Teaching EFL Writing: Scaffolding Instructional Theory and Practice

50 • According to Brown (2007, p. 392), process writing encourages the following principles: 1. Emphasizes the process writers undergo to produce a final written outcome. 2. Encourages students to analyze and understand their writing processes. 3. Allows a student to identify strategies to plan, draft, and rewrite. 4. Provides enough time to write and rewrite. 5. Emphasizes the revision process. 6. Enables students to discover what they want to express through writing. 7. Provides students feedback at any point of the writing process to meet their writing intentions. 8. Gives opportunities for peer and teacher feedback. 9. Encourages teacher-student conferences throughout the composition process. • Much discussion has focused on these different theories and their implications for students’ L2 learning, but scant attention has been given to how teachers actually teach, and learn to teach L2 writing in real classrooms (Hirvela & Belcher, 2007; Leki, Cumming, & Silva, 2008). There is a glaring gap between theories of writing instruction and actual practices of classroom teaching (Hedgcock, 2012). • Despite these learning advantages, some believe the process approach has its constraints. Researchers believe that a process approach fails to address important individual factors such as language proficiency, level of cognitive development and finally differences between first and second language that students carry while writing (Silva, 1987). Others believe that it does not prepare students for academic writing due to its focus on classroom context (Silva, 1987). • According to Horowitz (1986), process teaching gives students the wrong impression of how they will be taught and evaluated in academic contexts (Silva, 1987, p. 9). • Theory is mainly seen to be the work of scholars and empirical researchers, whereas practice is the work of teachers, many of whom may deride theory as irrelevant to their classrooms (Clarke, 1994; Hedgcock, 2012). Nonetheless, teachers are one of the most available supports that students can seek in their process of learning to write.

51 Task 7: Writing as a process Task description: Type of a writing: Purpose: Level of students: Writing a paragraph To write detailed reasons of why Grade 11 students stating personal reasons would like to attend an exchange program in Australia in a paragraph format. Objective: Students will be able to write a paragraph expressing reasons why they would like to attend an exchange program in Australia. Scoring rubric for writing assessment Criteria 4 32 1 Include a clear topic Include a weak sentence, relevant Include a clear Include a weak topic sentence, supporting details, irrelevant and a concluding topic sentence, topic sentence, supporting sentence. All details, and no sentences are on relevant relevant concluding topic. sentence. Most Paragraph supporting supporting sentences are off Structure topic. details, and a details, and a Most sentences lack either a concluding concluding subject or predicate. sentence. Most sentence. Some Include many malformed sentences are on sentences are on sentences. topic. topic. Paragraph has six or more All sentences consist All sentences Most sentences punctuation, of a subject and capitalization, predicate. All verbs consist of a consist of a and spelling agree with subjects. errors. Variety of sentences subject and subject and are demonstrated. predicate. Most predicate. Some Sentence verbs agree with mistakes in Structure subjects. Variety S&V agreement of sentences are are shown. demonstrated. Limited sentence structures are demonstrated. Conventions: Paragraph has no Paragraph has Paragraph has (grammar, errors in punctuation, one or two three to five spelling, capitalization, and punctuation, spelling. punctuation, punctuation, and capitalization, capitalization, capitalization) and spelling and spelling errors. errors.

52 Criteria 4 32 1 Transitions are Transitions are used Transitions are Transitions are used to showthe development to show the used to show the used to show the from one idea to the development development development next paragraph with limited from one idea to the from one idea to from one idea to effectiveness. Transitions next paragraph with a the the high degree of next paragraph next paragraph effectiveness. with with some considerable effectiveness. effectiveness. Writing task: Writing a paragraph expressing reasons Scenario: You are a Thai 11th grade student who would like to participate an exchange program in Australia, sponsored by the Australian Embassy, Thailand. According to the scholarship application requirements, all candidates are required to write a 50-word paragraph stating why you would like to study in Australia. Activity 1 Pre-writing What I know about Exercise A Australia Listing Make a list of what you know about Australia. List as much information as possible in only 2 minutes. Then choose ONE thing to write a short description about it below. ______________________________________ ______________________________________ _______________________________________

53 Exercise B Brainstorming To help you generate ideas before writing, brainstorm and write a concept map with relevant supporting details of reasons why you would like to study in Australia. Reason 1 Reason Reasons why I would like 2 to study in Australia Reason 3

54 Exercise C Write short sentences to make a paragraph outline using the information in the outlining concept map. OUTLINE Reasons why I would like to study in Australia I. Topic sentence: _______________________________ _______________________________ II. Body A. Reason 1: __________________________ a. explanation __________________________ b. explanation __________________________ __________________________ B. Reason 2: __________________________ a. explanation __________________________ b. explanation C. Reason 3: __________________________ a. explanation __________________________ b. explanation __________________________ III. Concluding sentence: _____________________________ _____________________________

55 Activity 2 Writing your first draft Exercise D Write the paragraph by following your outlined plan. Writing a first draft Activity 3 Editing Exercise E Take of a picture of your first draft and then stick it in the box. Then follow Editing the instructions below. Put a picture of your paragraph here

56 Instructions: a. Have yourself, one of your friends in class and a teacher evaluate your paragraph by using the assessment form below. b. Ask all of the evaluators to circle the errors, leave suggestions of how to correct them and make some comments for each criterion. A paragraph assessment form Evaluator: self peer teacher Items to be 4321 Comment and feedback evaluated Paragraph Structure Sentence Structure Conventions Transitions Overall evaluation / 20 points Overall comment: _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

57 Activity 4 Publishing Exercise F Write the final draft of your paragraph using the feedback and comments Writing given by yourself, peers and a teacher. a final draft Name: School:

58 Table 3.3: A summary description of genre-based writing instruction Genre-based writing instruction Background • Genre-based approaches to teaching writing started to appear in the late 1980s. The ideas started and have been used widely in Australia (Frankel, 2013). • Genre-based approaches to writing are based on a functional model of language; that is, a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the social constructedness of language (Knapp & Watkins, 2005, p. 9). • Text is seen as a social process (Knapp & Watkins, 2005, p. 13). \"We now see writing not just as a process taking place inside an author’s head, but as a collaborative act influenced by complex and interrelated social factors\" (Knapp & Watkins, 2004, p. 90). • Genre-based approaches to teaching writing highlight the importance of teacher- led scaffolding of collaborative writing to support students’ understanding of how language functions in different contexts and for different purposes. The main principle • This is an approach to teaching writing which focuses on creating authentic writing in school. Hyland (2004) contends that “[g]enre is a term for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use language to respond to recurring situations” (p. 4). He explains that “[g]enre adherents argue that people don’t just write, they write something to achieve some purpose (p. 5). The genre approach is more than just teaching writing in order to practice grammar or learning structure, it also focuses on context and audience. Hyland claims that “[t]he concept of genre enables teachers to look beyond content, composing processes, and textual forms to see writing as an attempt to communicate with readers – to better understand the ways that language patterns are used to accomplish coherent, purposeful prose” (p. 5). • This point of view is supported by Knapp and Watkins (2005), who write about the aim of this approach in terms of providing “students with the ability to use the codes of writing…effectively and efficiently. Without these codes the process of writing can be a frustrating and unproductive process.” (p. 17). These codes are the different genres; “processes such as describing and arguing…” (Knapp & Watkins, 2005, p. 21). Classroom procedures The classroom procedures are based on the Hyland’s model of genre teaching and learning cycle which consists of 3 phases: modeling a text, joint construction, and independent construction of text (I Wy, 2016). Modeling a text 1) The teacher chooses a certain type of genre writing in order to develop the classroom activities. In this case, type of genre must match with the students’ needs and market needs where they will work later on. 2) The teacher and the students discuss the text genre by modeling and deconstruction or even manipulating the text.

