["covered by lower and middle octaves. Antara is designed to explore the middle and higher octaves. The khayal singing is an expansive, systematic elaboration of the grammar, syntax and aesthetics of the raga. It employs taal-s like Teentaal, Ektaal, Jhaptaal, Tilwada, and Jhoomra in slow tempo (vilambit) and moderate tempo (Madhya laya), and, commonly, Teentaal and Ektaal in fast tempo (drut laya). There two types of a khayal (iii) BaDa khayal (iv) ChhoTa khayal (pronounced chho.Taa) BaDa khayal initiates improvisation of the selected raga, in a taal like Ektaal, Teentaal, Jhoomra, and Tilwada, in slow tempo. It uses elements like \u2018alap\u2019 and \u2018taan\u2019. Alap is executed in \u2018aakaar\u2019 and \u2018bol\u2019 (words of the composition). Similarly, taan-s also use aakaar and bol. A BaDa khayal is followed by a shorter composition, called ChhoTa khayal, in the same raga, but may well be set to a different taal. The tempo is moderate, or, sometimes, fast.) 74. KOMAL [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018tender, sweet\u2019] All seven notes of an octave have each the natural, unaltered state. Sa and Pa each has only natural state\u2014no altered state: they are called unalterable notes (achala swara-s). The remaining five notes each has an altered state (chala swara-s), in addition to its natural state. The notes in the altered state are called accidentals (vikrita). The altered state of Ma is called sharp (teevra) Ma. When sung, it sounds higher than the natural Ma. Thus, we have natural (shuddha) Ma, and we have sharp (teevra) Ma. Natural (shuddha) Ma has the notation symbol \u201cm\u201d. The sharp (teevra) has the notation symbol \u201cM\u201d. The remaining four notes each has an altered state, in addition to its natural state. The altered state is called flat (komal). So, we have Re natural (shuddha, symbol \u2018R\u2019), as well as Re flat (komal, symbol \u2018r\u2019). We have Ga natural (shuddha, symbol \u2018G\u2019), as well as Ga flat (komal, symbol \u2018g\u2019). And we have Dha natural (shuddha, symbol \u2018D\u2019), as well as Dha flat (komal, symbol \u2018d\u2019). Lastly, we have Ni natural (shuddha, symbol \u2018N\u2019), as well as","Ni flat (komal, symbol \u2018n\u2019). When sung, the flat note sounds lower than the natural note; and the sharp note sounds higher than the natural note. To summarize, we have 7 natural and 5 altered states of the 7 notes [a total of 12]. They are represented as: S, r, R, g, G, m, M, P, d, D, n, N. [12 in all]. Out of these, notes r, g, d and n, respectively the 2nd, the 4th, the 9th and the 11th, are komal notes. 75.\u00a0 \u00a0KRINTAN It is an embellishment employed in string instruments. In krintan the forefinger of the playing hand lightly touches the fret, immediately followed by the middle finger stretching\/plucking the string (again). Krintan results in production of two notes quickly. 76.\u00a0 \u00a0KUAAD [pronounced ku.aa.D] This is one of the types of tempo (laya). It shows lack of correspondence between the tempo in which a musical phrase is being performed, and the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. In this case, the tempo of the musical phrase is one-and-a-quarter times faster than the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. Thus it plays five beats for every four beats of the accompanying rhythm. 77.\u00a0 \u00a0LAYA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018tempo\u2019] Tempo (laya) is the speed of a given piece of music. It is the speed at which a composition is being\/to be played. The tempo is called \u2018madhya laya\u2019 (moderate tempo), when played in an easy, leisurely way, at moderate speed. If the tempo is faster than this, it is termed \u2018drut laya\u2019 (fast tempo). If much faster, it is called \u2018ati drut laya\u2019 (very fast tempo). Similarly, it the tempo is slower than \u2018madhya laya\u2019, it is named \u2018vilambita laya\u2019 (slow tempo). If much slower, it goes by the name of \u2018ati vilambita laya\u2019 (very slow tempo). Obviously, these are the indicative ranges of speed, rather than absolute numbers. The larger the number of beats you can count, per minute, the faster is the tempo. 78.\u00a0 \u00a0LEHRA [pronounced le.ha.raa] [Sanskrit \u201clahari\u201d, meaning \u2018a wave\u2019]","Lehra is a special kind of accompaniment. It is the repeated playing of a cyclic melodic phrase, to provide a standard unit of cycle, in relation to which a solo percussionist improvises on his rhythm instrument. The lehra is played on sarangi, harmonium or violin. The duration of a lehra cycle fits exactly to the requirement of the tempo and the number of beats in the taal in which the percussionist wants to improvise. For example, if the percussionist wants to improvise in teentaal, at moderate tempo, the melody of the lehra is so constructed that one lehra cycle will last sixteen beats at the required tempo. The lehra cycle, of course, is repeated as long as the solo percussionist desires. The melody used to work as lehra cycle is simple. 79.\u00a0 \u00a0MADHYA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018middle, moderate\u2019] The term \u2018madhya\u2019 is used in two different ways: (1) to mean \u2018middle\u2019: There are three octaves: mandra (lower), Madhya (middle) and higher (taar). (2) to mean \u2018moderate\u2019. There are three tempo ranges: vilambit (slow), madhya (moderate) and drut (fast). 80.\u00a0 \u00a0MANDRA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018low and pleasant tone\u2019] There are three octaves: mandra (lower), Madhya (middle) and higher (taar). The sound (voice\/instrumental) in low frequencies is said to belong to mandra (lower) octave. 81.\u00a0 \u00a0MASITKHANI GAT [Masitkhan] Referring to string instruments like Sitar and sarod, the gat designed for slow tempo is called Masitkhani gat. The gat designed for moderate\/fast tempo is called Razakhani gat. 82.\u00a0 \u00a0MATRA [pronounced maa.traa] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018measure\u2019]","The matra is translated as the beat. It is a basic unit of length in musical time. It is the basic rhythmic unit in a piece of music. It is the duration for which the sound (of the instrument playing the taal) lasts (and until the next beat begins). The matra-s can be represented by the numerals. For example, teentaal consists of sixteen matra-s; so it can be represented as numerals 1 to 16, properly ordered. 83.\u00a0 \u00a0MEEND [Sanskrit \u201cmeeDam\u201d, meaning softly] MeenD is translated as glissando. It is a continuous sliding from one note to another. This is the single most important embellishment in Indian classical music. 84.\u00a0 \u00a0MEHFIL [Arabic] This term may broadly be taken to mean baithak. 85.\u00a0 \u00a0MELA, MELAKARTA [pronounced me.la; me.la.kar.taa] [Sanskrit] In karnatic music, mela or melakarta is a parent scale of notes. The scale uses all seven notes while both ascending and descending. There are seventy two melakarta-s. 86.\u00a0 \u00a0MRIDANGA [pronounced mri.dun.ga] [Sanskrit \u201cmrid\u201d, meaning \u2018clay\u2019; \u201canga\u201d, meaning \u2018body\u2019] Literally meaning an instrument made of clay, it is a karnatic instrument. Its equivalent in Hindustani music is called pakhawaj. Mridang is a tapering wooden cylinder with goat-skin tops on the left and right providing the playing surface. 87.\u00a0 \u00a0MUKHDA [pronounced mu.kha.Daa] [Sanskrit \u201cmukha\u201d, meaning \u2018mouth, front\u2019] MukhDa is that part of a composition which occurs before the \u2018sam\u2019. It is the first line in the composition. MukhDa is the link phrase repeated after each passage of improvisation performed in the composition. It is also the recurring motif that establishes the mood and aesthetics of the raga. 88.