Janice VanCleaves Great Science Project Ideas from Real Kids

["Project 28 What Effect Does the Type of Ground Cover Have on the Rate of Soil Erosion? Category: Earth Science\u2014Physiography Mechanical weathering is a physical change, Project Idea by: Alex and Drake Conner meaning the appearance of a material changes, but its properties and makeup remain the T he physical nature of Earth\u2019s crust same. For example, when a seed germinates in (the outer layer of Earth) is in a con- a crack in a rock, the growing plant that forms stant state of change. The changes are may push hard enough to split the rock. The the result of erosion, the process by which rock has been physically changed in that it rocks and other materials of Earth\u2019s crust are has been split into smaller pieces. broken down and carried away. The part of erosion that involves only the breakdown of Chemical weathering is the breakdown of crustal materials is called weathering. Two crustal materials due to chemical changes in weathering processes are mechanical weath- the substances making up the crust. A chemi- ering and chemical weathering. cal change produces one or more kinds of substances that are different from those pres- Mechanical weathering is the breakdown ent before the change. For example, iron in of crustal material by physical means. rocks combines with oxygen in the air, form- ing iron oxide (rust). 90","The moving part of erosion is caused by Design a way for equal amounts of water to natural agents such as water and ice. For rain down on the separate testing surfaces. example, water in a river erodes a riverbank, One way to measure erosion is to collect and forming both a solution and a suspension. measure the amount of soil washed off the When water in a river hits against the river- surface and collected at the lower end of bank, material breaks away, and some dis- each surface. solves in the water, forming a solution. Other materials that break away from the Independent Variable: Type of ground cover bank don\u2019t dissolve, but they mix with the Dependent Variable: Degree of erosion water, forming a suspension (a liquid mix- (measured by the amount of material ture made of parts that separate upon stand- washed away) ing). The moving water carries the Controlled Variables: Size and slope of sur- weathered materials away. faces, type and amount of dirt, amount of When new roads are built, material such water, type of watering method, measur- ing devices as hay is often placed over the newly formed Control: Soil without a covering roadside to help prevent erosion. A project Other Questions ? ? ?question might be, \u201cWhat effect does the to Explore ? ?type of ground cover have on the rate of soil ?erosion?\u201d 1. What effect does the slope of the land ? ? ?Clues for Your Investigation have on the rate of soil erosion? ? ? ?Cover four or more equal-sized pieces of ?boards, with dirt. Cover the dirt with differ- 2. What effect does plant growth have ? ? ?ent types of material such as leaves, hay, and on the rate of soil erosion? grass. Raise one end of each board the same ? ? ?amount so that it is at a slant to the ground. ????????????91","Project 29 How Does the Texture of Paper Affect Its Printing Quality? Category: Engineering\u2014Chemistry\u2014Technology The degree of absorbency of paper affects Project Idea by: David VanCleave and the brightness and sharpness of any lines of Sebastian Mead the ink printed on it. Poor-quality ink prints are made on paper with low absorbency, A bsorbency is the ability of a material to partly because the ink that is not absorbed by soak up a \ufb02uid such as water or ink. the paper tends to smear and\/or rub off the The absorption of liquid by paper is paper. Poor-quality ink prints are also made the result of the attraction between the liquid on paper with a very high degree of particles and the paper. The attraction absorbency. This is because the paper absorbs between like particles is called cohesion, and so much ink that the ink shapes have blurred the attraction between unlike particles is boundaries. The paper with just the right called adhesion. When the adhesion between amount of absorbency produces ink prints the liquid particles and the paper is greater with sharp, clear lines. Texture is how a sur- than the cohesion, the liquid is absorbed by face feels, such as smooth or rough. A project the paper. question might be, \u201cHow does the texture of paper affect its printing quality?\u201d 92","Clues for Your Investigation Determine a way of measuring printing ? ? ? ? ? ?quality. One way is to stamp an ink print on papers with different textures. Using a mag- ? ? ? ?nifying lens, compare the sharpness of the borders of the print on each type of paper. Dependent Variable: Texture of paper Independent Variable: Quality of ink print Controlled Variables: Shape of ink print, ink stamping procedure, measuring proce- dure, color of paper, weight of paper Control: Medium-textured paper ? ?? ?? ? ?? ??Other ? ? ? ?Questions ?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore 1. Does the color of testing papers affect printing quality? ? 2. Does the weight of testing papers affect printing quality? 3. Copy paper has a suggested side for printing. Is the absorbency different for each side of the paper? 4. Does the print on newspaper and magazine pages affect absorbency rate? 93","Project 30 What Type of Container Increases the Shelf Life of Bread? Category: Engineering\u2014Food Technology doesn\u2019t mean that the food will be inedible on that date. Instead, it indicates when the food Project Idea by: Arielle Simner and Naomi Chal\ufb01n most likely will start to go bad. Whether a particular food has a longer or shorter shelf S helf life is the period during which life than the expiration date or date mark food may be stored and remain suitable depends on storing conditions. For example, and safe to eat. Two ways of identifying if milk is left out of the refrigerator for a long shelf life are date mark and expiration date. A time, the milk will probably spoil before its date mark is a date stamped on the food date mark. package with instructions that read \u201cuse by [date]\u201d or \u201cbest before [date].\u201d A \u201cuse by\u201d The shelf life of food is affected by fat, date appears on highly perishable food with moisture, oxygen, heat, and time. Foods with short shelf lives such as milk and meats. more fat spoil faster. Oxygen, moisture, and These items may be dangerous to eat after the heat encourage the growth of microbes, date. The \u201cbest before\u201d date appears on foods which spoil food. So the longer foods are with longer shelf lives such as breads and exposed to oxygen (a gas in air), moisture, cookies. These foods are still edible after the and heat, the faster they spoil. The shelf life date, but their taste quality may not be as of foods increases if they are kept cool and good. For example, once the date on potato away from sunlight. Thus, foods should be chips has passed, they will not be bad, just stored in dark, cool places. less crisp. The length of time bread can be stored The expiration date on food tells you before it becomes stale (a decrease in the when you can expect the food to go bad. It quality of taste, due to age), dehydrated (dried out), or moldy is based on the type of 94","bread and the storage conditions. Some time it takes for bread slices to dehydrate. bread is packaged in plastic and some in cel- Design a measuring scale to compare bread lophane. Breads are also stored in different dryness. For example, the driest might be 1 types of open and closed containers. A proj- and the most moist 10. ect question might be, \u201cWhat type of con- tainer increases the shelf life of bread?\u201d Independent Variable: Different types of bread containers Clues for Your Investigation Use different kinds of bread containers including plastic bread sacks, cellophane ? ? ? ? ? ?bread wrappers, and a plastic box with a lid. The shelf life of bread is measured by the ? ? ?freshness of bread. One measure of fresh- ?ness is its moisture content. Compare the Dependent Variable: Time to reach dryness of 1 on your scale Controlled Variables: Environmental condi- tions including temperature, light, and humidity, type of bread, size of samples, same \u201cbest before\u201d date Control: Bread without a container ? ?? ?? ? ?? ??Other ? ? ? ?Questions ?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore 1. How does temperature affect the drying of bread? ? 2. Staleness is a measure of the quality of a food\u2019s taste. How does temperature affect the staling rate of bread? 3. Mold is a sign of old or stale bread. How does water activity affect the growth of mold? 95","Project 31 How Does the Degree of Stretching Affect the Ability of Plastic Food Wraps to Keep Foods Fresh? Category: Engineering\u2014Product Development the ability to allow some particles to pass Project Idea by: Britney Fleming through but not others. A semipermeable material acts like a tea strainer\u2014small parti- D iffusion is the movement of particles cles pass through the holes, but large particles from one place to another. Particles do not. The particles that diffuse through a diffuse from more concentrated (par- permeable or semipermeable material move ticles are grouped together) areas to areas of from the side of the material where they are less concentration. One type of diffusion is at higher concentrations to the side where the movement of particles through a perme- they are at lower concentrations. able membrane (a thin sheet of \ufb02exible mate- rial). Permeability is the ability of a material The movement of the particles continues to allow substances to diffuse through it. toward the side of low concentration until the concentrations on both sides of the mem- Some membranes such as plastic food wrap brane are equal. Once they pass through the are semipermeable, which means they have membrane, the particles continue to ran- domly move until they are evenly spread out. 96","When the concentration of a certain type starch and water mixture, which happens of particle is the same on both sides of the when iodine particles come in contact with membrane, the particles continue to move starch particles. In making the starch and through the membrane. But for every parti- iodine solutions, use distilled water. For the cle that moves through the membrane in starch solution, add 1 teaspoon (5 mL) of one direction, a particle moves through the cornstarch to every 1\u20444 cup (63 mL) of water. membrane in the opposite direction. Thus, The iodine solution can be made by adding the concentration on both sides of the mem- 5 drops of tincture of iodine (found at the brane remains the same. pharmacy) to 1\u20444 cup (63 mL) of water. CAUTION: Iodine stains. It is also a poison, The plastic in food wraps and food bags is so heed the warnings on the bottle. Do not a semipermeable material. The more perme- do this experiment if you are allergic to tinc- able the plastic, the greater the rate of diffu- ture of iodine. sion of particles through the plastic; thus, the less effective the plastic is at keeping the Independent Variable: Degree of stretching food fresh. Plastic food wraps are stretched of plastic wrap over food containers. A project question might be, \u201cHow does the degree of stretch- Dependent Variable: Diffusion of iodine, ing affect the ability of plastic food wraps to measured by the appearance of the blue- keep foods fresh?\u201d black color Clues for Your Investigation Controlled Variables: Concentration of iodine in iodine and water solution and Design a way to stretch plastic food wraps. amount of this solution used, concentra- One way could be to pull the plastic with tion of starch in the starch and water mix- your hands. Stretch each piece with differ- ture and amount used, container over ent amounts of force. Semipermeable plastic which plastic is stretched, type of plastic food wrap is permeable to iodine particles wrap, distilled water, environmental con- but not to starch particles. When iodine ditions such as temperature and light combines with starch, a blue-black sub- stance is produced. To test the permeability Control: Piece of plastic wrap that has not of plastic wrap, determine the speed at been stretched which iodine diffuses through it. This can be done by placing a thick solution of starch ? ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions and water in the center of a piece of plastic ? ? ?to Explore food wrap. Bring the sides of the wrap ? ? ?1. How does temperature affect diffusion together and secure with a twist-tie, forming ?through plastic food wrap? a closed testing bag. Make two labeled test- ? ? ?2. How does time affect diffusion ing bags from each stretched plastic wrap being tested. Then place one bag of each through plastic food wrap? type of plastic bag in a solution of iodine (tincture of iodine) and one of each type in ? ? ?3. How does the type of food wrap water. Design a timing method. One way is ?affect the rate of diffusion of to determine the time it takes for the \ufb01rst ? ? ?particles? appearance of a blue-black color on the ? ???? ?? ?97","Project 32 What Effect Does Triangle Size Have on the Strength of a Truss Bridge? Category: Engineering\u2014Structural Engineering and tension are produced. Compression is a force that pushes materials together, and Project Idea by: Rosemary Kalonaros and tension is a force that pulls materials apart. Megan Ganzenmuller In the diagram, the weight of the bridge as well as the weight of the car causes the beam I n designing a bridge, an engineer must to bend. The top edge of the beam has short- consider the types of forces that will be ened because the compression forces, indi- applied to the bridge. A force is a push or cated by the arrows pointing toward each pull on an object. Two of the forces that must other in the illustration, squeeze the materi- be considered when designing a bridge are als together. The bottom edge of the beam has gravity forces and lateral forces. Weight is the lengthened due to tension forces, indicated measure of gravity, which on Earth is a by the arrows pointing in opposite directions, measure of the force pulling objects toward stretching the material. Earth\u2019s center. The weight or gravity of an object increases as the mass of the object Lateral forces are those directed at the increases. side of the bridge or other structure. These forces include those generated by things such Weight causes some structures to bend as the wind, earthquakes, and explosions. As downward. When this happens, compression a system (different parts working together as 98","one unit), a structure must be designed so bridges must be of comparable length, width, that it can resist all forces to which it is sub- and height, with trusses containing differ- jected, including gravitational and lateral ent-sized triangles. Design a way to test the forces. strength of the bridges such as supporting The most basic bridge design is a beam the bridge ends and adding a measured bridge. A log across a creek is one of the amount of weight until each bridge breaks. simplest beam bridges. Since beam bridges cannot span great distances, other types of Independent Variable: Size of triangles bridges have been designed such as truss bridges. A truss bridge is a bridge with Dependent Variable: Strength of truss bridge trusses (a simple skeletal structure made up of straight beams forming triangular Controlled Variables: Type of building mate- shapes). A triangle is a geometric shape that rials, type of strength-testing device, size has a small amount of \ufb02exibility. By using of bridges many combinations of triangles in a truss, the unit can be designed to carry a great deal Control: Truss with the median size of of weight and span great distances. A proj- triangles ect question might be, \u201cWhat effect does tri- angle size have on the strength of a truss ? ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions bridge?\u201d ? ? ?to Explore ? ? ?1. How do the vertical beams affect the Clues for Your Investigation ?strength of a truss bridge? ? ? ?2. How does the strength of different Build small truss bridges with different-sized trusses and test their strength. The bridges truss designs, such as the Howe, the can be built with simple materials such as craft sticks, toothpicks, and straws. The ?? ? ??????? ???? ?Pratt, and the Warren, compare? 99","Project 33 How Steady Is the Moon\u2019s Angular Speed from One Day to the Next? Category: Mathematics\u2014Angular Measurements appears to be slower than some of the stars in moving across the night sky to the western Project Idea by: Sarah Yount horizon. The apparent race between the stars and the Moon is due to Earth\u2019s daily rotation T he apparent distance between celes- on its axis, which causes celestial bodies to tial bodies is how far apart they appear appear to move from east to west across the to be from an observer on Earth. This sky. Unlike the stars, which in relation to distance measured in degrees is called the Earth are relatively stationary, the Moon angular distance. revolves around Earth from west to east. It takes about 29 days for the Moon to complete The width and distance between your \ufb01n- its revolution. So each night the Moon gers can also be used to measure sky dis- appears to move toward the west because of tances. Holding your hands at arm\u2019s length, Earth\u2019s rotation, but at the same time it is use the diagram to measure different angular slightly moving toward the east because of its distances. A combination of measurements own revolution. It is sort of like watching can be used such as measuring the distance people on a moving escalator. If one person between the stars of the Big Dipper as shown slowly steps backward, it appears that every- in the example. one else is moving forward and passing the slower person. The Moon, which is Earth\u2019s only natural satellite (a celestial body orbiting another), 100","Speed is a measurement of distance in a ular star. Record this distance as d1. After 1 given time period. For example, a car travel- hour, again measure the distance between ing at 50 miles per hour moves a distance of 50 miles in a time period of 1 hour. The the Moon and the star. (Be sure it is the speed of celestial bodies is measured in degrees per a given time and is called angu- same star.) Record this distance as d2. Make lar speed. A project question might be, three more measurements, each 1 hour \u201cHow steady is the Moon\u2019s angular speed from one day to the next?\u201d apart and all using the same star for refer- Clues for Your Investigation ence. Record the distances as d3, d4, and d5. Use the formulas in the table to determine Measure the Moon\u2019s angular speed on sev- eral nights. Take measurements on clear, the average angular distance and the angular dark nights. Design a measurement method. One way is to use your hands to measure speed of the Moon for that night. Compare the distance between the Moon and a partic- this average to the average angular speed for other nights. Time, t Distance, D Speed, D\/t 1 hour D1 = d1 \u2013 d2 S1 = D\/1 hr 2 hours D2 = d1 \u2013 d3 S2 = D\/2 hr 3 hours D3 = d1 \u2013 d4 S3 = D\/3 hr 4 hours D4 = d1 \u2013 d5 S4 = D\/4 hr Average Dav = Sav= (S1+ S2 + S3 + S4) \u00f7 4 (D1+ D2+ D3+ D4) \u00f7 4 Independent Variable: Time Dependent Variable: Angular distance over which the Moon moves Controlled Variables: Measuring procedure, star used for comparison Control: The Moon\u2019s average angular speed ???????????? ???? ????Other ? ? ? ?Questions ? ? ? ? ?to Explore 1. At what apparent angular speed do some of the more easily visible planets, such as Mars and Jupiter, move each day? 2. What is the apparent angular speed that stars move each day? ??? ???? ?? ????101 ?","Project 34 How Does the Ratio of Two Dyes in a Mixture Affect Its Color? Category: Mathematics\u2014Ratio you have two eyes and ten toes. The compari- Project Idea by: Easton and Weston Walker son of 2 to 10 would be simpli\ufb01ed, so the ratio would be 1 to 5, 1:5, or 1\/5. Order is A ratio is a pair of numbers used to com- important when writing a ratio. For the blue pare quantities. It can be expressed in paint to yellow paint, the ratio is 3 to 10, not three different ways: (1) in words, 10 to 3. Eyes to toes is 1 to 5, 5 to 1. (2) with a colon, or (3) as a fraction. For example, the mixture of three parts of blue Paints, like other coloring materials, con- paint with ten parts of yellow paint would tain colorants. A colorant that dissolves in a look like this: liquid is called a dye. When dyes are mixed, a new color is produced. A project question Comparison In words With a As a might be, \u201cHow does the ratio of two dyes in Blue to yellow using \u201cto\u201d colon fraction a mixture affect its color?\u201d 3 to 10 3:10 3\/10 Clues for Your Investigation A ratio is generally written as a simpli\ufb01ed Prepare two solutions using distilled water fraction. For the comparison of eyes to toes, and two colors of food coloring. For example, if the dye colors to be used are blue and 102","yellow, make testing solutions by mixing dif- ture. For example, a mixture of blue to yel- ferent ratios of blue and yellow. Make sure low with a ratio of 1:1 is green. A mixture of that each solution has the same amount of blue to yellow with ratios of 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1 water. Design a method for mixing the dyes could be called light blue-green, medium together in speci\ufb01c ratios such as by measur- blue-green, and dark blue-green, respec- ing out spoons of dye and pouring them into transparent cups. If the mixture is blue to yellow and the ratio is 1:2, then mix 1 spoon ? ? ? ? ? ?of blue dye and 2 spoons of yellow dye. Design a method of describing the color pro- ? ? ? ?duced. One way is to compare the dyes with ? ?the color of the control, which is a 1:1 mix- tively. Independent Variable: Ratio of dyes Dependent Variable: Color of mixture Controlled Variables: Measuring instrument, method of measuring color, dye solutions Control: 1:1 dye ratio ? ? ?? ? ? ??Other ? ? ? ?Questions ?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore 1. What effect does the ratio of three or more dyes have on the resultant color of the mixture? 2. What effect does the ratio of dry colorants, such as colored sand, have on the resultant color of the mixture? ? 103","Project 35 How Does a Refrigerant\u2019s Surface Area Affect How Well It Cools? Category: Physics\u2013Energy\u2014Heat surface area. A project question might be, \u201cHow does a refrigerant\u2019s surface area affect Project Idea by: Declan Morgan how well it cools?\u201d T emperature is the measure of how hot Clues for Your Investigation or cold a material is. Heat is the energy that \ufb02ows from a warm material to a Design a way to measure the effectiveness of cool material. For a material\u2019s temperature to a refrigerant such as ice. One way is to deter- decrease, it must lose heat. For a material to mine how fast ice cream melts when it\u2019s put increase in temperature, it must gain heat. in contact with ice having different surface areas such as different sizes of crushed ice A refrigerant is a material used to cool and cubed ice. A measured amount of ice other materials. Ice is a refrigerant that owes cream can be placed in a cup and surrounded its effectiveness to the fact that it stays at its by one form of ice. After a predetermined freezing temperature of 32\u00b0F (0\u00b0C) until it time, measure the amount of melted ice absorbs enough heat to melt. cream. To measure how much has melted, pour just the liquid into a measuring cup. Surface area is the size of the surface of Use the same amount of refrigerant for each an object. Surface area increases with the test. subdivision of the material. For example, crushing and grinding a solid will increase its 104","Independent Variable: Refrigerant\u2019s surface ? ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions area ? ? ?to Explore ? ? ?1. How does insulating material affect a Dependent Variable: Effectiveness of refrig- ?refrigerant\u2019s effectiveness? erant determined by amount of melted ice ? ? ?2. How does the thermal conductivity of cream a material affect cooling or heating it? Controlled Variables: Amount of ice cream, amount of refrigerant, containers, incre- ? ? ?3. Are gel ice packs better refrigerants ments of time, measuring device ? ? ???? ?? ? ?? ?than ice? Control: Ice cream not surrounded by a refrigerant 105","Project 36 What Effect Does Salt Concentration Have on the Speci\ufb01c Heat of an Aqueous Salt Solution? Category: Physics\u2014Energy\u2014Heat heat to increase or decrease its temperature. Project Idea by: Daniel O\u2019Leary and The opposite is true for a material with a high speci\ufb01c heat. John Paul Carollo Pots and pans should be made with materi- H eat is the energy that is transferred als having low speci\ufb01c heats. That way, it between objects because of differ- doesn\u2019t take much heat to get the pot or pan ences in their temperature. It moves hot, and most of the heat goes into cooking from an object with a higher temperature to the food. Wood has a higher speci\ufb01c heat one with a lower temperature. Speci\ufb01c heat than metal. When the same amount of heat is is a measure of how well a material resists added, a wooden handle on a pot does not get changing its temperature. A material with a as hot as a metal handle. low speci\ufb01c heat changes temperature easily; it has to gain or lose only a small amount of Water has a very high speci\ufb01c heat: 1 cal\/g \u00b0C. One calorie of heat is needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1\u00b0C. 106","This speci\ufb01c heat is for pure water. A proj- Independent Variable: Amount of salt ect question might be, \u201cWhat effect does salt concentration have on the speci\ufb01c heat of an Dependent Variable: Temperature change aqueous salt solution?\u201d Controlled Variables: Amount of water, type Clues for Your Investigation of containers, method of cooling, time intervals for measuring Design a safe method of measuring tempera- ture changes. One way is to cool the water ? ? ?Control: Distilled water and water-and-salt solutions instead of heat- ? ? ?Other Questions ing. Start with a measured amount of dis- ? ? ?to Explore tilled water at room temperature. The water ? ? ?1. Do other kinds of solutes such as can be cooled by placing the container in the ?sugar or baking soda affect the spe- refrigerator or surrounding it with ice. Mea- ?ci\ufb01c heat of an aqueous solution? sure the temperature every 5 minutes for 30 ? ?2. How can the speci\ufb01c heat of different or more minutes. Repeat the experiment ?? ? ??????? ???? ?solids be compared? using the same amount of water but with different amounts of salt mixed in. 107","Project 37 What Effect Does the Time of Day Have on Passive Solar Heating? Category: Physics\u2014Energy\u2014Solar through pipes to heat a building or to heat air blown into the building. Project Idea by: Connor Fields Passive solar heating does not use any S olar energy is a form of radiant energy mechanical means of distributing the col- from the Sun. Radiant energy is energy lected heat; instead, it is direct heating from in the form of waves that can travel sunlight. For example, when sunlight comes through space. Solar heating is a process of through a window, it is absorbed by materials using solar energy to heat materials. There in the room, causing them to heat up. Heat is are two types of solar heating: active and pas- transferred from warm materials to cold sive. Active solar heating involves using materials until the temperature of the special devices for absorbing and transporting materials is the same. Thus, the heat transfer solar energy. For example, some solar collec- is by natural means. To get the most out of tors are covered with tubes containing water. passive solar heating, buildings can be As sunlight strikes the collector, solar energy designed so that more sunlight will enter. In is absorbed and the heat is transferred to the the Northern Hemisphere, the path of the water in the tubes. The hot water circulates Sun is from east to west across the southern sky. So a building with large windows facing 108","the south will receive the greatest amount of way is to design a solar cooker and deter- sunlight. mine how hot a container of water gets in Because of the variations in the amount of the cooker in a given amount of time. Use a solar energy received during the day and at thermometer to measure the change in the a particular location, generally neither temperature of the water. Repeat the proce- active nor passive solar heating is the only dure at different times during the day. heating source for a building. In order to know when solar heating is going to be the Independent Variable: Time of day most effective, you must know when the greatest amount of solar energy can be col- lected during the day. A project question might be, \u201cWhat effect does the time of day have on passive solar heating?\u201d ? ? ? ? ? ?Clues forYour Investigation ? ? ? ?Design a way to measure the amount of ? ?solar energy at different times of day. One Dependent Variable: Amount of solar heat measured by water temperature Controlled Variables: Solar cooker, amount of time the water is cooked, energy source (sunlight), measuring device (thermome- ter), environmental conditions such as humidity and cloudiness, position of cooker Control: Median time ? ? ?? ? ? ??Other ? ? ? ?Questions ?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore 1. What effect does the color of the solar cooker have on the ? amount of solar energy absorbed? 2. How does the placement of the solar cooker in relation to sunlight affect the amount of solar energy absorbed? 3. What is a greenhouse, and how does the location of a green- house affect the amount of solar energy absorbed? 109","Project 38 How Does the Size of a Vibrating Surface Affect the Pitch of Its Sound? Category: Physics\u2014Energy\u2014Sound (move back and forth) at a particular fre- quency (the number of vibrations per sec- Project Idea by: Zachary N.C. and ond). The vibrations of the ruler cause the air Catherine E. Daunis particles around the ruler to move back and forth at the same frequency, creating areas of S ound is energy produced by a vibrating compression (where the particles are pushed material that can be heard and is also together) and rarefaction (where the parti- called sound waves, which are waves cles are spread apart). Waves such as sound produced as a result of the vibration of a waves that have areas of compression and material. Vibration is a back and forth or up rarefaction are called longitudinal waves. and down motion. Sound originates from a vibrating object that forces the particles of a The movement of the air around the medium (the material sound passes through) vibrating ruler transfers the sound energy to vibrate. For example, if one end of a ruler through the air. The vibrating air enters your is held securely to a table and the end extend- ears and hits against your eardrums causing ing past the table is pushed down, the free them to vibrate. The frequency of the vibra- end of the ruler can be observed to vibrate tion of the eardrums is perceived by your brain as a speci\ufb01c sound called pitch. The 110","\u201cHow does the size of a vibrating surface affect the pitch of its sound?\u201d Clues for Your Investigation Make one type of percussion instrument such as a drum in different sizes. Drums have plastic or other materials stretched tightly across a hollow plastic, wooden, or metal cylinder. Decide on the material to be used and make drums that have the same shape but vary in surface size. Decide on how the drums will be struck, and use the greater the frequency, the higher the pitch. same procedure when testing each drum. As the length of the ruler decreases, its fre- Compare the pitch produced by each drum. quency increases, producing increasingly higher-pitched sounds. Percussion instruments are musical ? ? ? ? ? ?instruments that make sound when you strike or shake them. Percussion instru- ? ? ?ments include drums, xylophones, gongs, ?and cymbals. Drums come in different sizes ? ? ? ?and shapes. A project question might be, Independent Variable: Surface size of drum Dependent Variable: Pitch Controlled Variables: Material the drums are made of, shape of the drums, how the drums will be tested Control: Medium-sized drum surface ? ? ? ? ? ?Other ? ? ? ?Questions ?? ? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???to Explore 1. What effect does the density of a vibrating material have on pitch? 2. What effect does the shape of a vibrating material have on pitch? ? 111","Project 39 How Does Density Affect the Buoyancy of Objects? Category: Physics\u2014Mechanics\u2014Buoyancy water it displaces, and thus the lower it sits in the water. Project Idea by: Amy Grabina and Britanny Manchio An object \ufb02oats or sinks in water because of the difference between the total downward B uoyancy is the upward force of a \ufb02uid force and the total upward force acting on the on an object placed in it. Archimedes object. If no other forces are acting on the (287\u2013212 B.C.), a Greek mathematician, object, the downward force is equal to the is given credit for explaining buoyancy. Float- weight (Fwt) of the object, and the upward ing is usually associated with water or air, force is equal to buoyancy (FB). Weight is the but \ufb02oating can describe any object that is measure of the force of gravity acting on the suspended in any \ufb02uid, whether it is a liquid object. If the weight of the object is less than or a gas. The term buoyant is a measure of the buoyancy on the object, then the object how well an object \ufb02oats. \ufb02oats. If the weight of the object is greater than the buoyancy on the object, then the When an object such as a boat is placed in object sinks. In diagram A, the weight of water, the submerged part of the object dis- the boat is equal to the buoyancy on it, which places (pushes aside) an amount of water is indicated by equal-length arrows; thus, whose weight is equal to the weight of the Fwt = FB, and the boat \ufb02oats. In diagram B, object. The heavier the object, the more the weight of the boat is greater than the 112","A buoyancy on it, which is indicated by unequal-length arrows; thus, Fw > FB, and the boat sinks. Since an object continues to sink into the B water until it displaces an amount of water whose weight equals the weight of the measurement, determine the density of each object, would spreading out the weight boat using this formula: make a difference in buoyancy? Volume is how much space an object takes up. For density = mass \u00f7 volume. example, a piece of aluminum foil that is Determine a way to compare buoyancy such wadded into a tight ball has a small size and as by measuring the height of the boat above thus a small volume. If the same-size piece the waterline. of aluminum foil has a boat shape, it has the Independent Variable: Boats with different same weight, but it now has a bigger size (a volumes bigger volume). Boats are made of different materials such Dependent Variable: Buoyancy measured by as wood and steel. But boats are not solid the height of the boat above the waterline pieces of material. Instead, boats have Controlled Variables: Mass of the boats, hollow spaces \ufb01lled with air. Air is lighter material used, testing container for hold- than wood or metal. The more hollow ing water, method of measuring buoyancy spaces a boat has, the greater its volume. Control: Median density ? ? ?Since density is a measure of the mass of a ? ?given volume, a project question might be, Other Questions ?\u201cHow does density affect the buoyancy of to Explore ?objects?