59 3) The students are directed and situated in order to know and understand the function of the text, the communicative purpose of the text. Take for example the genre procedure writing-the function of procedure and the purpose of writing procedure. 4) The students then, study the vocabulary usages of a certain genre procedure, grammatical or structural patterns of procedure, and then the students practice the procedure if necessary. Joint construction • In joint construction stage, the students start to do something more practical and operational dealing with writing. However, their work of genre writing is not writing at all because they modify and manipulate the text given. • The students are still guided and helped by the teacher before they become really independent writers of a certain genre taught and learned. As a matter of fact, there are three practical steps of how joint construction stage is developed and implemented. 1) The students reconstruct the certain genre writing given. In this case, the students may revise and paraphrase the vocabulary usage, the grammatical patterns, and textual devices if necessary by their own words. 2) The teacher continuously guides the students to discuss and order the students to remember so that they really understand well about the genre type given. 3) Before going forward to stage three, the independent construction of a text, stage modeling text and joint construction are important to review. Independent construction of a text • By having prior understanding and experiences of stage one and stage two, the students are ordered to write a certain type of genre as what they have learned before. • The students write a given genre type independently. • In this case, the teacher must be sure that the students really understand the features of a certain genre such as the communicative purpose, structure element of the text, grammatical patterns usage, relevant vocabulary usage, and textual devices as well. Benefits and constraints • The proponents of this theory often claim that genre-writing is the most efficient and modern way of teaching writing, since it creates awareness of both culture and ways of writing. The structure of a text is partly linked to the culture it is produced in; “…genre teaching as a means of helping learners to gain access to the dominant genres of our culture…” (Hyland, 2004, p. 18). • Besides this, the genre approach usually is presented with advantages such as being systematic, empowering and consciousness-raising. It is systematic since it “incorporates both discourse and contextual aspects of language use” (Hyland, 2004, p. 12) and makes the students aware of audience, textual variation and structuring of writing. The teaching is therefore “based on the ways language is actually used”. It is not just a matter of training students in reproducing forms of

60 texts, but offering students “a way of seeing how different texts are created in distinct and recognizable ways in terms of their purpose, audience and message” (Hyland, 2004, p. 12), • The genre approach is empowering because it provides EFL learners with “knowledge of the typical patterns and possibilities of variation” and allows them to “gain access to the powerful genres of mainstream culture, revealing why writers make certain linguistic and rhetorical choices and how to use these genres effectively” (Hyland, 2005, p. 14). • The consciousness-raising advantage of genre-writing is referred to by Hyland (2004) as follows: “genre approaches also have the potential for aiding students to reflect on and critique the ways that knowledge and information are organized and constructed in written English texts” (p. 15). • Knapp and Watkins (2005) support the model ‘Genre as Social Process-Model’ (24), developed by Kress (1987; 1993) and agree with Cushing Weigle’s (2005) view that language is seen as a social phenomenon. This model means that “forms of text (genres) are the result of processes of social production” and that “knowledge of the characteristics of texts and of their social place and power can and should form a part of any curriculum…” (p. 24).

61 Task 8: Implementing Genre-Based Writing Approach Activity 1 Building the field or Discussion Work in pairs and discuss the question 1. Have you seen any films during the 2. In a minute, list the types of film covid-19 pandemic? Did you enjoy that you know as many as them or not? Use the guided topics possible and write a title of film below to help you discuss. next to each type. FILM REVIEW Skyfall is one of the best action films in storyline casts acting locations soundtracks recent years. Released in 2012, it stars Daniel Activity 2 Modeling a text Craig as secret agent James Bond and Spanish actor Javier Bardem in the role of Raoul Silva, the You are going to read villain in this film. Contextualization Skyfall film review. Before The plot involves a genius computer hacker you read, circle pieces of who is an ex-spy. He wants to take revenge on the organisation he used to work for and James information below which Bond has to prevent this from happening. There are a lot of exciting action scenes as Bond pursues should be included in the him around the world. Can he stop him before it is too late? film review. The film is set in a variety of locations opinion of the film film’s strengths including Istanbul, Shanghai, Macau, London and information about the film film’s weaknesses (e.g. the title, genre and etc.) summary of the plot background detail about the film film’s ending the acting, the music and the special effects Scotland, which gives it a very international Skim the text and answer the atmosphere. Thesoundtrack is impressive and includes the theme song 'Skyfall', performed by questions: English singer Adele. The acting is also of a very Text analysis ‘How many parts are there in high standard and Bardem brings his character to the film review? What are life with a dazzling and memorable performance. they? Write your answers in I would highly recommend Skyfall, especially the space below. if you are keen on action films. It will have you on The film review consists of the edge of your seat until the very end and I am main parts. sure you will not regret watching it. Adopted from: https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upp er-intermediate-b2-writing/skyfall-film-review

62 Read the film review again and then analyze the vocabulary use and grammatical/ structural patterns used in each part. Complete the table Language Features below.Analysis Parts of the Vocabulary use Structures film review Part 1 ● What are the commonly ● sentence patterns: ___________ found nouns, verbs, words or ● use of tense: phrases in this part? ● other grammar points Part 2 ● What are the commonly found: ___________ found nouns, verbs, words or ● sentence patterns: phrases in this part? ● use of tense: ● other grammar points Part 3 ● What are the commonly found: ____________ found nouns, verbs, words or ● sentence patterns: ● use of tense: phrases in this part? ● other grammar points Part 4 ● What are the commonly found: ● sentence patterns: ____________ found nouns, verbs, words or ● use of tense: ● other grammar points phrases in this part? found: Activity 3 Joint construction Complete the sentences with the words below. Practice adaptation box-office delivered enhanced gross location miscast sequence setting twists unfolds 1. As the story __________, the pace of the action quickens. 2. The film is an __________ of Ian Fleming’s best-selling novel. 3. There is a car chase in the opening __________ of the film. 4. The film was shot on __________ in the mountains of Scotland. 5. Keira Knightley was badly __________ in the role of the villain. 6. An instant __________ hit when it was released, the film went on to __________ over $200 million. 7. After numerous __________ and turns, there’s a nail-biting finale. 8. The back streets of New York provide the perfect __________ for this film noir. 9. Brad Pitt __________ a fine performance in the leading role. 10. The movie is beautifully filmed and __________ by digital technology.