\u00a0 \u00a0MURKI","It is a fast-paced ornamentation around the principal note and consists of a number of swaras. It refers to a short, sharp figure of usually four notes or more, so uttered that it occurs within a short span of time, wrapped around the central note. It can be described as quivering notes, including microtones. When a series of Murkis are performed in quick succession, they lead to the zamzama, which is like a spiraling zigzag taan. This is more characteristic of Sitar playing. Murki is similar to a mordent. Somewhat similar, too, is \u201cHar-kat\u201d. According to some, giTkadi and murki (trill, acciaccatura or battimento) mean the same embellishment. 89.\u00a0 \u00a0NADA [pronounced naa.da] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018sound\u2019] Nada means \u2018sound\u2019 in music, produced through \u2018striking\u2019 (or by some other suitable source of energy.) 90.\u00a0 \u00a0NOTATION SYSTEMS A notation system for Indian music should be designed to give information about the following: (A) The notes being (or, to be) performed: this involves assigning names and symbols to the seven notes, and their accidentals (sharps, called teevra, and flats, called komal) (B) The three octaves in which these notes are being (or, to be) performed: This involves assigning names and symbols to those three octaves. (C) The taal with its name, number of beats (maatra), its subdivisions (khaND), the weightages (sama, taali, khaali), cycles (aavartana). (D) The tempo of the taal. It is important to realize that even the best of the notation systems for Indian music can serve an extremely limited purpose, at best. This is because Indian music simply cannot be scored. Perhaps, even most optimistically, only the outline of bandishes can be scored\u2014and that too to work as a sort of memory peg. There are two notation systems in use today to put Indian music on a sheet of paper:","(i) Bhatkhande system (ii) Paluskar system of Gandharva Mahavidyalaya At best, they are skeletal notation systems. With the ever-increasing popularity of the Internet, a simple notation system has evolved. It writes Indian music using only the keys available on the computer keyboard. In this book we have used the last-mentioned system. 91.\u00a0 \u00a0NYASA [pronounced nyaa.sa] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018the final note\u2019] Nyasa is the most important, prolonged, final note. It is one of the ten characteristics of a \u2018jaati\u2019. These characteristics were important when jaati singing was prevalent and the concept of the raga had not evolved. The concept of nyasa has lost its significance today. 92.\u00a0 \u00a0PAKAD [Hindi, meaning \u2018hold, grip\u2019] Translated \u2018catch-phrase\u2019, it is a phrase of notes of a raga which brings out the characteristics of that raga. Use of the pakad makes raga identification easy. Pakad has been variously translated as motif, catch phrase, defining phrase or characteristic pattern of a raga. The PAKAD of a raga is a group of notes, or a group of phrases of notes, which bring out the most characteristic expression of that raga. The word \u201cpakad\u201d means \u2018the catch\u2019, \u2018the grip\u2019; it \u2018catches\u2019 the atmosphere of the raga; it gives us a grip on how to best represent the raga. A pakad has the potential to illustrate the grammar and aesthetics of a raga. Thus, it may include the vadi, and\/or samvadi of a raga. It also may illustrate the anga (poorvanga, the lower tetrachord, or uttaranga, the upper tetrachord) in which a raga is more extensively elaborated. In fact the anga (tetrachord) which dominates the improvisation, and the time at which a raga is performed, are both determined by the location of the vadi: If the vadi of a raga is situated in the poorvanga (lower tetrachord), (i) that raga is dominated by development in the mandra-madhya saptaka (lower-middle octave); (ii) that raga is performed at any time except morning. Conversely, if the vadi of a raga is situated in the uttaranga (upper tetrachord), (i) that raga is dominated by development in the taar-madhya saptaka (upper-","middle octave); (ii) that raga is performed in the morning. These are, of course, guiding generalizations. Note that vadi and samvadi are never located in the same anga (tetra-chord). Further, the pakad of a raga often illustrates the order in which the notes are taken. It also may demonstrate the emphasis on certain notes. EXAMPLE: Raga Yaman Pakad: \u201cN-R-G-M-P, R-G-R, \u201cN-R-S (three phrases ofnote-groups) Yaman data:-vadi G, samvadi N, important anuvadi P; it is NOT sung in the morning (so, it is poorvanga-pradhan, and has its vadi in poorvanga); the note Sa is omitted when ascending. It aptly illustrates the important \u201caesthetic jump\u201d from Pa to Re. Question:-Are the details about Yaman, given above, illustrated by the pakad? The answer, clearly, is yes. There are certain features NOT demonstrated by the pakad. For example, the pakad does not illustrate the fact that Yaman omits the note Pa in ascending: It goes like \u2018N-R-G-M-D-N etc. Such details can be included in a more comprehensive format like the chalan. Pakad is shorter than chalan (outline). Chalan is more expanded, being designed to illustrate the movement of the raga in all three octaves. 93. PAKHAWAJ [pronounced pa.khaa.va.ja] [Sanskrit \u201cpaksha\u201d, meaning \u2018side\u2019; \u201cvadya\u201d, meaning \u2018instrument\u2019] Roughly, it is the Hindustani equivalent of the Karnatic mridang. It is a tapering wooden cylinder with goatskin tops on the left and right sides, providing the playing surface. 94.\u00a0 \u00a0PALTA [pronounced pal.Taa] Also known as alankar, palta is a progression of a combination of notes in ascending and descending order. Examples: (1) SRGm, RGmP, GmPD \u2026. (2) GRGRS, mGmGR, PmPmG \u2026.. 95.\u00a0 \u00a0PANDIT [pronounced pun.Dit] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018learned scholar\/philosopher\u2019, often reserved for a Hindu guru] A person learned in theory of music. Of late, \u201cPandit\u201d has become a title conferred to an Indian classical musician\u2014especially a Hindu musician.","The title of \u201cUstad\u201d is awarded to an Indian classical musician\u2014especially a Muslim musician. 96.\u00a0 \u00a0POORVANGA [pronounced poor.vaaN.ga] [Sanskrit \u201cpoorva\u201d, meaning \u2018earlier\u2019; \u201canga\u201d, meaning \u2018part\u2019] We can divide the octave in to two equal halves: | S R G m; P D N S\u2019 | Each half is called a tetrachord (anga). The lower half (S R G m) is called the lower tetrachord (poorvanga); the upper half (P D N S\u2019) is called the upper tetrachord (uttaranga). Sometimes, it is convenient to express the two tetrachords, respectively, as |SRGmP;mPDNS\u2019| 97.\u00a0 \u00a0PRAHAR [Sanskrit, meaning, lit. \u2018stroke\u2019; \u2018the eighth part of the day\u2019] Translated as \u2018watch\u2019 or \u2018beat\u2019, a prahar means the eighth part of the day, that is, three hours. It may be counted from 6AM, or 7AM, or the time of the sunrise. Obviously, there are eight prahar-s to a day. According to the time theory in Indian music, the raga-s are assigned a particular prahar of the day (or night). It is only during their assigned prahar that they sound most effective. This time theory is strictly followed in Hindustani music. Except at the behest of a king, or during a music lesson, a raga \u2018cannot\u2019 be performed out of its assigned prahar. 98.