\u201d ? ? ? ? ?Clues for Your Investigation 1. How does the placement of cargo in a ? ?Build boats with the same mass but different boat affect its buoyancy? ? ?volumes. Use the same kind and amount of ?material. Determine a way to measure the 2. What effect do building materials have ? ?volume of each boat such as submerging the on buoyancy? ?boats in water and measuring the amount of ?water displaced. With the mass and volume 3. What effect does salinity of ocean water have on buoyancy? ??? ?? ????113","Project 40 How Does Mass Affect the Period of a Pendulum? Category: Physics\u2014Mechanics\u2014Pendulum Displacement is the distance a pendulum moves to one side from its vertical position. Project Idea by: Chris Holi\ufb01eld Since the pendulum moves in an arc (a part of a circle), its displacement is an angular Apendulum is a device with a bob (a distance measured in degrees. The displace- weight) hung from a \ufb01xed pivot (the ment angle is measured from the pendulum\u2019s point on which something turns) so vertical position. At a displacement angle of that it swings back and forth. When a 15\u00b0 or less, the periodic motion of the pendu- pendulum hangs so that its bob is directly lum is the same; that is, regardless of the dis- below the pivot, it experiences zero net force placement of the pendulum, as long as it is (the sum of all forces simultaneously acting 15\u00b0 or less, the period of the pendulum will on an object) and is said to be at its resting be the same. point. When the bob is pulled to one side and released, it repeatedly swings back and Since weight is a measure of the gravita- forth. One back-and-forth motion is called a tional pull on an object, would pendulums vibration. The pendulum\u2019s period (T) is of different weights have different periods? the time required to complete one vibration. As the mass of an object increases, its The equation for period is: weight increases. A project problem might period (T) = time\/vibrations. be, \u201cHow does mass affect the period of a pendulum?\u201d 114","Clues for Your Investigation ? ? ? ? ?Other Questions ?to Explore Design pendulums that are the same except ? ? ?1. What effect does a displacement for the weight of the bob. They might be ?greater than 15% have on the period washers tied to a string. You can vary the ? ?of a pendulum? weight of the bob by using a different num- ? ?2. What effect does the stiffness of the ber of washers for each pendulum. Pull the ? ?bob support have on the period of a pendulums to one side so that they all start ?pendulum? with the same displacement. Count the ? ?3. What effect does the size of the bob oscillations in a given time period. ? ?have on the period of a pendulum? ? ?4. What effect does the length of a pen- Independent Variable: Weight of bobs ? ? ?? ? ? ? ?dulum have on its period? Dependent Variable: Period Constant Variables: Length of pendulum, timing of period, displacement angle Control: Median-weight pendulum 115","","ApSpteenpdix1 A 100 Project Ideas AGRICULTURE 9. How does Earth\u2019s rotation affect the position of stars in a constellation in relation to one 1. What effect does the pH of soil have on plant another? growth? Independent variable: Earth\u2019s rotation (deter- Independent variable: Soil pH mined by passing of time measured in min- Dependent variable: Plant growth utes or hours) Dependent variable: Star position 2. What effect does soil pH have on the color of \ufb02owers? 10. What effect does the color of a material have on Independent variable: Soil pH it absorption of solar energy? Dependent variable: Flower color Independent variable: Color of material Dependent variable: Absorption of solar energy 3. What effect does seed size have on the number of (measured by an increase in temperature) seeds that germinate? Independent variable: Seed size BIOLOGY Dependent variable: Number of germinating seeds 11. What effect does gender have on the rate of eye blinking? 4. How does the surface area of soil affect evapora- Independent variable: Gender tion rate? Dependent variable: Rate of eye blinking Independent variable: Surface area Dependent variable: Evaporation rate 12. What effect does age have on the rate of eye blinking? 5. What effect does wind speed have on the evapo- Independent variable: Age ration rate of water from soil? Dependent variable: Rate of eye blinking Independent variable: Wind speed Dependent variable: Evaporation rate 13. What effect does air temperature have on ant activity near an anthill entrance? ASTRONOMY Independent variable: Air temperature Dependent variable: Ant activity 6. How does the position of the Sun in the sky dur- ing the day affect the length of Sun shadows? 14. How does the age of a plant leaf affect the leaf\u2019s Independent variable: Position of the Sun (deter- size? mined by passing of time measured in min- Independent variable: Leaf age utes or hours) Dependent variable: Leaf size Dependent variable: Length of Sun shadows 15. How does the type of plant (monocot or dicot) CAUTION: Do not look directly at the Sun affect the pattern of leaf veins? because it can permanently damage your eyes. Independent variable: Plant type\u2014monocot or dicot 7. How does the position of the Sun in the sky dur- Dependent variable: Vein pattern in leaves ing the day affect the direction of Sun shadows? Independent variable: Position of the Sun (deter- 16. What effect does the location of water have on mined by passing of time measured in min- the direction of plant root growth? utes or hours) Independent variable: Location of water Dependent variable: Direction of Sun shadows Dependent variable: Direction of plant root growth 8. How does the amount of light pollution affect the visibility of stars? 17. What effect does the amount of sunlight have on Independent variable: Amount of light pollution the rate of chlorosis in grass? (design a scale such as 1 is almost no light Independent variable: Amount of sunlight and 10 is the lights of a large city) Dependent variable: Rate of chlorosis in grass Dependent variable: Degree of visibility 117","18. What effect does water pH have on the growth of Independent variable: Hair color the water plant elodea? Dependent variable: Skin freckles Independent variable: Water pH Dependent variable: Growth of elodea 31. How similar are the \ufb01ngerprints of siblings? Independent variable: Siblings 19. What effect does the amount of sunlight have on Dependent variable: Fingerprints the growth of elodea? Independent variable: Amount of sunlight 32. What effect does the period of time an eye is Dependent variable: Growth of elodea closed have on its pupil size? Independent variable: Time eye is closed 20. How does temperature affect the blooming of a Dependent variable: Pupil size \ufb02ower? Independent variable: Temperature 33. How does temperature affect the rate of insect Dependent variable: Flower blooming metamorphosis? Independent variable: Temperature 21. How does the amount of light affect the bloom- Dependent variable: Rate of metamorphosis ing of a \ufb02ower? Independent variable: Amount of light 34. What effect does gender have on the sense of Dependent variable: Flower blooming smell? Independent variable: Gender 22. What effect does wind have on the rate of Dependent variable: Sense of smell transpiration? Independent variable: Amount of wind 35. What effect does age have on the sense of smell? Dependent variable: Rate of transpiration Independent variable: Age Dependent variable: Sense of smell 23. What effect does cigarette tobacco in soil have on plant growth? 36. What effect does age have on the sense of Independent variable: Amount of cigarette touch? tobacco in soil Independent variable: Age Dependent variable: Plant growth Dependent variable: Sense of touch 24. Which paper found around the house has the 37. What effect does gender have on the sense of fastest rate of biodegradability? touch? Independent variable: Type of paper Independent variable: Gender Dependent variable: Rate of biodegradability Dependent variable: Sense of touch 25. What effect does the color of paper have on its CHEMISTRY rate of biodegradability? Independent variable: Color of paper 38. What effect does the type of solute have on the Dependent variable: Rate of biodegradability rate of crystallization? Independent variable: Type of solute 26. How does temperature affect the rate at which Dependent variable: Rate of crystallization fruit ripens? Independent variable: Temperature 39. What effect does the temperature of a solution Dependent variable: Rate of fruit ripening have on the rate of crystallization? Independent variable: Temperature of a solution 27. How does light affect the rate at which fruit Dependent variable: Rate of crystallization ripens? Independent variable: Light 40. During crystallization, what effect does the rate Dependent variable: Rate of fruit ripening of evaporation have on the size of crystals formed? 28. How does ethylene gas affect the rate at which Independent variable: Rate of evaporation fruit ripens? Dependent variable: Crystal size Independent variable: Ethylene gas Dependent variable: Rate of fruit ripening 41. How does the pH of water affect the rate of the rusting of iron? 29. What relationship is there between hair color Independent variable: Water pH and eye color? Dependent variable: Rate of rusting Independent variable: Hair color Dependent variable: Eye color 42. What effect does exercise have on the production of carbon dioxide in humans? 30. What relationship is there between hair color Independent variable: Exercise and skin freckles? Dependent variable: Carbon dioxide production 118","43. What is the effect of salt on the freezing point of 54. How does wind direction affect direction of sur- water? face currents? Independent variable: Amount of salt Independent variable: Wind direction Dependent variable: Freezing point of water Dependent variable: Current direction 44. What effect does the type of solute have on 55. What effect does the concentration of dust parti- degree of solubility? cles have on sky color? Independent variable: Type of solute Independent variable: Dust particle concentra- Dependent variable: Degree of solubility (meas- tion ured by the amount of solute that can be Dependent variable: Sky color dissolved in a speci\ufb01c amount of solvent) 56. What effect does dust particle size have on sky EARTH SCIENCE color? Independent variable: Dust particle size 45. What effect does the amount of ground cover Dependent variable: Sky color have on soil concentration in runoff? Independent variable: Amount of ground cover 57. How does air pressure affect the type of clouds Dependent variable: Soil concentration in runoff formed? Independent variable: Air pressure 46. What effect does the type of ground cover have Dependent variable: Cloud type on soil concentration in runoff? Independent variable: Type of ground cover 58. How does air temperature affect the type of Dependent variable: Soil concentration in clouds formed? runoff Independent variable: Air temperature Dependent variable: Cloud type 47. What effect does plant density have on soil erosion? 59. What effect does wind speed have on the type of Independent variable: Plant density clouds formed? Dependent variable: Soil erosion Independent variable: Wind speed Dependent variable: Cloud type 48. What effect do the type of plant roots have on soil erosion? ENGINEERING Independent variable: Type of plant roots Dependent variable: Soil erosion 60. What effect does the shape of an object have on its strength? 49. How does the mixture of mineral solutions affect Independent variable: Shape of object crystal growth? Dependent variable: Strength Independent variable: Mixture of solutions Dependent variable: Crystal growth 61. Which brand of antacid tablet is the best at neu- tralizing stomach acid? 50. How does soil color affect the cooling of land? Independent variable: Brand of antacid tablet Independent variable: Soil color Dependent variable: Degree of neutralization Dependent variable: Temperature change of the soil 62. Which brand of hair spray holds hair in place the longest time? 51. What effect does the Sun\u2019s sky position have on Independent variable: Brand of hair spray air temperature? Dependent variable: Holding time Independent variable: Sun\u2019s sky position (deter- mined by time measured in hours) 63. Which brand of toilet paper decomposes the Dependent variable: Air temperature fastest in water? Independent variable: Brand of toilet paper 52. How does the difference between land and water Dependent variable: Rate of decomposition temperature affect the direction of wind? Independent variable: Temperature difference 64. Which brand of detergent has the most effect on between land and water stain removal from clothes? Dependent variable: Wind direction Independent variable: Brand of detergent Dependent variable: Degree of stain removal 53. How does the depth of water affect the altitude of water waves? 