63 Put the sentences 1-10 in the correct parts of the film review. Parts of the film Sample sentences Practice review Part 1 ______________ Part 2 ______________ Part 3 ______________ Part 4 ______________ The exercises above are adopted from Aim High Student’s Book 6 by Tim Fella, Paul A Davies and Sylvia Wheeldon, Oxford University Press. In pairs, search for another film review available online and compare the similarities between the review you have learned and the new one by discussing the following aspects: Discourse structure parts of the film review vocabulary use recognition grammatical/ structural patterns Activity 4 Independent construction of a text Write your review (200 words) about the film you like or have recently Writing a seen. Use notes below as a writing plan before you write. Review Parts of the film review your notes Part 1 Background information about the film Part 2 A brief summary of the plot Part 3 The film’s strengths and weaknesses Part 4 Your overall verdict on the film and a recommendation

64 3.3 Lesson plan to teach EFL writing Lesson plan is the description of the why, what and how the teachers plan to teach their classes. The structure and layout as well as format of the lesson plans vary ranging from a memo short note to an official lesson plan. Lesson plans contain elements necessary for using as an evaluation of teaching and learning or evidence of the instruction that the teachers themselves and/or the school’s stakeholders can use them later for reflection, improvement of the instruction. The elements can be grouped into 1) the description of the lesson; i.e., title of the course and course code, name of the school, name of the instructor, class level, class time and date, name of the lesson or unit.; 2) the introduction part; i.e., the goal and purpose of the lesson or learning outcome of the lesson, the reference of learning standards or indicators, the content of the lesson, instructional materials, assessment and evaluation; 3) instructional steps; 4) assessment plan and criteria; and 5) a reflection section. For EFL writing instruction, the lesson plan may vary depending on the selected writing teaching approach, the purpose of the lesson and how the teachers plan on the tasks and assessment, and the time and facilities available. Task 9 is set up for reviewing and learning about lesson plans used by the pre-service teachers working at secondary schools in Bangkok. Please use the QR code below to get access to the lesson plans and do the assignment on the worksheets for Task 9 Lesson Plan 1 Lesson Plan 2 Lesson Plan 3 Lesson Plan 4 Lesson Plan 5

65 Task 9: Lesson plan critiques Instruction: Study the lesson plans for the writing class of the five pre-service teachers and focus on how these different teachers constructed and planned the writing lessons. Please tick ✓to state what aspects their lesson plans have and do not have and then write down some comments and feedback based on the above preview of the lesson plan. Checklist statements Yes No Comments and feedbacks Section 1: Lesson introduction 1. This lesson plan provides a section of brief description about the class regarding name of lesson, unit,topic, instructor, course and its code, affiliated department, semester, academic year, the number of students, level of students, allocated time, date. 2. This lesson plan presents the selected relevant standards, indicators and learning outcomes considered in teaching writing. 3. This lesson plan formulates clear lesson objective(s) which reflect on how students will perform the expected writing outcome at the end of the class. (both terminal and enabling objectives) 4. The teacher uses ‘can-do statements’ with action verbs in writing the lesson objectives. 5. This lesson plan determines the essential contents or specific aspects of language use that will be focused on during the writing lesson. 6. This lesson plan determines the identified areas of learners ‘attributes such as desirable characteristics, students’ morality, desirable result according to National Standard 2018, 21st century competences, common values and etc. 7. This lesson plan determines methods, tools, materials and criteria for

66 Checklist statements Yes No Comments and feedbacks assessment of students’ learning and the written product. No Comments and 8. This lesson plan presents selected feedbacks and developed materials and resources. Checklist statements Yes Section 2: Instructional activities 9. This lesson plan presents the roles of teacher and students clearly. 10. This lesson plan begins with the warm-up, getting started, or lead-in activities to activate students’ background knowledge of the writing lesson. 11. The instructional activities are well- structured by implementing steps of the writing instruction—pre-writing stage, during-writing stage, and post-writing) 12. The strategies and instructional activities designed for the pre-writing stage can engage the students and generate their ideas on the content they are going to learn. 13. The strategies and instructional activities designed for the during- writing stage can support students’ learning and scaffold their writing. 14. The strategies and instructional activities designed for the during- writing stage can help students organize ideas, write the target written product effectively, self-monitor errors,edit and finalize their draft systematically 15. The strategies and instructional activities designed for the post-writing stage provide guidelines on self- monitoring strategies to edit their own or peer writing.

67 Checklist statements Yes No Comments and feedbacks 16. The strategies and instructional activities designed for the post-writing stage give opportunity for students to feedback their own or peer writing. Section 3: Lesson conclusion 17. This lesson plan provides a section for writing feedback, reflection (strengths and weaknesses), comment and suggestion at the end. 3.4 Feedback and assessment in EFL writing Feedback is important for students in their learning process. In teaching writing especially, the work is tremendous when the teachers count on the time spent in providing feedback (Hyland, 1990; Hu, 2002). There have been debates and research findings have been inconsistent in the field of EFL writing as to the benefit, the type and frequency of feedback provision (Hyland & Hyland, 2006). The two opposing views for written corrective feedback can be roughly categorized and explain that those experts who did not support the written corrective feedback saying that this may demotivate the students as the type and the number of mistakes may be a lot (Truscott, 1996). On the other hand, the experts who support the provision of written corrective feedback substantiate their view that receiving feedback should motivate the EFL students as this is part is essential for their developmental learning of the target language ((Hyland & Hyland, 2006). Although there have not yet confirmed answers to such a debate, many EFL students expect some feedback in their process of learning to write in English. In providing feedback for writing, possible types of feedback when considering who give the feedback may be teachers feedback (teacher to students), peer feedback (peer to one another), and self-assessment (student reflect on their own work). Teacher feedback highlights what is working in a student’s writing and provides both scaffolding and support for aspects of the student’s text or process that can be improved. Peer feedback provides a level of support similar to teacher feedback, but it also teaches students how to read a peer’s writing and provide meaningful and constructive feedback. Self-assessments allow students to view their writing from the perspective of the reader, helping them to identify where they have been successful and where they need to rework text if others understand it.

68 Incorporating self-assessment and peer feedback may help the students learn how to provide constructive comments and what areas that they should focus on. The students need some training in order to do it more effectively. Have students provide feedback to their peers, benefiting both the students providing the feedback and the students receiving it. Students may be able to identify problems in peers’ writing more easily than they can in their own. Additionally, when students provide written feedback and assessment to peers, their comments and observations may enhance their understanding of their own writing. Have students work together in pairs to brainstorm ways to improve their writing assignments based on feedback received from the teacher. Developing students’ abilities to peer review and self-reflect are important skills for future employment, as well as deepening their own learning (The Higher Education Academy Feedback Toolkit, 2013). When providing feedback, use the student’s strength in one area to build on the area of need. For example, if a student uses transitions well in informational writing but does not use them at all in argumentative writing, highlight the transitions used in the student’s informational writing piece and show where transitions are needed in his or her argumentative writing piece. By providing specific examples, teachers can help students leverage their strengths in one area to improve their skills in another. Effective feedback should be produced for the student, with the student’s learning needs as the central concern. Examples of some elements included in a good feedback sheet suggested by the Higher Education Academy Feedback Toolkit (2013) might be: • A clear and logical structure so that students can 'follow' the message being given • A summary of the main feedback points • Reference to assessment criteria and/or Module Learning Outcomes • Comments on different elements of assignment structure • Information as to what has been done well, and why • Information as to areas which need to be improved, and why • Reasonably attainable targets for improvement – even for good work • Guidance as to how the improvements could be made • An invitation for comments / questions back from student To measure student’s writing ability, teachers often create scoring rubric or adapt one from a reliable source. There are two types of assessment used to assess writing: holistic and analytic scoring. 1. Holistic scoring The holistic scoring is an overall impression judgment on writing products. The holistic scale is a given a set of score (e.g. ranging from 0-6), with a set of descriptions. The raters simply match their impression to prescribed descriptions. According to