\u00a0 \u00a0PRANUVADI [pronounced praa.nu.vaa.dee] [derived from Sanskrit] The notes occurring in a raga, but are not vadi or samvadi, are called anuvadi. Out of these anuvadi notes, one particular note may enjoy greater importance than the remaining anuvadi notes. Such an anuvadi note is called \u2018pranuvadi\u2019. Take, for example, the note Pa in Yaman. Though Pa here is anuvadi, it has greater aesthetic significance than the remaining anuvadi notes. Hence Pa in Yaman is called pranuvadi. 99.\u00a0 \u00a0QAWWAALI [pronounced qa.vvaa.li] [Arabic, meaning \u2018a song in praise of God\u2019]","Even today, the theme of a qawwaali is veneration of God, but qawwaali has also established itself as a genre in music: It is also thought of as a mode of singing. 100.\u00a0 \u00a0RAGA [pronounced raa.ga] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a color, feeling\u2019] To make a beginning, the raga can be expressed as an abstract melodic framework. This framework is founded on twelve notes comprising seven natural (shuddha), and five accidentals (vikrit). The concept of raga is best understood in terms of the characteristics of a raga. Let us elucidate some of the characteristics of a raga: [a] A raga is a set of notes (swara-s). [b] The number of notes (swara-s) required of a raga is at least 5, with a maximum of 7 notes (swara-s). [c] A raga can never exclude Sa, because the remaining notes exist only in relation to Sa. The Sa is called the tonic, or the key. [d] A raga cannot omit both Ma and Pa at the same time. [e] A raga revolves around two principal notes (swara-s). The more important of these two is called the Sonant (vadi); the other, the Consonant (sam-vadi). The remaining notes (swara-s) in a raga are called assonants (anuvadi). The notes (swara-s) not included in the raga are called dissonants (vivadi). Though not included as such, a vivadi quite often becomes a part of a raga, because it beautifies the raga. [f] A raga cannot include two variations (i.e. sharp and flat) of the same note simultaneously. [g] The time theory is an important consideration for a raga to be performed. 101.\u00a0 \u00a0RAGA MIXES A raga mix takes place when two or more raga-s are blended in accordance with certain aesthetic standards. The mix thus created becomes a new raga. The process of blending should have a theoretical basis, and the resultant raga should be aesthetically pleasing and independent. The process is not merely juxtaposing any two raga-s without observing requirements of","theory of music and aesthetics. A raga mix, most definitely, is NOT slipping from one raga, into another, in error. Raga mixes are created for the following reasons: (i) such activities are creative, often producing interesting results in terms of novelty and quality; (ii) the new raga would result in a fresh aesthetic interpretation; (iii) the new mix, if made using a rare (aprachalita) raga, may make that rare raga more popular; (iv) the new mix may give chance to performers to demonstrate their innovative skills; (v) the new raga may bring to light new standards of raga formation. Examples of popular raga mixes: Basant Bahar, Hindol bahar, Bageshri Kanada. Examples of rare mixes: Jogi Asavari, Basant kedar, Multani Dhanashri. 102.\u00a0 \u00a0RAGAMALA [pronounced raa.ga.maa.laa] [Sanskrit \u201craga\u201d, meaning \u2018raga\u2019; \u201cmala\u201d, meaning \u2018a garland\u2019] In a \u2018ragamala\u2019 a number of raga-s are presented as a single item. The selected raga-s are sung consecutively, in the same taal, without a break. The text of the ragamala composition often includes the names of the raga-s at the appropriate place. Ragamala is more a novelty than any established practice. Without taking into consideration aesthetics and time theory, ragamala cannot have much value, though it may make a useful and novel teaching tool. 103.\u00a0 \u00a0RAGANGA PADDHATI [pronounced raa.gaaN.ga pad.dha.ti] [Sanskrit \u201craganga\u201d, meaning \u2018part of a raga\u2019; \u201cpaddhati\u201d, meaning \u2018system\u2019] Classification of raga-s has been attempted in several ways. To name a few: the system of six raga-s and thirty six ragini-s; melakarta; thaat system. However, there are some raga-s, like PaTdeep and Chandrakauns, which cannot be classified under any of the above systems. In fact, there is a good case for trying a more fundamental classification, based on the aesthetics of some prominent raga-s. Such raga-s display characteristic note clusters. Such distinct phrases of notes, called \u2018ragang\u2019, can make a reasonable basis for a more logical classification. Pandit Narayan Khare attempted such a system of classification. This system came to be called \u201cRagang paddhati\u201d. He created twenty-six groups under which the raga-s can be classified. Each","group was named after a traditional raga that displayed some strong and unique aspect of aesthetics, through a distinctive and singular note-cluster of its own. Example: (A) Bhairava: G m P G m (G)r; (B) Sarang: P, RMR; (C) Kalyan: P, RGR, \u201cNRS. Other raga-s can then be classified, based on their aesthetic similarity with the main raga that heads a particular group. To take a cue from Karnatic music: The melakarta ragas in which vivadi swaras appear are called as vivadi melakartas. Thus, there are forty vivadi melakartas. If a melakarta system is constructed without the vivadi melakartas, a number of fairly common ragas will have to be treated as being outside the system. Further, janya ragas like NaaTa will have no associated melakarta, exposing the limitations of the classification system. 104. RAGA-RAGINI [pronounced raa.ga-raa.gi.Ni] [Sanskrit \u201craga\u201d, meaning \u2018a color, feeling\u2019; \u201cragini\u201d is in feminine gender, implying \u2018consorts of the raga-s\u2019] The history of musicology refers to this paired term as a method of raga classification. According to this tradition of systematization of raga-s, there are six (male) raga-s and thirty-six ragini-s. Different authorities list different names for the male raga-s, and different names for female raga-s. These six raga-s, as commonly listed, are the six seasonal raga-s. They are slow and serious; they have larger intervals between their constituent notes. On the other hand, the ragini-s are the rest of the raga-s. They are sprightly and light, with smaller tonal intervals. 105.\u00a0 \u00a0RAGASAGAR [pronounced raa.ga.saa.ga.ra] [Sanskrit \u201craga\u201d, meaning \u2018raga\u2019; \u201csagar\u201d, meaning \u2018the ocean\u2019] Similar to \u201cragamala\u201d. 106.\u00a0 \u00a0RASA [Sanskrit, variously translated] Rasa is the key concept of Classical Indian Aesthetics. It is variously translated as taste, flavor, pleasure, savor, relish, emotive aesthetics,","\u201ccontemplative enjoyment of \u2018universalized\u2019 emotion\u201d, emotional flavor, etc. Rasa is not the psychological result that a musical performance induces in the listener, but it is, at once, rather, the inner source as well as the meaning of the aesthetic creation. It is not simply a \u2018subjective\u2019 psychological response on the part of the experiencer of rasa, to the \u2018objective\u2019 expression of a raga. Rasa is fundamental, universalized, aesthetically rapturous experience. Music does not cover as wide a range of emotions as, say, the theater. For example, no musical features of a raga would invoke laughter (hasya), disgust (jugupsa) or fear (bhayanaka). On the other hand, every raga evokes its own aesthetically expressive experience. 107.\u00a0 \u00a0RAZAKHANI GAT [Rezakhan] Referring to string instruments like Sitar, the gat designed for moderate\/fast tempo is called Razakhani gat. It makes extensive use of tihai-s, toda-s and jhala work. The gat designed for slow tempo is called Masitkhani gat. 108.\u00a0 \u00a0ROOPAK [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a kind of measure\u2019] It is the name of a taal with seven beats, as shown: [divisions: 3; taali: 3- on 1, 4, 6; khaali: ON \u201cSAM\u201d (beat 1)! 