65. Which type of cloth is the most resistant to food Independent variable: Depth of water stain? Dependent variable: Altitude of water waves Independent variable: Type of cloth Dependent variable: Degree of resistance to food stain 119","66. Which brand of shampoo produces the most 77. How do the number of coils in a solenoid affect lather? the strength of an electromagnet? Independent variable: Brand of shampoo Independent variable: Number of coils in a Dependent variable: Amount of lather solenoid Dependent variable: Magnetic strength 67. What effect does borax concentration have on softening water? 78. What effect does the intermittent use of a dry- Independent variable: Borax concentration cell battery have on its life? Dependent variable: Degree of water softness Independent variable: Time intervals of use of a dry-cell battery 68. Which brand of washable colored markers does Dependent variable: Length of life of a dry-cell water most effectively remove from skin? battery Independent variable: Brand of washable colored markers 79. What effect does the type of material charged Dependent variable: Degree of water solubility have on the time it holds a static charge? Independent variable: Type of material MATHEMATICS Dependent variable: Time of holding a static charge 69. How does age affect the mean height of a group? Independent variable: Age 80. What effect does humidity have on the strength Dependent variable: Height of a static charge? Independent variable: Humidity 70. How does gender affect the mean height of a Dependent variable: Strength of a static charge group? Independent variable: Gender 81. What effect does temperature have on the Dependent variable: Height strength of a static charge? Independent variable: Temperature 71. How does the height of a rain gauge affect the Dependent variable: Strength of a static charge distance between scale measurements? Independent variable: Height of rain gauge 82. Which brand of battery lasts the longest? Dependent variable: Distance between scale Independent variable: Brand of battery measurements Dependent variable: Time to discharge the battery 72. How does the diameter of a rain gauge affect the distance between scale measurements? 83. What effect does the wattage of a lightbulb have Independent variable: Diameter of rain gauge on the amount of light it emits? Dependent variable: Distance between scale Independent variable: Wattage of lightbulb measurements Dependent variable: Amount of light PHYSICS 84. What effect does the number of strokes of a mag- net on a nail have on the degree the nail is 73. How does the length of the string of a stringed magnetized? instrument affect pitch? Independent variable: Strokes of a magnet on a Independent variable: String length nail Dependent variable: Pitch Dependent variable: Degree of magnetism 74. How does the thickness of the string of a 85. How does the position of the fulcrum in a \ufb01rst- stringed instrument affect pitch? class lever affect the weight it can lift? Independent variable: String thickness Independent variable: Fulcrum position Dependent variable: Pitch Dependent variable: Weight lifted 75. How does the volume of water in a glass bottle 86. How does the position of the fulcrum in a \ufb01rst- affect the pitch of the sound produced when the class lever affect the force needed to lift an bottle is struck? object? Independent variable: Volume of water Independent variable: Fulcrum position Dependent variable: Pitch Dependent variable: Force applied 76. How does the volume of water in a glass bottle 87. What effect does temperature have on the elastic- affect the pitch of the sound produced when air ity of a rubber ball? is blown across the mouth of the bottle? Independent variable: Temperature Independent variable: Volume of water Dependent variable: Elasticity of a rubber ball Dependent variable: Pitch (measured by the height the dropped ball bounces) 120","88. What effect does the amount of a lubricant 94. What effect does the viscosity of a \ufb02uid mate- have on friction between a marble rolling down rial have on the buoyancy of an object in it? a wooden incline? Independent variable: Fluid viscosity Independent variable: Amount of lubricant Dependent variable: Object buoyancy Dependent variable: Amount of friction 95. What effect does the density of an object have 89. What effect does the temperature of a lubricant on its buoyancy in water? have on friction between a marble rolling down Independent variable: Object density an incline? Dependent variable: Object buoyancy in water Independent variable: Temperature of lubricant 96. In what type of light is \ufb02uorescent ink most Dependent variable: Amount of friction effective? Independent variable: Type of light 90. What effect does the diameter of a string have Dependent variable: Effectiveness of \ufb02uores- on its strength? cent ink (measured by brightness) Independent variable: String diameter Dependent variable: Strength (measured by 97. What effect does the size of a prism have on the supporting weight) spectrum produced? Independent variable: Prism size 91. What effect does the number of \ufb01bers in a Dependent variable: Spectrum string have on its strength? Independent variable: Number of \ufb01bers 98. What effect does the type of metal have on con- Dependent variable: Strength (measured by ducting heat? supporting weight) Independent variable: Type of metal Dependent variable: Rate of heat conduction 92. What effect does the thickness of plastic have on the weight it will hold? 99. What effect does paint color have on its color- Independent variable: Thickness of plastic fastness when exposed to solar energy? Dependent variable: Weight supported Independent variable: Paint color Dependent variable: Degree of fading in 93. How does wing shape affect \ufb02ight distance of a sunlight glider? Independent variable: Wing shape 100. What effect does the mass of an object have on Dependent variable: Flight distance momentum? Independent variable: Mass of object Dependent variable: Momentum 121","ApSpteenpdix1 B Science Project and Reference Books SCIENCE PROJECT BOOKS \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Guide to More of the Best Science Fair Projects. New York: Wiley, 2000. Bochinski, Julianne Blair. The Complete Handbook of Science Fair Projects. Hoboken, N J: Wiley, \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Help! My Science Project 2004. Is Due Tomorrow! New York: Wiley, 2002. Bonnet, Robert L., and G. Daniel Keen. Botany: 49 \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Plants. New York: Wiley, Science Fair Projects. Blue Ridge Summit, PA.: 1997. Tab Books, 1989. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Solar System. New York: \u2014\u2014\u2014 Botany: 49 More Science Fair Projects. Blue Wiley, 2000. Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1991. Vecchione, Glen. 100 Amazing Make-It-Yourself Cobb, Vicki. How to Really Fool Yourself. New York: Science Fair Projects. New York: Sterling Pub- Wiley, 1999. lishing Co., Inc., 1998. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Science Experiments You Can Eat. New \u2014\u2014\u2014. 100 First-Prize Make-It-Yourself Science Fair York: Harper & Row, 1994. Projects. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1998. \u2014\u2014\u2014. See for Yourself: More Than 100 Experiments for Science Fairs and Projects. New York: Scholas- Wood, Robert W. Science for Kids: 39 Easy Astron- tic, 2001. omy Experiments. Blue Ridge Summit, PA., 1991. DiSpezic, Michael. Super Sensational Science Fair REFERENCE BOOKS Projects. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 2001. Agriculture Hershey, David R. Plant Biology Science Projects. Bial, Raymond. A Handful of Dirt. 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Walker, Richard. The Children\u2019s Atlas of the Deene, Ben. First Encyclopedia of Seas and Oceans. Human Body. Brook\ufb01eld, CT: Millbrook Press, 2001. London: Usborne, 2001. 1994. Farndon, John. How the Earth Works. Pleasantville, Walpole, Brenda. Pocket Book of the Human Body. NY: Reader\u2019s Digest, 1992. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987. \u2014\u2014\u2014. 1000 Facts on Planet Earth. New York: Weiner, Esther. The Incredible Human Body. New Barnes and Noble, 2002. York: Scholastic, 1996. Gibson, Gary. Science for Fun Experiments. Brook- Weise, Jim. Head to Toe Science. New York: Wiley, \ufb01eld, CT: Copper Beech Books, 1996. 2000. James, Ian. Planet Earth. Bath, England: Dempsey Chemistry Parr, 1998. Branzei, Sylvia. Grossology. Reading, MA: Addi- Kahl, Jonathan. Audubon First Field Guide: son-Wesley, 1995. Weather. New York: Scholastic, 1998. Edom, Helen. Science with Water. London: Lynch, John. The Weather. Toronto: Fire\ufb02y Books, Usborne, 1992. 2002. Epp, Dianne N. The Chemistry of Food Dyes. Mid- Sherman, Joseph, and Steve Brick. Energy at Work: dletown, OH: Terri\ufb01c Science Press, 1995. Solar Energy. Mankado, MN: Capstone Press, 2004. \u2014\u2014\u2014. The Chemistry of Natural Dyes. Middle- town, OH: Terri\ufb01c Science Press, 1995. Time-Life Books. Planet Earth. Alexandria, Vir- ginia: Time-Life Books, 1997. Headlam, Catherine. The King\ufb01sher Science Ency- clopedia. New York: King\ufb01sher Books, 1991. VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Energy for Every Kid. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005. Heiserman, David L. Exploring Chemical Elements and Their Compounds. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Weather. New York: Tab Books, 1992. Wiley, 1995. Kenda, Margaret, and Phyllis S. Williams. Science Walpole, Brenda. 175 Science Experiments to Amuse Wizardry for Kids. Hauppauge, NY: Barron\u2019s and Amaze Your Friends. New York: Random 1992. House, 1988. Levine, Shar, and Allison Grafton. Einstein\u2019s Sci- Watt, Fiona. Planet Earth. London: Usborne, 1991. ence Parties: Easy Parties for Curious Kids. New Williams, Jack. The Weather Book. New York: Vin- York: Wiley, 1994. tage Books, 1992. Moore, John T. Chemistry for Dummies. Hoboken, Wilsdon, Christina. Audubon First Field Guide: NJ: Wiley, 2003. Insects. New York: Scholastic, 2005. Strauss, Michael. Where Puddles Go. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1995. Engineering VanCleave, Janice. Chemistry for Every Kid. New Farndon, John. 1000 Facts on Science and Technol- York: Wiley, 1989. ogy. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2004. Wellnitz, William R. Homemade Slime & Rubber Harris, David W. Truss Fun. Lakewood, CO: BaHa Bones! Blue Ridge Summit, PA.: Tab Books, Enterprises, 2000. 1993. Hooker, Saralinda, Christopher Ragus, and Mario Earth Science G. Salvadori. The Art of Construction: Projects and Principles for Beginning Engineers and Allaby, Michael. How the Weather Works. New Architects. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, York: Reader\u2019s Digest, 1995. 1990. Brewer, Duncan. 1000 Facts on Mammals. New Kaner, Etta. Bridges. Toronto: Kids Can Press, 1995. York: Barnes and Noble, 2002. 124","Kline, Michael P., Carol A. Johmann, and Eliza- \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s 202 Oozing, Dripping beth J. Rieth. Bridges! Amazing Structures to and Bouncing Experiments. New York: Wiley, Design, Build & Test. Charlotte, VT: Williamson 1996. Publishing, 1999. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s 203 Icy, Freezing, Frosty, Pollard, Jeanne. Building Toothpick Bridges. Cool & Wild Experiments. New York: Wiley, Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1990. 1999. General Science Walpole, Brenda. 175 Science Experiments to Amuse and Amaze Your Friends. New York: Random Breckman, Judy. 365 Super Science Experiments. House, 1988. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 2001. Wollard, Kathy. How Come? New York: Workman, Churchill, Richard E., Louis V. Loeschnig, and 1993. Muriel Mandell. 