69 Brown (2004), the holistic assessment may look at the quality of the task achievement, organization, and grammatical aspect. Since holistic scoring is a fast evaluation, it gives very little information of the writing product. Therefore, holistic scoring is suitable for placement evaluation or administrative purpose. 2. Analytic Scoring Analytic scoring provides criteria evaluation of each element of writing product. Each element of writing aspects has its scores accompanied by prescribed description of each level of writing achievement. The common criteria consist of content, organization, cohesion, vocabulary, grammar or mechanics (Weigle, 2002). This approach provides more information and reflection on the strength and weakness of writing. Chinokul (2012) explains that to measure the writing performance of the students, the writing teachers should try to examine the quality of the student’s writing. This is known as ‘traits of writing.’ In L1 writing context, “the six plus one scheme” is often used. This consists of ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, convention and presentation. In the EFL context, the traits of writing are often cited based on Jacob’s (1981) scheme which evaluates writing in terms of content, organization, vocabulary, grammar and mechanics. She further compares the two lists (that of L1 and the one used in EFL context) and found that they are quite relevant. • The attribute of ‘idea’ and ‘content’ focuses on the message or main idea of the writing piece, considering whether it is interesting, whether the details selected to explain are accurate and extend beyond what a reader expects. • The attribute of ‘organization’ which appears in both lists are some considerations on the structure used by the writer e.g. text structures such as compare and contrast and how logical the idea is put in the writing piece as well as the extent to which the idea is presented. • The attribute of ‘word choice’ and ‘vocabulary’ refer to how careful the words are selected to convey the message in the writing piece. Therefore, precision, variation and accuracy of vocabulary employed by the writer are judged. • The attribute ‘sentence fluency’ and ‘grammar’ are to measure how the sentences hang together. How the transition and referents are used to carry the reader from one point of the text to the next. • The attribute of ‘conventions and mechanics’ are the use of language tools such as spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and other mechanics in the English grammar. The differences from the two lists are that in L1 writing, the trait of voice and presentation are added. For the voice, the attribute is the personality of the writer, as evidenced by the use of humor, personal connections, and a quality that allows the reader to recognize that the piece could come from only one person. It should be noted that these traits of writing are often included in the criteria in holistic and analytic scoring assessment.

70 Task 10 is aimed for the teachers to practice on providing feedback and assessing students’ writing production. Task 10: Feedback and assessment Activity 1 Type of assessment for writing Directions: In pairs, discuss which type of assessment will be more appropriate to evaluate and assess the 9th grade students’ food reviews. Give reasons why, and write down the topics you will use as criteria for assessment with scores. A Tentative Assessment Blueprint of Students’ Food Review Type of assessment:  Holistic scoring assessment  Analytical scoring assessment Possible evaluation criteria: The total is __________ points. - _______________________________ _______ points - _______________________________ _______ points - _______________________________ _______ points - _______________________________ _______ points - _______________________________ _______ points Activity 2 Assessment and feedback for students’ writing Directions: Study the sample analytic scoring rubrics to assess students’ food review. Complete the descriptions to missing parts of a rubric and then assess and give feedback to the reviews of Student A and B below. Criteria/ 3210 Scores Uses of The The The 1. Visual Aids information is information is information is ____________ presented in a presented in a presented in a ____________ creative way creative way creative way ____________ with eye with eye- but it is ____________ catching catching difficult to ____________ design. It is design. The read. The ____________ neat and easy work is legible work is not ____________ to follow. Use but could be ready to be ____________ good spacing. improved. shown to ____________ The review Words are not others. ____________ contains all 3 spaced well. The review components The review contains 1 - Pictures of contains 3 component food components

71 Criteria/ 3 2 1 0 Scores Content - Illustrations - Pictures of - Pictures of The content - Visual food food meets 1 Word Choice Decorations - Illustrations criterion. - Illustrations - Visual 2. _________ The content - Visual Decorations - Scoring ________ meets all Decorations The content review criteria. The content meets 2-3 - Scoring meets 4 criteria. - Convincing review criteria. - Scoring reasons - Convincing - Scoring review Reasons review - Convincing - Including - Including - Convincing reasons supporting Supporting reasons - Including facts and - Including supporting facts and details supporting facts and details - Name of the facts and details - Name of the restaurant details - Name of the restaurant - Use more - Name of the restaurant No descriptive than 4 restaurant - Use 1-2 or sensory descriptive or - Use 3-4 descriptive or word used to sensory words descriptive or sensory help reader to help reader sensory words to help understand the understand the words to help reader review. review. reader understand the - Use a variety review. - Cannot of sentence - Use mostly - Use only produce types. The simple short and complete and sentences are sentences.The simple meaningful complete work flows sentences with sentences. without smoothly more than 4 - No fragments. though fragments. connectors - Use - No connector used connectors to there are 2 used. - Ideas are not logically link fragments. - Some ideas totally related the presented - Use are not related or connected. ideas. connectors to to the rest. express ideas. An idea is not related to the rest.

72 Criteria/ 3210 Scores Grammar & 3. - 2-3 grammar - more than 3 - more than 5 Mechanics ____________ errors grammar grammar ____________ without errors that errors that ____________ interfering interfere with interfere with ____________ with meaning meaning meaning ____________ - Few errors in - Few errors in ____________ spelling, spelling, - Few errors ____________ punctuation in spelling, ____________ punctuation and punctuation ____________ and capitalization and ____________ sometimes capitalization ____________ capitalization interfering severely with meaning interfering with meaning STUDENT A’S FOOD REVIEW A scoring sheet for Student A Criteria Scores feedback Uses of points / 20 Visual Aids Content Word Choice Coherence & Relevance Grammar & Mechanics Total Overall feedback: ___________________________ ___________________________

73 STUDENT B’S FOOD REVIEW A scoring sheet for Student B Criteria Scores feedback Uses of points / 20 Visual Aids Content Word Choice Coherence & Relevance Grammar & Mechanics Total Overall feedback: ____________________________ ____________________________ Answer Key: The answers to Activity 1 vary. Activity 2: 1. The information is not presented in a creative way and the work is not ready to show to others. The review contains no picture of food, no illustration and no visual decoration. 2. Coherence & Relevance 3. - No grammar error - No error in spelling, punctuation and capitalization

74 3.5 Chapter summary The discussion in this chapter mainly focuses on teachers’ beliefs about EFL teaching writing approaches. The product writing instruction, the process writing instruction and the genre-based instruction were then described. With the chance to practice on how to critique the quality of the actual writing lesson plans as well as the practice of how to give feedback and assessment, it may provide the opportunity to learn some basic knowledge and skills required to teach EFL writing. 3.6 References Badger, R. & White, G. (2000). A process genre approach to teaching writing, ELT Journal, 54 (2), 153-164. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/54.2.153 Belcher, D. (2007). A bridge too far? TESOL Quarterly, 41, 396–399. Borg, M. (2001). Teachers’ beliefs. ELT Journal, 55(2), 186–188. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/55.2.186. Brown, H. G. (2004). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices. New York: Pearson Education Inc. Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. White Plains. NY: Pearson Education. Burns, A. (1992). Teacher beliefs and their influence on classroom practice. Prospect, 7(3), 56–66. Chinokul, S. (2012). “Teachers’ manual & Student Book for module 6: New perspectives on teaching writing for upper secondary education level” Thai Khem Khang Project. Faculty of Education: Chulalongkorn University. Clarke, M. A. (1994). The dysfunctions of the theory/practice discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 9–26. Cumming, A. (1989). Student teachers’ conceptions of curriculum: Towards an understanding oflanguage teacher development. TESL Canada Journal, 7, 33– 51. Cushing Weigle, S. (2005). Second Language Writing Expertise. In Johnson, K. (Ed.), Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching. (pp.128-149). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Frankel K.K. (2013). Revisiting the Role of Explicit Genre Instruction in the Classroom, Journal of Education, 193 (1), 17-30. Hedgcock, J.S. (2012). Second language writing processes among adolescent and adult learners.Writing: A Mosaic of New Perspectives. In Grigorenko, E.L., Mambrino, E. & Preiss, D.D. (Eds), New York: Psychology Press Taylor & Francs Group. 221-239. Hedge, T. (2002). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom (pp. 14-100). Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Hirvela, A., & Belcher, D. (2007). Writing scholars as teacher educators: Exploring writing teacher education. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16, 125–128.