123|45|67| ti ti naa | dhi naa | dhi naa 109.\u00a0 \u00a0SADRA [pronounced saa.da.faa] A sadra is a drupad or a dhamar composed in Jhaptaal. Its text is written in the brij dialect. 110.\u00a0 \u00a0SAM [pronounced sum] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018emphasis on time in music\u2019] It is one of the terms used to describe the characteristics of the taal. SAMA (pronounced like \u2018sum\u2019): It is the first beat of the taal cycle. It is assigned the maximum importance, or \u2018weightage\u2019. The \u2018sama\u2019 is located on the first beat, represented by the numeral 1, in the above diagram. The","\u2018sama\u2019 is sounded by a light, thumping hit on the knee with the palm of your hand. In the taal cycle, it is the most-stressed beat (the common exception being the taal Roo-pak, where the beat (which is the sam) is \u201cde- stressed\u201d khaali. 111.\u00a0 \u00a0SAMA VEDA [pronounced saa.ma ve.da] [Sanskrit: the name of veda of song.] The Sama Veda, the third veda after the Rig veda and the Yajur veda, is the Veda of Song. It consists of various hymns of the Rig Veda put to a different and more musical chant. The Rig Veda is the word, the Sama Veda is the song. The Sama veda is the origin of all Indian music. 112.\u00a0 \u00a0SAMPOORNA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018complete\u2019; \u2018the gamut which includes all the seven notes\u2019] The \u2018jaati\u2019 of a raga is decided by the number of notes that comprise its aroha (ascending) and avaroha (descending). Some of the types are: Five notes in the ascending and five notes in the descending mode: auDava-auDava. Five notes in the ascending and six notes in the descending mode auDava-shaDava. Five notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode: auDava-sampoorNa. 113.\u00a0 \u00a0SAMVADI [pronounced sum.vaa.dee] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018agreeing\/harmonizing with vadi\u2019] A raga revolves around two principal notes (swara-s). The more important of these two is called the Sonant (vadi); the other, the Consonant (samvadi). The vadi-samvadi exist in relation to the fifth (shadja-pancham bhaava), or the fourth (shadja-madhyam bhaava). Examples of possible pairs of vadi-samvadi: VADI: S \u2026. Related SAMVADI-s: m, P R\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.P, D G\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.D, Ng\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.d, n etc. This relationship is called samvaditva.","114. SANCHARI [pronounced sun.chaa.ree] [Sanskrit \u201csancharin\u201d, meaning \u2018moving\u2019] It is the fourth of the four parts of drupad. It is the part where free move- ment is permitted. Drupad composition consists of four components: sthayi, antara, abhog, and sanchari. 115.\u00a0 \u00a0SANGEET [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a chorus song\u2019; \u2018the science and art of singing, with music and dancing\u2019.] By textbook definition, music is the trio: singing, playing (an instrument) and dancing. However, in practice, music comprises singing and playing (an instrument.) 116.\u00a0 \u00a0SAPTAKA [English: septet] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018group of seven\u2019] The group of basic seven notes to the Indian gamut. The notes are: shadja (Sa), rishabha (Re), gandhar (Ga), madhyama (Ma), pancham (Pa), dhaivata (Dha), and nishad (Ni). The next note in the order would have the interval ratio of 2:1 with the first note (Sa), and so that next note is also called Sa, but belonging to the next higher saptak. There are three saptak-s: The lower septet (mandra saptaka), the middle septet (madhya saptaka), and the upper septet (taara saptaka). 117.\u00a0 \u00a0SARAL [Sanskrit, meaning straight, simple, not crooked or complex] In its simplest form, a taan is the process of running over the notes in a raga, using \u2018aakaar\u2019 A taan is a succession of notes in \u2018aakaar\u2019. A saral taan is a straight phrase, with no jumps or skips while ascending or descending. IOI RAGA-S FOR THE 2IST CENTURY AND BEYOND 118. SARGAM [Sanskrit, short forms for the full names of the notes] Sargam (short for Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa Dha, Ni, and Sa\u2019 ) ( Known as \u2018swara-kalpana\u2019 in Karnatic music) ( Solfeggio: sol-fa syllables: Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, and Do)","sargam is a way of assigning syllables to names of the notes in a raga or a musical scale. In order, the sargam syllables are: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa Dha, Ni, and Sa\u2019 (for the octave). It is the application of the Sa-Re-Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni syllables in a raga, during exercise or improvisation. These syllables are used in place of the \u201caaaa.. \u201c in the alapa. They are aesthetically and structurally consistent with the raga format. It is singing, using sol-fa syllables, whether improvised or as an exercise sargam is a pedagogical technique. It is structurally and aesthetically important. It can, obviously, be used only in vocal music. Solmization : In Western music, it means a system of naming the notes of a musical scale by syllables (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, and Do), instead of letters (C, D, F, G, A, B, and C).\u2014For our music, we can coin a term like SARGAMATION. sargam is a vocal exercise in which the Indian sol-fa syllables are used. It has the dual purpose of vocalization and practice. The aesthetics of sargam: Introducing sargam during the alap is aesthetically a meaningful change. It provides variety. It provides the vowels (with consonants) \u2018e\u2019, \u2018a\u2019, and \u2018ee\u2019, in addition to the \u2018aa\u2019 in the alap. It uses syllables without any meaning, so that the listeners\u2019 attention is not diverted from music. 119.\u00a0 \u00a0SATH [pronounced saa.tha] [Sanskrit \u201csahita\u201d, meaning \u2018accomanied, supported\u2019] Sath means accompaniment. It is mainly associated with accompaniment on the tabla for the singer or the instrumentalist. Equally importantly, it can mean accompaniment \u201cto follow the singer\u201d, on Sarangi, harmonium or violin. It may also be used for drone accompaniment. 120.\u00a0 \u00a0SAWAAL-JAWAAB [Both \u2018swaal\u2019 and \u2018jawaab\u2019 from Arabic] Concerto grosso, Syncopation and Call-and-Response The origins of the phenomenon called \u201csawaal-jawaab\u201d have yet to be investigated. This process is not of very recent origin. \u201csawaal-jawaab\u201d is now rather commonly performed. It is something special and remarkable,","perhaps, requiring less of intuition on the part of the listener, than the meditative-contemplative, mystical awareness that characterizes the khayal singing. \u201cSawaal-Jawaab\u201d is now a part of jugalbandhi between two performing artists, or between the performing musician and his accompanying tabla player. It is both competitive and collaborative. The two participants are friendly rivals. \u201cSawaal-Jawaab\u201d commences with one musician challenging the other by playing a short (often eight-beat) musical phrase. The rival musician is expected to reproduce, on his instrument, the same phrase, identical in every detail\u2014same number of beats, identical contours, same tempo, same distribution of notes, same rest places. This goes on, with new phrases being tossed at the responding rival, till a crescendo is reached. The performing tempo is accelerated many times. Now a breath-taking tihaai is executed. The \u201csam\u201d is arrived at, with a big bang, and everyone is happy and applauding. However, the fact remains that playing quickfire dialogue by two musicians at breakneck speeds, the senseless, needless high-speed humbug, and doing the customary \u201csawaal-jawaab\u201d have become a routine. Sometimes decent and enjoyable, it can become something pretentious, silly and deceitful; a deliberate trickery intended to gain a cheap advantage and applause. For many listeners, \u201csawaal-jawaab\u201d is simply spellbinding because of sheer excitement it can generate. It does have the artistic quality of effect or workmanship, showing imaginative skill in arrangement or execution. In passing, we should mention the following terms used in Western music: Concerto grosso, Syncopation and Call-and-Response. They display some similarities with \u201csawaal-jawaab\u201d. 121.