  Instead, many Muslim scholars praised the study because it demonstrated Allah’s (SWT) wisdom and design.  The human body was not only viewed as an anatomical structure but was also studied for it being one of the wonders of the world.  Ibn Rushd even stated, “Whoever has been occupied with the science of anatomy has increased his belief in God.” 40

Islam expanded on Galen’s anatomical writings with detailed descriptions and new observations.  Because he presented his materials in a theological manner – signifying divinity – it was well received amongst Islamic physicians.  Much of the Islamic approach to anatomy concerned the depiction of the human skeleton. Muscles, nerves, and arteries are among several of the Islamic illustrations.  Other illustrations included bones, nerves, blood vessels, cartilages, membranes, ligaments, hair, and nails. However, one development which had no previous origin was the anatomy of a pregnant woman, which was first depicted by Ibn Ilyas. It demonstrated an “oval gravid uterus having the foetus in a breech or transverse position.” Another notable scholar is Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, who developed a description of the bones of the lower jaw and the sacrum in 1200 AD. One of the Muslims’ most profound contributions to anatomy was the determination of the movement of blood through the lungs by the Syrian physician Ibn al-Nafis in 1242 AD.  His description of the blood movement was distinctive from Galen who illustrated a passage connecting the ventricles. However, Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the blood in the right ventricle of the heart must reach the left ventricle through the lungs.  This formulation of the pulmonary circulation was made three centuries before that of the first Europeans, Michael Servetus and Realdo Colombo who were born in the 1500s. The Islamic Empire propelled the study of anatomy to greater distances with detailed descriptions and discoveries. Islamic scholars of the time brought the world closer to further solving the puzzle of the human body and its intricacies.  With every step in seeking knowledge, there is a reminder for the future from Allah (SWT) in the Holy Qur’an: “For every (revealed) tiding there is a term set for its fulfillment and in time you will come to know (its secret)” [6:67]. ﴾٦٧﴿ ‫ۚ َو َس ْو َف َت ْع َل ُمو َن‬ ‫ ُم ْستَ َق ٌّر‬ ‫نَبَ ٍإ‬ ‫لِ ُك ِّل‬ 41

Resources Savage-Smith, Emilie; Ming, F. Klein-Franke and Zhu,. “Ṭibb (a.).” Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2009. Brill Online. •  Gaucher EA, Kratzer JT, Randall RN (January 2010). \"Deep phylogeny-- how a tree can help characterize early life on Earth\". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2(1): a002238. doi:10.1101/ cshperspect.a002238. PMC 2827910. PMID 20182607. • ^ National Academy of Sciences (US) (1999-04-22). Science and Creationism. doi:10.17226/6024. ISBN 978-0-309-06406-4. PMID 251014 03. • ^ Blits KC (April 1999). \"Aristotle: form, function, and comparative anatomy\". The Anatomical Record. 257 (2): 58–63. doi:10.1002/ (SICI)1097-0185(19990415)257:2<58::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2- I. PMID 10321433. • ^ Bean, Jacob; Stampfle, Felice (1965). Drawings from New York Collections I: The Italian Renaissance. Greenwich, CT: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 28. • ^ Gudger EW (1934). \"The Five Great Naturalists of the Sixteenth Century: Belon, Rondelet, Salviani, Gesner and Aldrovandi: A Chapter in the History of Ichthyology\". Isis. 22(1): 21–40. doi:10.1086/346870. • ^ Mesquita ET, Souza Júnior CV, Ferreira TR (March 2015). \"Andreas Vesalius 500 years--A Renaissance that revolutionized cardiovascular knowledge\". Revista Brasileira de Cirurgia Cardiovascular. 30 (2): 260– 5. doi:10.5935/1678-9741.20150024. PMC 4462973. PMID 26107459. • ^ Caldwell R (2006). \"Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius\". University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from the original on 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2011-02-17. • ^ Kardong KV (2015). Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 15– 16. ISBN 978-0-07-802302-6. • ^ Hardison RC (November 2003). \"Comparative genomics\". PLoS Biology. 1 (2): E58. doi:10.1371/ journal.pbio.0000058. PMC 261895. PMID 14624258. • ^ Campbell NA, Reece JB (February 2002). Biology (6th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Benjamin Cummings. pp. 438– 439. ISBN 978-0-8053-6624-2. OCLC 1053072597. https://www.yourdictionary.com/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/ Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/ 34%3A_Animal_Nutrition_and_the_Digestive_System/ 34.1%3A_Digestive_Systems/34.1D%3A_Vertebrate_Digestive_Systems 42

A Special appreciation All the love and appreciation for the wonderful teacher who made us love this specialty and to explore it and delve into its seas, thank you for your interest in giving us the information we need to become pioneer scientists in our specialty and to give us all from your energy and love, thank you for your generosity and kindness, Dr. Mai All the love from you elite students. 43

This Abbreviated reference was made by : Heba Sfeeran Aisha Jaafari Renad AlQahtani Haneen AlSulami Rawan Bedair Raneem Bedair Raghad Sukkar This abbreviated reference does not contain everything that a scientist needs to learn, but it can be used for entertainment reading and general education in the comparative anatomy of vertebrates, the aim of the reference is for everyone to benefit from it and to publish the beautiful study on comparative anatomy. 44