75 Horowitz, D.M. (1986). What professors actually require: Academic tasks for the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 20(3), 445-462. Hu, G. (2002). Potential cultural resistance to pedagogical imports: The case of communicative language teaching in China. Language Culture and Curriculum, 15(2),93-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310208666636 Hyland, K. (1990). Providing productive feedback. ELT Journal, 44(4), 279-285. Hyland, K. (2003). Second languagewWriting. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. Hyland, K. (2004). Genre and second language writing. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (2006a). Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and Issues. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1-19. Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006b). Feedback on second language writing. Language Teaching, 39(2), 83–101. https://doi.org/doi:10.1017/S0261444806003399 I Wy, D. (2016). Genre-based approach: What and how to teach and to learn writing. English Language Teaching, 9(9), 45-51. Jacobs, H. L. S. A. Zinkgraf, D.R. Warmouth, V.F. Hartfiel & J.B. Hughey (1981). Testing ESL composition: A practical approach. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers. Johnson, K. (1994). The emerging beliefs and instructional practices of pre-service English as Second Language teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(4), 439-452. Knapp, P. & Watkins, M. (2005). Genre, text, grammar: Technologies for teaching and assessing writing. University of New South, Wales Press Ltd. Kress, G. (1987). Genre in a social theory of language: A reply to John Dixon. In I. Reid (Ed.), Theplace of genre in learning: Current debates (pp. 35–45). Melbourne, AU: Deakin University: Centre for Studies in Literary Education. Kress, G. (1993). Genre as social process. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing (pp. 22–37). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Kroll, B. (2003). Introduction: Teaching the next generation of second language writers. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Exploring the dynamics of second language writing (pp. 1–10). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Leki, I., Cumming, A. & Silva, T. (2008). A synthesis of research on second language writing in English. London: Routledge. Li Wai Shing, J. (1992). A process approach to feedback in writing. Perspectives, 4(1), 47- 65. Liu, J. & Hansen, J. (2002) Peer Response in Second Language Writing Classrooms. USA: The University of Michigan Press. Matsuda, P. K., & Silva, T. (2010). Writing. In N. Schmitt (Ed.). An introduction to applied linguistics (2nd ed.) (pp. 232–246). London: Hodder Education. Nguyen. (2021). An exploration into Thai preservice teachers’ views, challenges, preparation and expectation in learning to teach English writing. TESOL International Journal, 16(5), 112-142.)

76 Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332. Seow, A. (2002) “The writing process and process writing”. In Richards, J. and Renandya, W. (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 315-320. Shannon, J. (1994). TESOL´s process vs. product debate. Available: ERIC Document 375 626. Silva, T. (1987) ESL Composition: An historical Perspective. Available: ERIC document: 282 442 Tagle, T., Diaz, C., Briesmaster, M., Ortiz, M., Ubilla, L. & Etchegaray, P. (2017). Pre-service EFL teachers’ beliefs about teaching writing: A case study in two Chilean universities. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 14(2), 187-200. Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language Learning, 46(2), 327-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 1770.1996.tb01238.x Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yero, J. L. (2002). Teaching in mind: How teacher thinking shapes education. MT: Hamilton. Zamel, V. (1983). The composing processes of advanced ESL students. Six case studies. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 165-188.

77 Chapter Four: Sociocultural Theory and the Notion of Scaffolding as a Solution for the Challenges from the Three Corners of EFL Writing Instruction 4.1 Introduction The main emphasis of this chapter is to provide the pre-service and in-service teachers with fundamental grounds of scaffolding in instructional context, namely design-in, contingent support, fading, and transfer of responsibility, as a solution for the challenges from the three corners of EFL writing instruction discussed in Chapter 1-3 of this book and since the clarity of how the language teachers will apply the above mentioned scaffolding elements still remains elusive in terms of instructional implementation, I intend to propose the suggested instructional design for classroom application in order to foster the EFL secondary school students’ English writing ability and understandings regarding writing conventions, and linguistic and rhetorical knowledge. I begins with conceptualizing the notion of scaffolding employed in EFL writing context from the sociocultural theory and discussing about the design-in scaffolding at macro level which are considered as the explicit program or unit-planning strategies to prompt the previous learning experience and content knowledge of students at the beginning of any unit of work. The readers of this book will make some senses of the writing unit preparation with examples from the advertisement poster writing task. Then, I will demonstrate the implementation of contingent support, fading, and transfer of responsibility in accordance with my proposed scaffolded writing instructional framework. 4.2 Conceptualize the notion of scaffolding employed in EFL writing context from the sociocultural theory Theorizing scaffolding Scaffolding is the term that was firstly coined and introduced by Wood et al. (1976), but later became famous when Vygotsky (1978) introduced the scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy. The explanation of the concepts was based on his sociocultural theory and his concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky’s belief suggests that when the tasks are given to students within the ZPD and if they are providing appropriate assistance, the students will be able to achieve the goals of the tasks. This appropriate assistance was mentioned later in the literatures as

78 “scaffolding instruction” (1987). Vygotsky explains how scaffolding works within the ZPD as follows: Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development. When it does, it impels or awakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 212) The zone of proximal development can lead scholars to think of “a shared space in which the student operates in collaboration with others to solve the tasks”. Students will learn through discussion and “puzzling through” (Donato, 2000, p.31). Through a shared and support activity and with appropriate assistance from peers and teachers, the students can learn to do a similar task independently later. Van Lier (2004) proposes an expand scaffolding (Figure 4.1) that the students have at least four sources available for them to learn within the zone of proximal development. Figure 4.1: An expand scaffolding (Van Lier, 2004) In the expand scaffolding, Van Lier (2004) proposed that the students could be assisted in many ways: 1) learning from an expert, when the students receive guidance, advice and modelling; 2) co-constructing knowledge in group collaborating with other students; 3) learning and sharing the information in assisting lower-level students when they have an opportunity to study together; and 4) learning by themselves when working alone and internalized practices and strategies as well as resources.