\u00a0 \u00a0SHABDA-ALAPA [pronounced sha.bda-aa.laa.pa] [Sanskrit \u201cshabda\u201d, meaning \u2018word\u2019; \u201calapa\u201d, meaning improvisation using the vowel \u2018aaaa\u2019] It means alapa, in which the words of the composition are used, not the vowel \u2018aaaa\u2019. It is synonymous with bol-alapa. 122.\u00a0 \u00a0SHADAVA [pronounced shaa.Da.va]","[Sanskrit, meaning \u2018derived from six\u2019] The \u2018jaati\u2019 of a raga is decided by the number of notes that comprise its aroha (ascending) and avaroha (descending). Thus we have the following types: Five notes in the ascending and five notes in the descending mode: auDava-auDava. Five notes in the ascending and six notes in the descending mode auDava-shaDava. Five notes in the ascending and seven notes in the descending mode: auDava-sampoorNa. 123.\u00a0 \u00a0 SHADJA-MADHYAMA-BHAVA [pronounced shaD.ja.-mad- hyama-bhaa.va] [Sanskrit \u201cshadja\u201d and \u201cmadhyama\u201d are note names; \u201cbhaava\u201d, meaning \u2018-ness\u2019] It is the relationship of the fourth (Sa-Ma) between any two notes. 124.\u00a0 \u00a0 SHADJA-PANCHAMA-BHAVA [pronounced shaD.ja.-pun. chama-bhaa.va] [Sanskrit \u201cshadja\u201d and \u201cpanchama\u201d are note names; \u201cbhaava\u201d, meaning \u2018- ness\u2019] It is the relationship of the fifth (Sa-Pa) between any two notes. 125 SHRUTI [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a perceivable sound\u2019] The spelling: sruti (the first letter \u201cs\u201d as the diacritical Roman symbol) has been used by Sir Monier-Williams, Walter Kaufmann, Ashok Da Ranade, L. Subramaniam; shruti, by Alain Danielou, Swami Prajnananda and several others. It is a question of how we represent the Sanskrit sound, as in the English word \u2018shrewd\u2019 , for transliteration into the Roman alphabet. Definitions: Shruti has been variously translated as: microtone, microtonic interval, interval, step etc. It is mainly determined through fine auditory perception. The number of sounds falling within a scale is infinite; but the number which can be differentiated (or perceived, or grasped) is 22. These 22","shruti-s are further grouped into five classes, bringing in the concept that a shruti is not only an auditory perception, but also a distinct expression to the listener\u2019s mind. There is a broad agreement that shruti-s are not equal; that the seven notes are the sounds selected from among these 22 shruti-s; that each note is established on its first shruti; that shruti-s can be reproduced on a string instrument, in terms of various vibrating lengths; that shruti-s can, therefore, be stated in terms of frequencies, though Indian music, being truly modal, is built on the relationship of sounds with the tonic (also called the reference note, key etc.). References: The earliest mention appears to have been made in Bharat muni\u2019s Natyashastra (about 500 B.C.). later references include Narada of Shiksha (1st century A.D.), Kohala (quoted in Brihaddeshi) Dattila\u2019s Brihad-deshi, and several later works. \u201csamvaditaa\u201d (consonance) is defined in terms of shruti-s like this: The distances of 23, 13, and 9 shruti-s imply perfect consonances. The distance of 23 shruti-s indicates the same note, but in the higher octave. The 13-shruti distance shows the distance of the fifth, called shadja-panchama bhaava. The 9-shruti distance means the distance of the fourth, called shadja-madhyama bhaava. The shruti-s may be grouped according to two scale types, or grama-s, namely shadja grama, and madhyama grama: Shadja grama: S 4R 3 G 2 m 4 P 4D 3N 2 Madhyama grama: S 4 R3 G 4 m 2 P 4 D3 N 2 Remarks: Shruti is a part of tonal concept. Talented singers use them, regularly and unknowingly, as part of their musical repertoire. Quite often, even the raga-s have their notes established on shruti-s, rather than the usual notes. For example, the \u201ckomal Re\u201d (Db, if C is the tonic) of the raga Todi, is reported to be a microtone, lower than the usual location of \u201ckomal Re\u201d in the Indian scale. Even during \u201c a capella\u201d performance, singers use the notes of the harmonic scale, not the notes of the tempered scale; this is because of absence of accompaniment on piano or any instrument with fixed, tempered scale. So, singing correct microtones comes naturally to the voice of a talented singer. 126.\u00a0 \u00a0SHUDDHA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018pure, unaltered\u2019, as opposed to \u2018altered (vikrit)\u2019]","There are 7 notes: shadja (Sa, symbol \u2018S\u2019), rishabha (Re, symbol \u2018R\u2019), gandhara (Ga, symbol \u2018G\u2019), madhyama (Ma, symbol \u2018m\u2019), pancham (Pa, symbol \u2018P\u2019), dhaivata (Dha, symbol \u2018D\u2019), and nishad (Ni, symbol \u2018N\u2019). These 7 notes form the Saptaka (the gamut of 7 notes) of Indian music. These notes are named \u2018shuddha\u2019 notes. \u2018Shuddha\u2019 means natural, or unaltered state. If we assume the key C to be this Sa, then the 7 notes on the keyboard would be: C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. 127.\u00a0 \u00a0SOORFAKTA [pronounced soor.fak.taa] Also called \u201cshoolfakta\u201d, it is the name of a taal with ten beats, as shown: [divisions: 3; taali: 2\u2014on 1, 7; khaali: on 5 1 2 3 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 9 10 | dhin dhin dhaa tirkiT | tu naa | kat dhi dhi naa | 128.\u00a0 \u00a0SOOT A soot is a longer meeND. 129.\u00a0 \u00a0SPARSHA It is very much like krintan, except that the first note is the higher of the two notes. 130.\u00a0 \u00a0STHAYI [pronounced sthaa.yee] [Sanskrit ] From the compositional aspect, a khayal comprises two parts: sthayi and antara. Sthayi remains within the range covered by lower and middle octaves. Antara is designed to explore the middle and higher octaves 131.\u00a0 \u00a0SUR [derived from Sanskrit \u201cswara\u201d, meaning \u2018note\u2019] \u201cSa\u201d, the first note of the Indian gamut. Usually, \u2018sur\u2019 stands for the key, the tonic. Also used in the sense of \u2018swara\u2019 132.\u00a0 \u00a0SWARA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a musical note\u2019] A musical sound is \u2018nada\u2019\u2014the tone. This tone becomes a \u2018note\u2019 when it is heard in relation to the key, the tonic, the \u201cSa\u201d. For example, a tone vibrating at 320 Hz is just a tone. We can call it a note when it is compared as an interval in relation to the key, which is a tone sounding at 240 Hz.","Once the tone vibrating at 240 Hz is called \u2018Sa\u2019, the tone vibrating at 320 Hz will be called \u2018Pa\u2019. The two tones have the intervallic relation of 3:2. The concept of \u2018swar\u2019 is very fundamental to Indian music. 133.\u00a0 \u00a0TAAL [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018the clapping\u2019] Taal is a very fundamental concept in Indian music. The taal unit is a cycle of a specific number of beats, represented by specific set of bol-s. This combination of number of beats and bol-s is unique to each taal. Taal has other characteristics, in addition to the number of beats and the bol-s. Some of those characteristics are: taali, khaali, sam, khaND and avartana. A taal invariably has a tempo, without which it cannot be played. However, the tempo can be selected arbitrarily. But there are taal-s that are played in slower tempo only. Example: Jhoomra, Tilwada. 