365 Simple Science Experiments with Everyday Materials. New York: Black Dog Physics and Leventhal Publisher, 1997. Ardley, Neil. The Science Book of Sound. New Eyewitness Visual Dictionaries. The Visual Dictio- York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991. nary of Plants. New York: Dorling Kindersley, Inc., 1992. Franklin, Sharon. Power Up! Glenview, IL: GoodYearBooks, 1995. Hann, Judith. How Science Works. Pleasantville, New York: Reader\u2019s Digest, 1991. Gardner, Robert, and Eric Kemer. Science Projects about Temperature and Heat. Spring\ufb01eld, NJ: Highlights for Children. The Highlights Big Book of Enslow, 1994. Science Secrets. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1997. Glover, David. Sound and Light. New York: King- \ufb01sher Books, 1993. Mandell, Muriel. Simple Science Experiments with Everyday Materials. New York: Sterling Publish- Graham, Ian. Boats, Ships, Submarines, and Other ing Co., 1989. Floating Machines. New York: King\ufb01sher Books, 1993. Ontario Science Centre. Scienceworks: 65 Experi- ments That Introduce the Fun and Wonder of Sci- Jones, Mary, and Geoff Jones. Physics. New York: ence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, Cambridge University Press, 1997. Inc., 1987. Kentley, Eric. Boat. New York: Dorling Kindersley Reader\u2019s Digest. Did You Know? Pleasantville, NY: Eyewitness Books, 1992. Reader\u2019s Digest, 1990. Murphy, Pat, Ellen Klages, and Linda Shores. The \u2014\u2014\u2014. Why in the World? Pleasantville, NY: Science Explorer. New York: An Owl Book, Reader\u2019s Digest, 1994. 1996. Robinson, Tom. The Everything Kids Science Exper- Potter, Jean. Science in Seconds with Toys. New iment Book. Avon, MA: Adams Media Corpora- York: Wiley, 1998. tion, 2001. Sabbeth, Alex. Rubber-band Banjos and Java Jive Science and Technology Department of the Bass. New York: Wiley, 1997. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. The Handy Sci- ence Answer Book. New York: Visible Ink, 1997. Seller, Mick. Sound, Noise, and Music. New York: Shooting Star Press Inc., 1992. Smith, Alastair, ed. The Usborne Big Book of Experi- ments. New York: Scholastic, 1996. Soucie Gary. What\u2019s the Difference Between Lenses and Prisms and Other Scienti\ufb01c Things? New Stein, Sara. The Science Book. New York: Workman York: Wiley, 1995. Publishing, 1980. VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Science Suplee, Curt. Everyday Science Explained. Through the Ages. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2002. Nashville, Tennessee: National Geographic Society Book Division, 1998. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Scientists Through the Ages. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004. VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Science Around the World. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Physics for Every Kid. New York: Wiley, 1991. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s Super Science Models. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004. Wiese, Jim. Roller Coaster Science. New York: Wiley, 1994. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Janice VanCleave\u2019s 201 Awesome, Magical, Bizarre & Incredible Experiments. New York: Wood, Robert W. Sound Fundamentals. New York: Wiley, 1994. Learning Triangle Press, 1997. 125","Glossary absorbency The ability of a material to soak up a cool days; the season following summer and \ufb02uid. before winter. auxin A light-sensitive growth chemical. acid A sour-tasting chemical that forms salt and axis An imaginary line through the center of a water when mixed with a base. body around which the body rotates. banned Forbidden to be used. active solar heating Involves using special bar graph A graph in which bars are used to devices for absorbing and transporting solar show the relationship between two variables. energy. barometer An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. adhesion The attraction between unlike particles barometric pressure See atmospheric pressure. such as particles of water and paper. base A bitter-tasting chemical that forms salt and water when mixed with an acid; metal agriculture The science that deals with farming oxides. concerns. beam bridge The basic bridge design; for exam- ple, a log across a creek. air The mixture of gases in Earth\u2019s atmosphere. behavior The study of actions that alter the rela- air pressure See atmospheric pressure. tionship between a plant and its environment; a alviolus An air sac in the lungs; a balloon-shaped study in which the actions and reactions of humans and animals are recorded through structure at the end of each bronchiole. observational and experimental methods. analyze To examine, compare, and relate all the biology The study of living things. blood The liquid in animals that carries nutri- data. ents and oxygen to cells and takes away wastes. anatomy The study of the structure of plants; the blood pressure The force of blood on the walls of arteries. study of the structure and use of animal body bob The weight of a pendulum. parts. bond The force holding chemicals together. angular apparent measurement A measurement botany The study of plants and plant life. in degrees of how far or how large objects bronchi Tubes at the end of the trachea that lead appear to be. to the lungs. angular distance The apparent distance meas- bronchioles Smaller tubes branching from the ured in degrees. end of each bronchus. angular speed Speed measured in degrees per time. buoyancy The upward force of a \ufb02uid on an apparent distance In reference to celestial bodies, object placed in it. it is how far apart celestial bodies appear to be buoyant A measure of how well an object \ufb02oats. from an observer on Earth. camou\ufb02age A disguise caused by similarities aqueous solution A solution in which water is between the color of an animal\u2019s body and its the solvent. environment. arc A part of a circle. capillary The smallest blood vessels in animals; artery A blood vessel carrying blood from the where oxygen from inhaled air transferred is to heart to the body. the blood and waste from the blood is trans- arti\ufb01cial light Light from a man-made source. ferred to the lungs and exhaled. asexual reproduction Reproduction involving carbon dioxide (1) A gas used by plants to make only one parent. food. (2) A gaseous waste in animals. astronomy The study of celestial bodies. celestial bodies The natural objects in the sky atmosphere The blanket of gas surrounding a such as stars, moons, suns, and planets. celestial body. atmospheric pressure The measure of pressure that the atmosphere exerts on surfaces resulting from the collision of gas molecules in Earth\u2019s atmosphere; also called air pressure or baromet- ric pressure. atoms The building blocks of elements. autumn The climatic season with medium-length 126","celestial motion The study of the motion of celes- concentration The strength of a solution; the tial bodies. amount of solute in a speci\ufb01c amount of solvent. chemical Any substance with a de\ufb01nite composi- conclusion A brief summary of what you discov- tion made up of one or more elements. ered based on data from your experimental results. chemical change See chemical reaction. chemical reaction When substances combine or condensation rate The amount of gas that con- denses in a certain amount of time. break apart and recombine in a new way to form new substances. condense To change from a gas to a liquid state chemical technology engineering The branch of of matter. engineering concerned with the application of chemistry in the production of goods and serv- control An experiment used for comparison to ices that humankind considers useful. the results of other experiments. chemical weathering The breakdown of crustal materials due to chemical changes of the sub- controlled variables The parts of an experiment stances making up the crust. that could change but are kept constant. chemistry The study of what substances are made of and how they change and combine. cotyledon The part of a seed where nutrients are chlorophyll A green pigment in plants that cap- stored. tures light so that it can be used in the photo- synthesis reaction. crust The outer layer of Earth. circle graph A graph (also called a pie chart) in crystal The arrangement of particles forming which the area of a circle represents a sum of data, and the sizes of the pie-shaped pieces into most solids; solids with particles arranged in a which the circle is divided represent the amount regular, repeating pattern with \ufb02at surfaces. of data. crystalline solid A solid made up of crystals. climatic seasons Divisions of the year based on crystallography The study of the formation of average temperature and the amount of time crystals as well as the crystals themselves. that the Sun is in the sky each day; winter, data Recorded collections of information. spring, summer, autumn. date mark A date stamped on the food package cognitive process The mental process a person with instructions that read \u201cuse by date\u201d or uses for remembering, reasoning, understanding, \u201cbest before date.\u201d problem solving, evaluating, and using judgment. decompose To break down into simpler parts; to cohesion The attraction between like particles rot. such as two water particles. degree (\u00b0) A unit that can be used to measure all colorant A substance that selectively absorbs and or part of the distance around a circle. re\ufb02ects visible light so that you see a certain dehydrated Dried out. color. density The ratio of mass to volume of an object. colorfastness A measure of how well a dyed dependent variable The part of an experiment material resists fading. that changes due to changes in the independent column In reference to a table, it is a vertical list- variable. ing of data values. diastolic pressure Blood pressure in the arteries complete fertilizer A fertilizer containing all when the heart is resting. three primary nutrients: nitrogen (N), phospho- diffusion The movement of particles from one rus (P), and potassium (K). place to another due to a difference in concen- compound A chemical made up of two or more tration. different elements. dilute Having a low concentration. compress To press together. dilute solution A solution in which more solute compression (1) A force that pushes the material will dissolve at a speci\ufb01c temperature. of a structure together. (2) The part of a longitu- displace To push aside. dinal wave where the particles of the medium displacement In reference to a pendulum, it is are pushed together. the distance that it moves to one side from its concentrated (1) In reference to a solution, it vertical position. means to have a large amount of solute. (2) In dissolved In reference to a solute, it means to be reference to diffusion, it means particles are separated into parts and spread throughout. grouped together. dye A substance that contains a colorant dis- solved in a liquid. Earth science The study of the parts of Earth: the atmosphere (the gas layer surrounding Earth), the lithosphere (the outer solid parts), and the hydrosphere (the water parts). 