79 The scaffolding instruction based on the above explanation is convincing in classroom application; however, what often lack from the previous studies is how to provide support so-called contingency, when to withdraw or fading and how to transfer the responsibility from the teacher to the students. In addition, how can teachers design inspiring activities to scaffold the EFL students so as they can motivate to learn how to improve their learning to writing in English. 4.3 Design-in support in scaffolding learning environments Scaffolding at the macro ‘designed-in’ level foregrounds the notion that macro- scaffolding is consciously planned by teachers, coined by the term designed-in (Sharpe, 2001). It is the aim of macro scaffolding to establish a concise and effective foundation from which teachers can assess an EFL students’ current knowledge, English language ability, and the goals of the curriculum and use this information as a means to enable teachers to build their students’ common knowledge of curriculum content and associate more specific meaning relevant to a particular discipline. As part of the designed-in scaffolding, task sequencing plays an important role in which each task serves as a building block for the next, and so on. Thus, allowing students to progress towards a deeper understanding of more demanding concepts as well as gaining confidence within their ability as an EFL learner. According to Hammond and Gibbons (2005) the scaffolding contains 8 integral key features as follows: 1) student’s prior knowledge and experience 2) selection of tasks 3) sequencing of tasks 4) participant structures 5) semiotic systems 6) mediational texts 7) metalinguistic and 8) metacognitive awareness From the aforementioned ‘knowledge diagnosis’ and 1 ‘task selection and sequencing’ follows participant structures in which the nature of the task and scaffolding within it determines whether the teacher chooses to adopt an individual, pair, group or whole class structure. The use of semiotic systems allows teachers to support students in developing knowledge of concepts or tasks through the provision of access to similar information from a range of sources such as, the use of different systems of language to build upon a particular concept. Additional semiotic systems: visual and aural supports such as, the use of videos and films are used by the teacher. Mediational texts and artefacts are pivotal across sequences of lessons in that, they structure or mediate student learning and become an important point of reference within a unit of work. The final key feature is the development of multilinguistic and metacognitive awareness through which the teacher recognizes the importance of

80 language learning and deliberately focuses on language teaching as an integral part of the curriculum content. Table 4.1: An example of designed-in scaffolding unit planning blueprint for teacher 4.4 Contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility Based on the Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) derived from Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, the notion of scaffolding has a number of implications which principally discuss the three requisite characteristics, namely contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility, stretched along the scaffolding flow in the classroom context to support students’ learning (Stone, 1998; Van de Pol et al., 2010). To have the detailed insight about this theoretical concept in terms of classroom application, it is necessary for the novice EFL teachers to understand these features as the following explanation. As widely referred from the work of Van de Pol et al. (2010), ‘scaffolding’ has three interrelated characteristics, according to Van de Pol et al. (2010): contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility. Contingency refers to the teacher's assistance that is adjusted to the student's current level of performance. As a result, a teacher must determine his or her current level of performance. Scaffolding requires students to diagnose their prior knowledge, which is considered a difficult task. (Chi, Siler, & Jeong, 2004; Van de Pol, Volman, & Beishuizen, 2011). When students receive support and their growth progresses, the support fades and a transfer of responsibility occurs.

81 • A brief summary of contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility as scaffolding support Before starting planning any of your lessons, as an inexperienced teacher of using scaffolding as a tool to support students’ learning development, the explanation of the three essential terms below will create the deeper insights for the further classroom application. Contingency Contingency or the ability to customise support specific to the learner, emphasises the importance of teaching strategies being based on, and responsive to, students' current understanding (Van Lier, 1996; Wells, 1986). It is characterised by how well the teacher is able to assess the nature and quality of assistance required by the learner and related to the way in which help is paced on the basis of students' developing understanding. According to Wood, Wood & Middleton (1978), contingency refers to adjusting support to the student’s needs. In order to do this, the teacher must diagnose the student’s current understanding before providing the support (e.g., Snow & Swanson, 1992; Wittwer & Renkl, 2008). The teacher’s support must be first-determined or modified to the current level of the student’s performance and should either be at the same or a slightly increased level. Clearly, it is mentioned in many articles in the field of sociocultural theory that a tool for contingency is diagnostic strategies, i.e. dynamic assessment (Lajoie, 2005; Macrine & Sabbatino, 2008; Pea 2004; Swanson & Laussier, 2001), formative assessment (Shepard, 2005), online diagnosis (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), or monitoring and checking students’ understanding (Garza, 2009). Only with such knowledge can the support to be provided be adapted to the student’s level of learning (i.e., made contingent). In addition, contingency control comprises modifying the degree of control or regulation in response to a student's knowledge; and contingency uptake entails the teacher's utilization of what students say. This idea is known as the contingent shift principle, and it is closely linked to the other fundamental aspects of scaffolding, such as fading and responsibility transfer (Wood, C.F., 1991). Fading Fading refers to the process of a gradual reduction of teacher’s scaffolding supports on particular tasks. When the teacher observes that his/ her students are able to complete the assigned tasks on their own, the supports by teacher will no longer accessible and completely remove. (Lajoie, 2005; McNeil et al., 2006). However, Van de Pol, Mercer, Volman (2018) pointed out that the untimely fading will affect the following indicators: 1) a lack of teachers checking understanding before walking away and/ or a lack of students demonstrating understanding at the end of the teacher-student interaction and (2) students’ frustration and demonstration of a lack of understanding

82 at the beginning of a subsequent student-student interaction. Clearly, it is crucial that scaffolding strategies provided by the teacher are required to be so well-planned that students will internalize the support independently for future task achievement without any support needed and also appropriately support students’ learning in each instructional step in order to advance their performances. Transfer of responsibility Transfer of responsibility refers to the stage when the students have more responsibilities in their autonomous mastery and performance on the assigned target task, until the expert's learning obligation is totally transferred to the student (Van de Pol, 2010; Pradita et al., 2019). Figure 4.2: Conceptual model of scaffolding proposed by Van de Pol, Volman, and Beishuizen (2010) In an attempt to put the theoretical concept of scaffolding revealed by many researchers in both fields of psychology and education into action, the following section will provide some ideas of how aforementioned scaffolding features are applied by the pre-service and in-service teachers so as to prepare the writing instruction. Moreover, the issues, including contingency in an instructional support and the effects of small- group setting promoting students’ uptake of teacher’s support will be discussed as additional distinctions supporting the students’ learning. • Contingent teaching Another key factor which supports all of the scaffolding elements is a contingent teaching—a classroom instruction in which the direction of the learning process is

83 determined by needs and responses of students. Based on Van de Pol et al. (2012)’s study aimed at designing a professional development program to promote contingent teaching, the scaffolding process model of contingent teaching reveals the distinct steps to contingently support the interactive nature of scaffolding in classroom associated with teacher-student and student-student interaction environment. (See Table 2) Table 4.2: Steps of the Model of Contingent Teaching adapted from Van de Pol, 2012 STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 Diagnostic Checking the Intervention strategies Checking diagnosis strategies student’s learning Gain insights Check whether Give actual Find out the into the the teacher support or help student’s new Aim student’s level understood the the student understandings of student in the after offering understanding correct way support To prepare a unit or lesson for any courses, the instructional activities will be designed in accordance with the model of contingent teaching which consists of the four essential steps: Step 1 Diagnostic strategies—the teacher will diagnose student’s current understanding and performance about the target task. In this stage, the teacher will primarily apply the diagnostic strategies as a tool to assess the actual level of students before learning. The diagnostic tools are as follows: dynamic assessment, formative assessment, online diagnosis, or monitoring and checking students’ understanding. (Lajoie 2005; Macrine & Sabbatino, 2008; Pea, 2004; Shepard, 2005; Palinscar & Brown, 1984; Garza, 2009) Step 2 Checking the diagnosis—this stage aims at checking whether the diagnosis from the previous stage is correct with students and helping teachers to provide the appropriate contingent supports to the students’ learning process. Teacher can easily sit in a circle with the students or use the online platform to discuss and give feedback from the results of the diagnostic test. Students will immediately know their current level about the target task and explore the linguistic needs to be improved for their further learning. Step 3 Intervention strategies—teacher will provide the scaffolding supports to assist students’ learning. Occasionally, scaffolding could be occurred in a number of adaptive forms, including small group works with contingent interaction, use of semiotic system (e.g. active engagement with interactive mediational texts, with peers via chat rooms), and use of scaffolding strategies (e.g. modelling, questioning, giving immediate feedback, giving of hints, instructing, explaining, etc.). It is obvious that this step seems to be the most important stage for students’ learning. If the teacher provides well-planned and meaningful support for students, they will actually transfer the