134.\u00a0 \u00a0TAALI [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a clap\u2019] It is the beat that is emphasized by the clap of hands or a tap on the knee. In a taal, there can be more than one such beat. 135.\u00a0 \u00a0TAAN [Sanskrit \u201ctan\u201d, meaning \u2018to stretch\u2019] In its simplest form, a taan is the process of running over the notes in a raga, using \u2018aakaar\u2019 A taan is a quick succession of notes in \u2018aakaar\u2019. This kind of taan is called aakaar taan. Of course, there are other types of taan-s like sa-paaT taan, kooT taan, chhooT taan, sargam taan, gamaka taan, bol taan etc. 136.\u00a0 \u00a0TAAR [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a high tone\u2019] A sound with a smaller number of frequency is said to be low; one with a greater number of frequency is said to be high. Depending upon the frequency range, we have three octave ranges, namely middle (Madhya) octave, higher (taar) octave, and lower (mandra) octave. To illustrate: \u201cS \u201cR \u201cG \u201cm \u201cP \u201cD \u201cN S R G m P D N S\u2019 R\u2019 G\u2019 m\u2019 P\u2019 D\u2019 N\u2019 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21","The note numbers 1 to 7 above belong to the lower octave; those from 8 through 14, to the middle octave; those from 15 through 21, to the higher (upper) octave. Taar is also known as \u2018Teep\u201d. 137.\u00a0 \u00a0TABLA [Arabic, meaning \u2018a membrophone\u2019] The tabla is the Indian percussion instrument, comprising a pair of drums. The two drums are called the baya [pronounced baa.yaa\u2019] and daya [pronounced daayaa], respectively. Sometimes, the two are called tabla-s. The baya is played by left hand. It has bass sound. It is about 10\u201d in diameter. The top membrane is goatskin; the body is brass or copper. The daya is played by right hand. It has treble sound. The top membrane is goatskin; the body is teak wood. The smaller the diameter of the top membrane, the higher is the pitch of the sound of the daya. A metal hammer is used to tune both the tabla-s. 138.\u00a0 \u00a0TANPURA [pronounced taan.pu.raa] [Sanskrit \u201ctumba\u201d, meaning \u2018the gourd\u2019] Translated as \u201cthe drone\u201d, it is also called \u2018tambura\u2019. The main parts of the tanpura are: the gourd, a long, hollow pine stem, a bridge, and (commonly four) pegs to tune (commonly four) strings. It is the Indian four-string drone. The middle two strings are tuned in the tonic (Sa); the first string is tuned in the lower octave, either Ma, or Pa, or Ni. This depends on the raga that it is tuned to accompany. The last string is tuned in lower-octave (mandra) Sa (symbol \u201cS). 139.\u00a0 \u00a0TAPPA [Persian, meaning \u2018jump\u2019] It is a folk art form from the Punjab. Composed in Punjabi and Pushtu languages, the tappa-s are set in the lighter, folk raga-s. It is a very lilting and dazzling display of tonal material. It employs embellishments like khaTka and murki. 140.\u00a0 \u00a0TARANA [pronounced ta.raa.naa] [Hindi, meaning \u2018tune\u2019]","Tarana is a genre of composition and singing, performed in fast tempo (though it can be performed in slower tempos, too). Its text consists of sound-syllables of percussion and string instruments, and some other words, like taa, naa, dir, tom,yalali etc. It is set to any taal, suitable especially for fast tempo, and any raga. 141.\u00a0 \u00a0TEENTAAL [Sanskrit \u201ctri\u201d, meaning \u2018three\u2019; \u201ctaala\u201d, meaning \u2018clap\u2019.] There are several taal-s used in classical music. The most commonly used taal is, of course, Teentaal. There are variations of Teentaal, variously called addha, punjabi, sitarkhani etc. The bol-s for Teentaal are: | 1 2 3 4 | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 12 | 13 14 15 16 | | dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | dhaa dhin dhin dhaa | dhaa tin tin taa | taa dhin dhin dhaa| 142.\u00a0 \u00a0TEEVRA [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018sharp\u2019] All 7 notes have each the natural, unaltered state. Sa and Pa each has only natural state\u2014no altered state: they are called unalterable notes (achala swara-s). The remaining five notes each has an altered state (chala swara-s), in addition to its natural state. The notes in the altered state are called accidentals (vikrita). The altered state of Ma is called sharp (teevra) Ma. When sung, it sounds higher than the natural Ma. Thus, we have natural (shuddha) Ma, and we have sharp (teevra) Ma. Natural (shuddha) Ma has the notation symbol \u201cm\u201d. The sharp (teevra) has the notation symbol \u201cM\u201d. 143.\u00a0 \u00a0THAAT [pronounced thaa.Ta] [Prakrit \u201cThaTTa\u201d, meaning \u2018group\u2019] \u201cthaaT\u201d means a scale of sequentially-arranged all seven notes in the ascending order, and all seven notes in the descending order. We have to take into account the accidentals (vikrit), i.e. flat (komal) and sharp (teevra). This will make twelve the total number of notes. These can be made to undergo permutations and combinations to form a very large number of scales. Bhatkhande\u2019s ten thaaT-s and Vyankatmakhi\u2019s seventy two melakarta-s are such attempts. Mela, melakarta, thaaT and samsthaana are all","synonymous. 144.\u00a0 \u00a0THEKA [pronounced The.kaa] [Hindi] It is the cycle of the bare set of sound-syllables (bol-s) of a taal, played on a percussion instrument (tabla, pakhawaj etc.). Theka is set of bol-s, plain and simple. It implies absence of flourishes and embellishments. 145.\u00a0 \u00a0THUMRI [Hindi] It is a genre of semi-classical vocal music. It is associated with dance and folk songs of U.P. The Thumri has two parts: sthayi and antara. It composed in lighter ragas, and in taal-s like dipchandi, roopak, addha and Punjabi. Thumri is elaborated in one of the two more common ways: (1) bol- banaav: weaving words with melodic phrases; (2) weaving words with lilting rhythmic patterns. The Thumri is rendered in moderate tempo, but the tempo is often\u2014but not always\u2014doubled towards the end. This makes it lively, and offers chance to the tabla player to display some dazzling patterns, especially delicately presented playing called \u2018laggi\u2019. Some Thumri styles (gharana-s) include Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala. Thumri-s form such a unique genre, even only musically, that they are presented even on instruments like Sitar and violin. 146.\u00a0 \u00a0TIGUN [[From Sanskrit \u201ctri.guNa\u201d, meaning \u2018thrice in value\u2019] This is one of the types of tempo (laya). In this case, the tempo of the musical phrase is three times faster than the tempo of the accompanying rhythm. Like this: Accompanying rhythm: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 Music tempo: 123|123|123|123| [tigun] 147.\u00a0 \u00a0TIHAI [pronounced ti.haa.ee] [Sanskrit \u201ctri\u201d, meaning \u2018three\u2019; Hindi, meaning \u2018a third\u2019]","In case of a percussion instrument, tihai is the three-time repetition of a pattern of rhythmic sound-syllables. Tihai is the most common form of cadenza. More commonly the last bol of the pattern falls on the \u2018sam\u2019 of the next cycle. There are tihai-s for the vocalist, as also for an instrumentalist. A \u2018damdaar\u2019 tihai uses a gap between the first and the second repetition, and between the second and the third repetition. A \u2018bedam\u2019 tihai does not use any gap. A \u2018chakradhar\u2019 tihai is one with circles: it contains smaller tihai-s within each of the three patterns. Tihai-s can be aesthetically very pleasing and attractive; but when they are overdone, they can destroy melody. 