127","ecology The study of relationships of living things animal parts in water; an odorless, tasteless, and to other living things and to their environment. colorless substance that forms a gel when dis- solved into hot water and then cooled. elements Basic chemical substances; substances gelling The process by which a gel is formed by that contain only one kind of atom and that mixing gelatin with hot water, then allowing it cannot be broken down into simpler substances. to cool. geotropism Plant movement due to growth in embryo An organism\u2019s earliest stage of develop- response to gravity. ment. germination The sprouting of seeds. germination starting time (GST) The time it takes energy The capacity to make things change. from planting a seed to the \ufb01rst signs of growth. engineering The study of applying scienti\ufb01c germination time (GT) The time it takes from planting a seed to the end of germination; deter- knowledge for practical purposes. mined by the time it takes for the epicotyl to entomology The study of insects. fully emerge from the cotyledons. epithelial cells Cells on the surface of organisms. glucose A type of sugar produced by plants. It is equator In reference to Earth, it is an imaginary needed by both plants and animals for energy. gnomon The part of a sundial that casts a line dividing Earth in half. shadow on the scaled surface of the sundial. erosion The process by which rocks and other graph A visual representation of data that shows a relationship between two variables. materials of Earth\u2019s crust are broken down and gravity The force pulling objects toward the cen- carried away by natural agents such as water, ter of Earth; gravity increases as the mass of an ice, and gravity. object increases. evaporate To change from a liquid to a gas. guard cells Cells that open and close stomata. evaporation The process by which a liquid heat The energy that \ufb02ows from a warm material changes into a gas. to a cool material. evaporation rate The amount of liquid that evap- herbicide A pesticide for weeds. orates in a certain amount of time. heterogeneous mixture A mixture that is not the exhale To breathe out. same throughout. experimental data Observations and\/or meas- homogeneous mixture A mixture that has the ured facts obtained from a project experiment. same composition throughout. expiration date The date on food that indicates horizon Where the sky appears to touch Earth. when you can expect it to go bad. humidity The measure of the amount of water exploratory experiment An experiment in which vapor in air. the results are part of the project research. hydrometer An instrument used to measure the face The \ufb02at surface of a solid. speci\ufb01c gravity of a liquid. fade To become lighter in color. hydrosphere The part of Earth that is water. fertilizer A soil additive containing plant nutri- hypertension A condition resulting from blood ents that promote plant growth. pressure being consistently higher than normal \ufb02exible Able to change shape in response to a during rest time. force, then recover the original shape when the hypha (pl. hyphae) Threadlike structure forming force is removed. mycelia. \ufb02uid A liquid or a gas. independent variable The part of an experiment food science The study of food, including the that is purposely changed. causes of food deterioration and the nature of inhale To breathe in. food, such as nutritional value. inhibition The stopping of one brain process in food technology engineering The branch of engi- order for another response to be processed. neering concerned with the application of food inquiry questions Questions about a science topic science to the selection, preservation, process- that may or may not be used as the project ing, packaging, and distribution of safe, nutri- problem. tious, and wholesome food. insecticide A pesticide for insects. force A push or pull on an object. insect pest management The study of methods of frequency The number of vibrations per second. controlling insects that affect crop production as fungus A single-celled or multicellular organism well as the health of farm animals. that obtains food by the direct absorption of nutrients. gas A state of matter that has no de\ufb01nite shape or volume. gel A semisolid formed by gelling. gelatin An animal protein produced by boiling 128","interference In reference to memory, it is one of so small that they cannot be seen except by mag- the reasons that short-term information is for- ni\ufb01cation, such as with a microscope. gotten; information in storage is distorted as microscopic organism An organism that you new information is stored. need a microscope to see because it is so small. microwave A form of electromagnetic radiation. interpret In reference to data, it means to explain mixture Two or more substances mixed together. by restating the data. mold A fungus that produces a fuzzy, cobweblike growth on moist materials, including food. introduction The part of a report that contains a mordant A chemical that bonds the colorant in a statement of your purpose, along with some of dye to a material. the background information that led you to mycelium (pl. mycelia) A fungal body made of a make the study and what you hoped to achieve netlike mass of hyphae. from it. natural satellite A celestial body orbiting another; Earth\u2019s moon. invertebrate An animal without a backbone. negative tropism The movement of an organism lateral force A force directed at the side of a away from the stimuli. nerve A special \ufb01ber that transports impulses structure. between the brain and body; made of bundles of line graph A graph in which one or more lines thousands of neurons. nerve impulse An electric signal traveling from are used to show the relationship between the one neuron to another. two quantitative variables. net force The sum of all forces simultaneously liquid A state of matter with a de\ufb01nite volume acting on an object. but no de\ufb01nite shape. neuron A nerve cell. lithosphere The part of Earth that is solid. neutral Neither an acid nor a base. log book A science diary or journal, which is a Northern Hemisphere In reference to Earth, it is written record of your science project from start the part north of the equator. to \ufb01nish. nutrient A nourishing material necessary for life longevity A measure of the length of life. and growth. longitudinal waves Waves that have areas of com- observation Information collected about some- pression and rarefraction. thing by using your senses. long-term memory Information that you can oceanography The study of the oceans and recall after days and even years. marine organisms. lungs Balloonlike structures in the chest that are organic Made from living material. used to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide organic pesticide A pesticide that comes from between your blood and the atmosphere. natural sources, including plants such as mass The amount of material in an object. marigolds, and minerals such as boric acid. mathematics The use of numbers and symbols to oxidation A chemical reaction in which one study amounts and forms. chemical combines with oxygen. matter The substance from which all objects are passive solar heating Solar heating that does not made; anything that has mass and takes up use any mechanical means of distributing the space. collected heat; instead, it is direct heating from mechanical weathering The breakdown of crustal sunlight. material by physical means. pendulum A weight hung so that it swings about mechanics The study of objects in motion and a pivot. the forces that produce the motion. percussion instrument A musical instrument that medium Any solid, liquid, or gas; a substance makes sounds when it is struck or shaken. through which sound can travel. period (T) In reference to a pendulum, it is the melting The process of changing from a solid to a time required to complete one vibration. liquid state of matter. periodic motion Any type of motion that suc- membrane A thin sheet of \ufb02exible material. cessively repeats itself in equal intervals of memory The ability to retain and recall past time. experiences. permeability The ability of a material to allow meteorology The study of weather, climate, and substances to diffuse through it. Earth\u2019s atmosphere. pest An unwanted organism. microbe An organism too small to be seen with the unaided eye. microbiology The study of microscopic organ- isms such as fungi, bacteria, and protista. microscopic level The level at which particles are 129","pesticide A substance intended to repel, kill, or project problem A scienti\ufb01c question or purpose control any kind of pest. for a science project. pharynx The throat. project report A written report of an entire proj- photosynthesis A process in plants in which ect from start to \ufb01nish. light energy is used to change carbon dioxide project research An in-depth study of the project and water into glucose and water. topic with the objective of expressing a project phototropism The movement of organisms in problem, proposing a hypothesis, and designing response to light. a project experiment to test the hypothesis. pH scale The scale for measuring the strength of an acid or a base. project summaries The project abstract and proj- physical change A change in the appearance of ect report. matter, but its properties and makeup remain the same. project title A descriptive heading for a project. physics The study of forms of energy and the protective coloration The coloring that helps to laws of motion. physiography The study of the physical features camou\ufb02age an animal from a predator. of Earth\u2019s surface. protein A substance in living organisms neces- physiology The study of life processes of plants and animals. sary for their survival and growth; a large parti- pigment A substance that provides color to a cle make of one or more chemical chains. material. qualitative observation A description of the phys- pitch In reference to sound, it is how the fre- ical properties of something. quency of a sound is perceived by the brain; the quantitative observation A description of the greater the frequency, the higher the pitch. amount of something. pivot The point on which something turns. radiant energy Energy in the form of waves positive tropism The movement of an organism that can travel through space; also called toward the stimuli. radiation. precipitate To separate a solid from a solution. rarefaction (1) The force that pulls the material predator An animal that kills and eats other of a structure apart. (2) The part of a longitudi- animals. nal wave where particles of the medium are primary nutrient The nutrient most often lacking spread apart. in soil; nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. ratio A pair of numbers used to compare quanti- primary research Research you collect on your ties. own. raw data Data collected as a result of observing product A chemical produced in a chemical experimental results. reaction. reactant A starting chemical that is changed dur- product development engineering The branch of ing a chemical reaction. engineering concerned with designing, develop- refrigerant A material used to cool other materials. ing, and testing new products. regeneration The growth of new tissue or parts project abstract A brief overview of a scienti\ufb01c of an organism that have been lost or destroyed. project. reproduction The process of producing a new project category A group of related science organism. topics. research The process of collecting information. project conclusion A summary of the results of revolve To move in a curved path around the project experiment and a statement of how another object. the results relate to the hypothesis. root system The parts of a plant that generally project display A visual representation of all the grow below ground; the parts of a plant that work that you have done. anchor it in the ground and take in water and project experiment An experiment designed to nutrients from the soil. test the hypothesis of a science project; a test to rotate To turn on an axis. determine a relationship between two variables: row In reference to a table, it is a horizontal list- an independent variable and a dependent vari- ing of data values. able. salinity The salt concentration in a salt and project hypothesis An idea about the solution to water solution. a problem based on knowledge and research. sap In plants, it is the solution of water and other nutrients. saturated solution A solution in which the maxi- mum amount of solute is dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature. 