84 knowledge learned into their personal understandings, resulting in students’ future performance. Then, teacher’s scaffolding supports will gradually be decreased and eventually removed so as to promote learner’s autonomy. Step 4 Checking student’s learning— the teacher finds out the student’s new understandings and development after offering support. Teacher will compare the scores obtained from the diagnostic test with the scores assessed in the last step and then give feedback on their development and what else to be improved. To conclude, in scaffolding students’ learning, the pre-service and in-service teachers should take the model of contingent teaching into account. These steps will not only promote teachers’ scaffolding behaviour, but also appear to lead to fading, which can lead to transfer of responsibility respectively. • Small-group work promoting students’ uptake of teacher’s support Putting students to work in a small-group setting is one of the key issues proving that the quality of students’ interaction, i.e. teacher-student and student-student interactions, shapes students learning. In many research studies, it is shown that teacher plays an important role in providing contingent support to students’ learning process while participating in a small group work. In a group, the learning process occurs when the teacher provides the assigned task together with mediational text for each group of students to constructively analyze and perform the task by themselves. When each group of students has completed the task, the teacher will then walk into the group and provide a lot of regulation in response to students’ understanding by asking an open question or giving the answer, solution, and explanation. According to Mercer and Littleton (2007), the study revealed the application of exploratory talk or high-quality discussions stimulated by teacher as an essential tool providing high quality contingent support to student. As a result, it is obvious that during the interactional scaffolding in the small- group setting—the teacher has checked students’ understanding about their works to allow the group members to demonstrate their understanding, students will explicitly apply and integrate the information, feedback, and suggestion provided by teacher and also the teacher’s behavior and helping style into their further ongoing work. (Van de Pol, et al., 2018) 4.5 Applying the concepts of design-in macro and micro scaffolding support with the OTOP unit To illustrate the concepts of designed-in macro support in the unit-planning stage of the 10th-grade writing class and how the three scaffolding features— contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility—are implemented into the instructional design to reinforce the 10th grade students’ English writing ability, the framework below suggests the pre-service and in-service teachers with the practical application into the EFL classroom in action.

85 Figure 4.3: A framework of the scaffolded writing instruction in EFL context (a unit planning)

86 I will begin this section with providing the background information of the selected writing unit. This sample unit entitled “Thai OTOP—Our Pride, Your Indulgence” was designed for the tenth graders who enrolled EN31101 Fundamental English 1. The teacher chose the central topic of Thai OTOP, One Tambon (sub-district) One Product—a local entrepreneurship stimulus campaign which aims to support the locally made products or services of each sub-district all over Thailand, to design the unit of the writing instruction. By selecting the topic closely relevant to students’ familiarity, the students will simultaneously develop both writing ability and creative thinking skill. Figure 4.4: Thai OTOP—Our Pride, Your Indulgence Unit title: UNIT PLAN Thai OTOP—Our Pride, Your Indulgence Unit objective: By the end of this unit, students will be able to create an advertising poster with the use of persuasive advertising language promoting the Thai OTOP product to persuade the international consumers. Number of lessons: 5 lessons (3 weeks: 2 periods/ a week) Student grade level: Grade 10 (Mathayomsuksa 4) Indicators: F1.1 Gr 10-12/2 Accurately read aloud texts, news, advertisements, poems and skits by observing the principles of reading. F1.1 Gr 10-12/3 Explain and write sentences and texts related to various forms of non-text information, as well as specify and write various forms of non-text information related to sentences and texts heard or read. F1.3 Gr 10-12/1 Speak and write to present data themselves/ experiences, news/incidents, matters and various issues of interest to society.

87 Stage 1: Unit planning (Designed-in scaffolding at macro level) The teacher utilized a unit planning blueprint (See Table 4.3) as a tool in establishing the writing unit. After the teacher had completed the essential information of the unit, i.e. unit title, unit goal, indicators, and enabling objectives, he then primarily decided on tools for diagnosing students’ current level of knowledge and English advertising poster writing performance before starting the first lesson; as a result, the teacher can take the diagnosis as basis in designing this unit. Then, teacher created tasks to gradually support students’ learning how to write the advertisement poster of their created OTOP product and sequenced them according to the level of task difficulty. The sequenced tasks are presented as follows: - Task 1: Understanding the elements of advertisement poster - Task 2: Writing a slogan using persuasive methods and language - Task 3: Writing persuasive content to advertise the OTOP product After that the teacher considered the use of participant structures (Teacher chose small group for students to collaboratively construct the elements, language use, and content organization in the model poster.) which comply with tasks, use of mediational texts (Teacher chose four product-advertising posters as models supporting students’ learning process. See Figure 4), use of semiotic system (Teacher provided visual supports, e.g. posters and task sheets, as means to support learning process.), and measures or tools for assessing each task. Table 4.3: A designed-in scaffolding unit planning blueprint for teacher

88 Figure 4: Sample mediational texts that the teacher used in classroom

89 Stage 2: Scaffolding writing instruction By considering the application of scaffolding features—contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility—with the OTOP unit, the unit plan will be designed as follows: Table 4.4: OTOP Unit Plan Types of Materials/ Remarks participant assessment tools Instructional activities structures The teacher’s group work - the advertising understanding Step 1 Diagnostic strategies poster writing of the (period 1: 50 minutes) group work diagnostic test linguistic - Teacher has the students work (See Handout 1) demands of in a small group of 3 students group work - a writing students and administers a writing diagnostic report pretest to assess current level of for checking Knowledge of the students’ performance. students’ diagnosis the students - Teacher grades students’ (See Handout and of their written poster and writes down 2,3) current feedbackfor students’ further abilities and improvement. - a writing understandings Step 2 Checking the diagnosis diagnostic report (out-of-class activity) for checking Contingency - Teacher gives feedback on the students’ diagnosis of support diagnostic result to each group (See Handout occurs when of the students and points out 2,3) teacher assigns the criteria to be improved. the students to - Group members ask the - task sheet study in a teacher for suggestion and (See Handout 4) small group clarification of their found work. errors in their writing task. Step 3 Intervention strategies (period 2-3: 100 minutes) - Teacher activates background knowledge of students about the OTOP product by assigning students to complete activity 1 on the task sheet. - After finishing, the students orally share the possible answers to the whole class. - Teacher introduces a jigsaw activity to students and asks each of the students in group

90 Instructional activities Types of Materials/ Remarks participant assessment tools (home group) to number their structures - Careful heads from 1-3. - model posters sequencing of - Teacher has the numbered group work (See Figure 4) tasks designed students move to their expert to develop the group (3 groups) to study how - task sheet practices to write the product-advertising - model posters required to poster from the model, and achieve the gives a different model poster goals. to each of the expert groups. Task 1: Understanding elements - Use of of poster mediational - Teacher assigns the first text as a model task—understanding elements to contingently of poster—for each group to support collaboratively construct the students’ essential features of the poster learning of the on the given task sheet. target task. - After students has completed the task sheet, teacher walks - Use of into each group to listen to the teacher- answers, elicit students’ student understanding about the interaction as elements of poster by using the contingency of guided questions,points out the teacher’s errors, and gives feedback, and support to gives feedback on students’ create work. students’ - Students write down the uptake. teacher’s feedback and suggestion in the provided space on task sheet. - Each group uses teacher’s feedback and suggestion as guidelines in discussing about how to correct their task and eventually edits it. **Remarks: In task 2 and 3 which relates to writing a slogan using persuasive methods and language and writing persuasive content to