148.\u00a0 \u00a0TIME THEORY According to the time theory in Indian music, each raga is assigned to a period of the day (or night). Orthodox musicians never plerform a raga at any other than its assigned time. The day-and-night is divided into eight prahar-s (watches or beats), and each raga is assigned to a specific prahar according to its underlying tonal characteristics. However, in Karnatic music, though musicians do believe that the ragas sung during their allotted times sound best, yet the time theory of raga-s is, even at its strongest, only advisory. The time theory primarily divides the raga-s into three broad categories (1) raga-s with flat (komal) Re and flat (komal) Dha; (2) raga-s with natural (shuddha) Re and natural (shuddha) Dha; (3) raga-s with flat (komal) Ga and flat (komal) Ni. The raga-s belonging to the first category are called \u2018twilight raga-s\u2019. They are the raga-s sung at the time close to either the sunrise or the sunset. Such raga-s include Bhairava and Kalingda (morning), and Poorvi (evening). The raga-s of the second category are performed after the \u2018twilight\u2019 ragas. Typically, raga-s belonging to Bilawal thaaT, Kalyan thaaT, and Khamaj thaaT fall into this category.","The raga-s of the third category are performed after those of the second category. They include Asavari, Jaunpuri (morning), and Bageshri, Jaijaivanti and Malkauns. The significance of the time theory has not been fully grasped. 149.\u00a0 \u00a0UPAJ [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018produce\u2019] It is the improvisation on a short melodic phrase. It is a part of ongoing raga development. 150.\u00a0 \u00a0USTAD [pronounced us.taa.d] [A title of reverence for a recognized guide. Often reserved for a Muslim guru] An ustad is not just a teacher. He is revered for his knowledge, originality and experience. He is highly respected and has few peers. This title has the same status as the title of Guru. 151.\u00a0 \u00a0UTHAN [pronounced u.Thaa.n] [Sanskrit \u201cutthaana\u201d, meaning \u2018rising\u2019, \u2018bursting open\u2019] It is a short, sudden, lively phrase played on the tabla\/pakhawaj. It is a burst of the phrase played just before beginning to play the taal. The taal playing commences in continuation of uThan. 152.\u00a0 \u00a0UTTARANGA [pronounced utta.raaN.ga] [Sanskrit \u201cuttara\u201d, meaning \u2018upper, higher\u2019; \u201canga\u201d, meaning \u2018part\u2019] A saptaka (Septet) is a group of 7 notes (swara-s): Sa (C), Re (D), Ga (E), Ma (F), Pa (G), Dha (A), and Ni (B). However, we add the upper Sa to the saptaka (Septet), and make it a set of 8 notes (swara-s); now it is called an octave: |SRGmPDNS\u2019| Now we can divide this octave in to two equal halves: |SRGm;PDNS\u2019| Each half is called a tetrachord (anga). The lower half (S R G m) is called the lower tetrachord (poorvanga); the upper half (P D N S\u2019) is called the upper tetrachord (uttaranga). Sometimes, it is convenient to express the two tetrachords, respectively, as |SRGmP;mPDNS\u2019|","153.\u00a0 \u00a0VADI [pronounced vaa.dee] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018proclaiming. asserting\u2019] A raga revolves around two principal notes (swara-s). The more important of these two is called the Sonant (vadi); the other, the Consonant (samvadi). The Sonant (vadi) and the Consonant (samvadi) of a raga cannot be in the same tetrachord (anga). Lastly, the Sonant-Consonant (vadi-samvadi) pair bears a fourth or a fifth relationship. Thus, the Consonant (samvadi) is the fourth or the fifth note from the Sonant (vadi). To illustrate: |SRGmPDNS\u2019| For example, if the Sonant is Ga (G), its Consonant will be either the fourth Dha (D), or the fifth Ni (N). This is the principle of consonance (samvadita). According to this, the relationship of the fourth is called \u201cshadja-madhyama bhaava\u201d. And the relationship of the fifth is called \u201cshadja-pan-chama bhaava\u201d. 154.\u00a0 \u00a0VADYA [pronounced vaa.dya] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018a musical instrument\u2019] A musical instrument capable of musical expressions and elaborations. 155.\u00a0 \u00a0VAKRA [Opposite of \u2018saral\u2019, \u2018vakra\u2019 means \u2018tortuous\u2019, \u2018crooked\u2019, \u2018not straight\u2019. A set of non-linear or zigzag notes. An aroha or avaroha can be vakra; a musical phrase or a taan can be vakra; a raga can be spoken of as being vakra. Example: SARAL: G m P D N S\u2019; VAKRA: G P D m P N D S\u2019. 156.\u00a0 \u00a0VARJITA [or varjya] [Sanskrit, meaning \u201comitted\/to be omitted\u201d] A varjita note is one that is not included in a raga. It is also called \u201cvarjya\u201d (to be excluded). \u201cvarjita\u201d means excluded. For example, the notes S-R-G-P-D comprise the raga Bhupali. So the excluded notes, \u2018m\u2019 and \u2018N\u2019, are varjita notes.","The \u201cvivadi\u201d note is the same as \u2018varjita\u2019 when not included in a raga. But \u201cvivadi\u201d note assumes a different meaning when a note is executed in a raga in which it is technically excluded. For example, Bhairavi is made up of the following notes: SrgmPdnS\u2019;S\u2019ndPmgrS So, for example, shuddha Re (R) is a varjita note. However, shuddha Re is NOT a vivadi note in the sense, and to the extent, that it is used often in Bhairavi. Thus included in a raga, a vivadi note is used to embellish the raga. It is the varjita notes (most often used synonymously with vivadi) that give rise to the three \u2018jati-s\u2019 (types) of raga-s, namely \u2018auDava\u2019, comprising 5 notes; \u2018shaDava\u2019, comprising 6 notes; and \u2018sampoorNa\u2019, comprising 7 notes. 157.\u00a0 \u00a0VILAMBIT [pronounced vi.lum.bita] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018slow\u2019] The \u2018laya\u2019 or the tempo is the pace, or the speed at which the taal is played. The tempo of a taal is called \u2018madhya laya\u2019 (moderate tempo), when the taal is played in an easy, leisurely way, at moderate speed. If the tempo is faster than this, it is termed \u2018drut laya\u2019 (fast tempo). If much faster, it is called \u2018ati drut laya\u2019 (very fast tempo). Similarly, it the tempo of a taal is slower than \u2018madhya laya\u2019, it is named \u2018vilambita laya\u2019 (slow tempo). If much slower, it goes by the name of \u2018ati vilambita laya\u2019 (very slow tempo). 158.\u00a0 \u00a0VISTAR [pronounced vis.taa.ra] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018expansion\u2019] It can be translated as \u2018expansion\u2019. It means elaboration of melodic ideas. The technique used here is called \u2018upaj\u2019. 159.\u00a0 \u00a0VIVADI [pronounced vi.vaa.dee] [Sanskrit, meaning \u2018sounding against\u2019] A note, that is not one of the notes that comprise a raga, is vivadi. It is also called \u201cvarjya\u201d (to be excluded), or, \u201cvarjita\u201d (excluded). For example, the notes S-R-G-P-D comprise the raga Bhupali. So the excluded notes, \u2018m\u2019 and \u2018N\u2019, are vivadi notes.","The \u201cvivadi\u201d note is the same as \u2018varjita\u2019 when not included in a raga. But \u201cvivadi\u201d note assumes a different meaning when a note is executed in a raga in which it is technically excluded. For example, Bhairavi is made up of the following notes: SrgmPdnS\u2019;S\u2019ndPmgrS So, for example, shuddha Re (R) is a varjita note. However, shuddha Re is NOT a vivadi note in the sense, and to the extent, that it is used often in Bhairavi. Thus included in a raga, a vivadi note is used to embellish the raga. It is the vivadi notes (used in the same sense as varjita) that give rise to the three \u2018jati-s\u2019 (types) of raga-s, namely \u2018auDava\u2019, comprising 5 notes; \u2018shaDava\u2019, comprising 6 notes; and \u2018sampoorNa\u2019, comprising 7 notes. The concept of vivaditaa (exclusion) is more elaborate than is generally recognized. In this connection, we can distinguish the following types of excluded notes: 1.