91 Instructional activities Types of Materials/ Remarks participant assessment tools advertise the OTOP product, structures A gradual but teacher conducts the class by - task sheet constant shift following the instructional step group work of responsibility from task 1 respectively. for task Step 4 Checking student’s completion learning from teacher (period 4-5: 100 minutes) to students. - After students have completed (Interactional all three tasks, teacher asks contingency) students to return to their home group and assigns a new poster writing task about the given OTOP product, “Sabai Arom”—Thai shower gel mixed with Siamese blossoms to each group. In this step, students will pair match - task sheet - Use of transfer the knowledge and - the advertising teacher- skills learned through the poster writing student and previous three tasks into their posttest student- group writing task. (assessing student - When students finish writing students’ interaction as the poster, teacher visits each potential level) contingency of group, asks questions to let support to students discuss about their create work, grades students’ writing students’ task, and gives feedback for uptake. improvement. - Students write down the teacher’s feedback and suggestion in the provided space on task sheet. - Each group uses teacher’s feedback and suggestion as guidelines in discussing about how to correct their task and eventually edits it. - Each group of students pairs up with different group to share your poster and listen to your

92 Instructional activities Types of Materials/ Remarks participant assessment tools friends’ presentation. Note structures down some good characteristics of other groups on the task sheet. ** The listeners are allowed to ask questionsaboutyourfriend’s poster. - Each group of students edits your work based on peer’s comment. - Teacher revisits the group to check students’ work and make comment on their final poster. Extended activity: Students are assigned an independent poster writing task about their creation of the OTOP product. Let students use their imagination and transfer the knowledge learned in their work

93 Handout 1: An example of the advertising poster writing diagnostic test Writing Advertising Poster Pre-Test Directions: Make a group of 4-5 students. Create an approximately 50-word advertisement for ‘Sabai-Arom’—Thai shower gel mixed with Siamese blossoms to promote the Thai OTOP product to the international markets. Your poster will be rated according to these categories (50 points): ● 15 points for grammatical structure ● 15 points for appropriateness of vocabulary use ● 15 points for using a persuasive language to create impact the audience ● 5 points for required elements and graphic relevance

94 Handout 2: A table presenting how a writing teacher will provide scaffolding supports for students’ writing development after being Number Names of Criteria for rating Current level of Scaffolding Developed Remarks group knowledge and strategies Level of English language members knowledge and abilities English language abilities 1 Students include all required elements of the advertisement poster. Students use a creative title in a form of slogan with persuasive methods or language. Students organise the meaningful content in appropriate style. Students use appealing messages to create readers awareness of the designed product. Students use accurate expressions, grammars, and structures. Remarks: The teacher will create more rows in accordance with a number of groups assigned in class.

95 Handout 3: A writing diagnostic report for checking students’ diagnosis Writing Diagnostic Report Name of patients: ………….., ………….., ……………., …………….. Name of writing doctor: ………………………………………………………………….. Diagnostic results Type of writing: …………………………………… Criteria scores Teacher’s feedback Students include all required elements of the advertisement poster. Students use a creative title in a form of slogan with persuasive methods or language. Students organise the meaningful content in appropriate style. Students use appealing messages to create readers awareness of the designed product. Students use accurate expressions, grammars, and structures. Handout 4: An example of task sheet Activity 1 Activating background knowledge “One Tambon One Product (OTOP) is a local entrepreneurship stimulus program designed by Thailand's former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra during his 2001-2006, aiming to support locally made and marketed products of each of Thailand's 7,255 tambons (sub-district) and drawing its inspiration from Japan's successful One Village One Product (OVOP) program.” Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Tambon_One_Product Directions: Find 9 pictures of OTOP products which are available in the markets from the internet and then place them in the given boxes below.

96 Market Places OTOP Products selling the OTOP Products DISCUSSION 1) Which product (s) have you ever bought? 2) Where do you mostly find the OTOP product? 3) In your ideas, how can we help promote the local products to the international markets?

97 Activity 2 Task completion A “Poster” is one of the advertising Task 1: Understanding elements of poster ways widely used to promote businesses, products or services. Directions: Specify each part of the poster.    ………..…………….   ………..…………….  ………..…………….  ………..…………….  ………..…………….  Language Focus To use language in writing an advertising poster which creates great impact and grabs the audience’s attention, reconsider the description number 1, 3, 4 and 5 in the poster above again and answer the following questions: “What is the main purpose of part 1, 3, 4 and 5 in the poster? “What kind of language/ style of writing does the writer use in each part?” Remarks: Task 1 will only be presented in this section as an example for task creation.

98 Activity 3 Group pair up activity (promoting student-student interaction) Directions: Pair up with different group to share your group’s advertisement poster and listen to your friends’ comment. Note down some good characteristics of other groups in the table below. Group Comment on the good characteristics learned from other groups 1  Students include all required elements of the advertisement poster.  Students use a creative title in a form of slogan with persuasive methods or language.  Students organise the meaningful content in appropriate style.  Students use appealing messages to create readers awareness of the designed product.  Students use accurate expressions, grammars, and structures. 2  Students include all required elements of the advertisement poster.  Students use a creative title in a form of slogan with persuasive methods or language.................. Remarks: This is a sample table for only a group of students. The rows can be increased according to a number of groups which are divided in the class.

99 Activity 4 Writing Project Directions: In your group, use the following guidelines to help make the advertisement for the OTOP product. 1. Select the product and marketplace. 2. Prepare the advertisement of the selected product to be placed in the selected market 3. Use the writing frame of the advertisement to draft yours and use the information in the following websites for your information. Suggested websites: http://www.21food.com/products/fermented-fish-powder-(pla-ra-powder)- 622559.html http://www.thaikitchen.com/products/sauces-and-pastes/original-pad-thai-sauce.aspx http://www.bangkokgateway.com/snack.htm http://www.bangkokgateway.com/marketplace.htm http://importfood.com/sati7501.html http://www.bangkok.com/food-top10.htm http://krugoffee.blogspot.com/2009/07/because.html 4.6 Chapter summary This chapter highlights how the EFL writing teachers put the notion of scaffolding strategies from the sociocultural theory in accordance with the macro designed in scaffolding which have widely been discussed in a number of both theoretical and empirical research into classroom application. Scaffolding students’ learning sounds familiar and primarily simple to be implemented, yet it seems to be the definitely complicated tasks for the novice teachers, especially the pre-service and in- service teachers to understand and explicitly apply into the instructional planning stage. The concepts of scaffolding strategies discussed on the first half of the chapter provide an essential foundation of how the teacher’s support contingently assists students’ learning through the well-planned unit design, when teacher’s assistance or guidance should be timely faded, and when the student eventually assumes responsibility for their future task completion. Interaction between teacher with student and student with student is a key contingency of support to make the students’ uptake of teacher’s support consistent. Besides, the unit and lesson plan presented on the second half of the chapter illustrates a step-by-step implementation of the scaffolding concept and suggests some practical strategies into practice.