\u00a0 \u00a0 Those notes which are dissonant with the aesthetics of a raga. For example, Ma in Bhupali. 2.\u00a0 \u00a0Those notes which are optional to a raga. For example komal Ni in Tilak Kamod. 3.\u00a0 \u00a0Those notes which are instinctively included in a raga, though known to be technically excluded. For example Ni in Bhupali, Ga in Kedar. 4.\u00a0 \u00a0Those notes which are conventionally included. For example, komal Ni in Bhairava. 5.\u00a0 \u00a0 Those notes which are included for embellishment. For example, notes in Bhairavi, Pahadi, Piloo etc. 6.\u00a0 \u00a0Those notes which the masters include, though rarely, in a raga. For example, komal Ni: Salamat Ali Khan\u2019s dhamar in the raga Hameer. Also, Ustad Faiyyaz Khan\u2019s application of komal Ni in the raga Maru Bihag. Vivadi notes, thus, contribute substantially to the aesthetics of a raga- whether by their presence, or by their absence. 160. WAAH! : ITS AESTHETICS A tastefully decorated stage. Right atmosphere. The performing artist in a great, creative mood. The audience in a great, receptive mood.","Now the tanpura-s start streaming. The tabla is being tuned. The artist is sitting patiently, praying Goddess Saraswati, or his religious Guru, to bless him, and his performance, which he is about to begin. The tonic, \u2018Sa\u2019, is the artist\u2019s opening note. It is smooth and soft and sweet, imperceptibly gradual and subtle. It fills the air, reaching his expectant audience as if surreptitiously. Though this opening \u2018Sa\u2019 lasts for only a few seconds, yet it is the synopsis of the entire history of the aesthetics of Indian classical music; it is the summary of all the inspired work of artists from one generation to another; it is the encapsulation of the exquisite beauty of the vast culture which produced Indian music; it is the very epitome of the embellishments that will soon follow; it is the very incarnation of the Deity, the Raga. The \u2018Sa\u2019 is always present in all the raga-s, but this \u2018Sa\u2019 somehow belongs exclusively to the raga being performed by the artist. This could elicit the first of many hushed \u201cWAAH!\u201d-s from the audience which is sitting completely still, enraptured by the music. As the improvisation proceeds, many embellishments, delicate executions of nuances, deft and elegant expressions of great skill, flowing taan-s, exposition of exquisite melodic patterns\u2014all these bring out many more \u201cWAAH!\u201d-s as the listeners in rapt attention express their delighted approval. This \u201cWAAH!\u201d is used by different listeners to express different aspects of unqualified, uncontaminated admiration. Thus, it is an expression of delighted approval; a communication to demonstrate esteem; it is the delighted or astonished approbation, appreciation; adoration, reverence, veneration, worship; deference, homage, honor; cherishing, and prizing. It is a burst of unrestrained expression of emotion, an act, a process, or instance of erupting; an abrupt excited utterance: overflowing with joyful enthusiasm; exuberance, ecstasy: a state of being carried away by overwhelming emotion; a state of elated bliss; a state of rapturous delight; a state of being beyond reason and self-control; a kind of trance, especially a mystic trance. \u201cWAAH!\u201d is given out unashamedly, without self-consciousness. Each \u201cWAAH\u201d is a listener\u2019s compliment from the bottom of his heart.","Realization of the raga as the IDEA (in Platonic sense of the term), it is recognition of the raga as the universal archetypal essence in which all the individuals, whether performers or listeners, coming under a universal concept participate. Plato used the Greek word idea to designate the universal Forms. There is no performer, there is no listener; there is only music\u2014no, not even music; there is just unstruck Sound, Nada-Brahma, in total void. Even the raga feels like personifying as a Deity, so as to enjoy being glorified by the devotees of music. There is a story which goes somewhat like this: King Akbar challenged Birbal to devise a ruthlessly rigorous test to identify those music listeners in his court, who could not help appreciating music very genuinely. Birbal agreed, and Akbar, following Birbal\u2019s suggested plan, in a state-wide proclamation, warned the people that anyone nodding his head and uttering \u201cWAAH!\u201d during a musical performance in his court, would be beheaded. Fear struck the audience attending the music performance in Akbar\u2019s court, when Tan-sen, one of the greatest singers ever, was singing at his very best. Nobody in the audience dared to nod his head and utter \u201cWAAH!\u201d in appreciation\u2014except the few, who could not help doing so, in sheer and genuine ecstasy. Akbar spotted them and ordered them beheaded. It was then that Birbal told Akbar that this was the test of genuine appreciation of music, devised according to the King\u2019s desire. Akbar pardoned those who could not help uttering \u201cWAAH!\u201d even under threat to their life. Indeed, Akbar rewarded them. We do not know what expressions convey appreciation of Western music by Western audiences during a musical performance. The listener who expresses \u201cWAAH!\u201d may be quite uninitiated in music. He may neither be trained nor learned. His sole qualification is his intuition, his innate ability to enjoy the most aesthetically pleasing musical nuances and niceties. In fact, such listeners\u2019 pre-eminent qualification is their naivete. I would dare to add that, in general, the more \u201ceducated and learned\u201d the listeners are, the less spontaneous their \u201cWAAH!\u201d is likely to become: they may try to evaluate \u2018intellectually\u2019 what is a purely aesthetic","(if not also spiritual) experience. This interference of the intellect introduces delay and doubt, causing such listeners to miss the whole point of listening. 161. ZAMZAMA [pronounced zam.zamaa] Zamzama is an embellishment employed in string instruments. In za- mzama a series of murki-s or krintan-s is performed in quick succession giving rise to a zig-zag taan. It is shaking a note, moving backwards and forwards.","APPENDICES \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0","I 101 POPULAR RAGA-S, WITH BASIC INFORMATION\u00a0 A table of the raga-s with their thaaT, time, prahar, aroha, avaroha, pak- ad, jati, vadi and samvadi.","","","","","","","II THE PRONUNCIATION\/ TRANSLITERATION SCHEME\u00a0 Symbol Example a bUt aa fAr, cAr b Boy c ch CHurCH d soft d as in French D hard d as in Dawn dh aspirated soft d Dh aspirated hard D e sEt ee fEEt f Fun g Gun gh aspirated g h Hut I hIt j Jug jh aspirated j k Kit l Lid m Mud n Nut","N kiND o Open p Put ph aspirated p q Quick r Run s Sum sh SHut t soft t as in French T Tom th aspirated soft t Th aspirated hard T u pUll v What w What x ksh as in rickshaw y Yes z this sound does not exist \u00a0","\u00a0 \u00a0 Trained in vocal tradition of Gwalior gharana, Haresh Bakshi is the founder of the web site http:\/\/www. SoundOfIndia.com Bakshi is a singer, composer and musicologist. With his experience of thirty years, Bakshi has performed several times and contributed many articles on North Indian music. He gives instructions on Indian music on the Internet, in addition to teaching it traditionally, that is, in the guru-shishya-parampara."]
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