130","science A system of knowledge about the nature speed A measurement of distance in a given time of things in the universe. period. science fair An organized contest in which sci- spore A reproductive cell. ence projects are compared and judged based on spring The climatic season following winter with predetermined criteria. medium-length cool days. science problem A science question or purpose. sprout To begin to grow. science project An investigation that is designed stale A decrease in the quality of a food\u2019s taste to \ufb01nd the answer to one speci\ufb01c science prob- due to age. lem. states of matter Solid, liquid, and gas. secondary nutrients Three of the thirteen neces- stellar science The study of stars including their sary elemental plant nutrients generally found in soils: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and composition, magnitude, classi\ufb01cation, struc- sulfur (S). ture, and groupings. secondary research Information and\/or data that stimulus (pl. stimuli) Something that tempo someone else has collected such as that found in rarily excites or quickens a response in an books, magazines, and electronic sources. organism. semipermeable The ability of a material to allow stomata Special openings in the outer layer of some particles to pass through but not others. plants, generally in the leaves, through which sensory information Information collected by gases can pass. hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Stroop test A test that demonstrates the interfer- sensory memory The ability to retain impres- ence that happens in the brain when two simul- sions of sensory information after the original taneous thinking process are involved such as stimulus has ceased; this memory is thought to reading words and identifying colors. last from 1 second to 2 seconds. structural engineering The branch of engineering sexual reproduction Reproduction involving two concerned with designing as well as testing the parents. strength of structures including bridges and shelf life The period during which food may be dams. stored and remain suitable and safe to eat. sublimation The change from a solid to a gas or shoot system The part of a plant that generally vice versa. grows above ground. summer The climatic season with the longest short-term memory Your working memory; your and hottest days. primary memory or active memory, the one you summer solstice The \ufb01rst day of summer on or use most of the time. about June 21\/June 22 in the Northern Hemi- solar energy A form of radiant energy that comes sphere when the Sun\u2019s zenith is highest during from the Sun. the year. solar heating A process of using solar energy to sundial One of the oldest, if not the oldest, heat materials. See also active solar heating; pas- known device for the measurement of time. sive solar heating. surface area The size of the surface of an object. solid A state of matter that has a de\ufb01nite shape suspension A liquid mixture made of parts that and volume. separate upon standing. solute The part of a solution being dissolved. system Different parts working together as one solution A mixture of a liquid with substances unit. dissolved in it; a homogeneous mixture of a systolic pressure The blood pressure on the solute and a solvent. inside walls of arteries when the heart contracts solvent The part of a solution doing the dissolving. and pushes blood out. sound Energy in the form of waves produced by table A chart in which data is presented in rows vibrating material that can only travel through a and columns. medium; energy produced by vibrating material table of contents The second page of a report that can be heard; also called sound waves. containing a list of everything in the report sound waves Waves produced as a result of the including a page number for the beginning of vibration of a material. each section. speci\ufb01c gravity The ratio of the density of a mate- tarnish Any coating on a metal that discolors rial to the density of water. and\/or dulls its shiny surface. speci\ufb01c heat A measure of how well a material taste buds Special cells on your tongue and on resists changing its temperature. the roof and the back of your mouth that detect taste. 131","temperature A measure of how hot or cold a vaporize The change from a liquid to the gas material is. state of matter. tension A force that pulls materials apart. variables Things that can change. texture How a surface feels. vascular plant A plant that contains tubelike thixotropic liquid A liquid whose viscosity structures that transport nutrients throughout decreases with motion. the plant. tidal air The amount of air involved during nor- vibrate To move back and forth. vibration A back-and-forth or up-and-down mal, relaxed inhaling and exhaling. motion. title A descriptive heading. visible light Light the human eye can see. title page The \ufb01rst page of a report with the proj- visible spectrum A list of visible light in order from least to most energy: red, yellow, orange, ect title centered on the page and your name, green, blue, indigo, and violet. school, and grade in the lower right-hand cor- vital capacity The largest amount of air that can ner. be exhaled after taking a deep breath. topic research Research done with the objective volume The amount of space an object takes of selecting a science project topic. up. trace elements Seven of the thirteen necessary weather Conditions in the atmosphere. elemental plant nutrients needed in only very weathering The part of erosion that involves small amount: boron (B), copper (Cu), iron only the breakdown of crustal materials. (Fe), chloride (Cl), manganese (Mn), molybde- weight The measure of gravity on an object; num (Mo), and zinc (Zn). weight increases with mass. trachea A breathing tube. white light A combination of all light colors in transpiration The process by which plants lose the visible spectrum. water through stomata. wilt To become limp or droopy. transpiration rate The amount of water lost by a winter The climatic season that has the shortest plant in a speci\ufb01c period of time. and coldest days; it starts at winter solstice. tropism The movement of an organism in winter solstice The \ufb01rst day of winter on or response to a stimulus. See also negative tropism; about December 21\/December 22 in the North- positive tropism. ern Hemisphere when the Sun\u2019s zenith is lowest truss A simple skeletal structure made up of during the year. straight beams forming triangular shapes. work The transfer of energy when a force causes truss bridge A bridge with trusses. an object to move. turgor The pressure within plant cells. x-axis The horizontal axis on a line graph. unit cells The smallest group of particles within a xylem Tubelike structures that transport water crystal that retain the geometric shape of the and nutrients in the soil throughout vascular crystal. plants. unsaturated solution A solution with less than y-axis The vertical axis on a line graph. the maximum amount of solute. zoology The study of animals and animal life. vapor The gaseous state of a substance at a tem- perature at which the substance is usually in a solid or liquid state. 132","Index absorbency, 12, 92, 126 projects, 44\u201371 summer, 54, 131 acid, 81, 126 blood, 62, 126 winter, 54, 132 active solar heating, 108, 126 blood pressure, 70\u201371 cognitive process, 66, 131 adhesion, 92, 126 cohesion, 92, 131 agriculture, 9, 126 de\ufb01nition of, 70, 126 colorant, 82, 127 diastolic pressure, 70, 126 colorfastness, 82, 127 project ideas, 117 hypertension, 70, 128 column, 21, 127 projects, 36\u201339 systolic pressure, 70, 131 complete fertilizer, 36, 127 air, 84, 126 bob, 114, 126 compound, 80, 127 air pressure. See atmospheric bonds, 56, 126 compress, 76, 127 botany, 9, 126 compression, 110, 127 pressure bread mold, 58\u201359 concentrated, 96, 127 alviolus, 63, 126 bridge: concentration, 74, 96, 127 analyze, 22, 126 beam bridge, 99, 126 conclusion, 2, 28,127 anatomy, 9, 10, 126 strength, 98\u201399 condensation rate, 86\u201387, 127 angular apparent measurement, truss bridge, 98\u201399, 132 condense, 86 , 127 bronchi, 62, 126 control: 10, 126 bronchioles, 62, 126 de\ufb01nition of, 3, 19, 127 angular distance, 100, 126 buoyancy, 112\u2013113 example, 19 angular speed, 100, 126 de\ufb01nition, 11, 112, 126 controlled variable, 3, 19, 127 ants, 38\u201339 buoyant, 112, 126 cotyledon, 50, 127 apparent distance, 100, 126 crust, 90, 127 aqueous solution, 74, 126 calcium propionate, 58\u201359 crystal, 76, 127 arc, 114, 126 camou\ufb02age, 54\u201355 crystalline solid, 76, 127 arteries, 71, 126 crystallography, 10, 127 arti\ufb01cial light, 48, 126 de\ufb01nition of, 54, 126 asexual reproduction, 60, 126 protective coloration, 54, 130 data: Aspergillus niger, 58 capillary, 64, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 127 astronomy, 9, 126 carbon dioxide, 44, 62, 126 project, 8 celestial bodies, 9, 100, 126 raw, 2, 130 projects, 40\u201343 celestial motion, 9, 127 atmosphere, 10, 84, 126 chemical, 10, 80, 127 date mark, 94, 127 atmospheric pressure, 84, 126 chemical changes, 10, 80, 127 DDT, 38 atoms, 10, 126 chemical reaction, 80, 127 degree, 42, 127 autumn, 55, 126 chemical technology engineering, dehydrated, 94, 127 auxin, 47, 126 density, 88, 127 axis, 40, 42, 126 10, 127 dependent variable, 3, 17, 19, 127 chemical weathering, 90, 127 diastolic pressure, 70, 126 banned, 38, 126 chemistry, 10, 127 diffusion, 96, 126 bar graph, 22, 126 dilute, 74, 127 barometer, 84, 126 project ideas, 118\u2013119 displacement, 114, 127 barometric pressure. See atmos- projects, 72\u201383 displaces, 112, 127 chlorophyll, 48, 55, 127 dye, 82, 127 pheric pressure circle graph, 22\u201323 base, 81, 126 de\ufb01nition of, 22, 127 Earth science, 10, 128 beam bridge, 99, 126 climatic seasons: project ideas, 119 behavior, 9, 126 autumn, 55, 126 bibliography, 16 de\ufb01nition, 54, 127 biology, 9, 10, 126 spring, 54, 131 project ideas, 117\u2013118 133","Earth science (continued) gel: thickness of, 78\u201379 projects, 84\u201391 de\ufb01nition of, 56, 128 \ufb02exibility of, 56\u201357 lateral force, 98, 129 Earth\u2019s natural satellite, 9, light: 42\u201343 gelatin, 56, 128 gelling, 56, 128 arti\ufb01cial light, 48, 126 ecology, 9, 128 geotropism, 9, 128 effect on plants, 46\u201349 elements: germination, 50\u201351 visible, 46, 132 white, 46, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 36, 80, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 50, 128 line graph, 24, 129 trace, 36, 132 germination starting time (GST), liquid, 72, 129 embryo, 50, 128 lithosphere, 10, 129 energy, 11, 128 51, 128 log book, 7\u201311 engineering, 10, 128 germination time, 51, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 1, 129 project ideas, 119\u2013120 glucose: longevity: projects, 92\u201399 de\ufb01nition of, 44, 129 entomology, 14, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 44, 128 \ufb02ower, 44\u201345 epithelial cells, 60, 128 effect on cut \ufb02owers, 44\u201345 longitudinal wave, 104, 129 equator, 41, 128 gnomon, 40, 128 long-term memory, 66, 129 erosion, 90\u201391 graph: lungs: de\ufb01nition of, 90, 128 bar graph, 22, 126 capacity of, 62\u201363 evaporation, 73, 128 circle graph, 22, 127 de\ufb01nition of, 62, 129 evaporation rate, 73, 86, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 22, 128 exhale, 62, 128 line graph, 24, 129 Man in the Moon, 42\u201343 experimental data. See raw data gravity, 98, 128 mass, 72, 129 expiration date, 94, 128 guard cells, 52, 129 mathematics, 11, 129 exploratory experiment, 2, hand measurements, 100\u2013101 project ideas, 120 128 heat, 11, 104, 106, 128 projects, 100\u2013103 herbicide, 38, 128 matter, 72, 129 face, 77, 128 heterogeneous mixture, 78\u201379 mechanical weathering, 90, 129 fade, 82, 128 mechanics, 104, 129 fertilizer, 36\u201337 de\ufb01nition of, 10, 78, 128 medium, 11, 110, 129 homogeneous mixture, 10, melting, 73, 129 complete, 36, 127 membrane, 96, 129 de\ufb01nition of, 36, 128 128 memory: \ufb02exible, 56, 128 horizon, 43, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 66, 129 \ufb02owers: humidity, 87, 128 long-term, 66, 129 longevity of, 44\u201345 hydrometer: short-term, 66, 131 sap, 44, 131 meteorology, 10, 129 \ufb02uid, 10, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 88, 128 microbe, 44, 129 food science: homemade, 89 microbiology, 9, 129 de\ufb01nition of, 9, 128 hydrosphere, 10, 128 microscopic level, 76, 129 food freshness, 94\u201397 hypertension, 70, 128 microscopic organisms, 9, 129 food technology engineering: hypha, 58, 128 microwave: de\ufb01nition of, 10, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 51, 129 food freshness, 94\u201397 independent variable, 3, 19, effect on seeds, 50\u201351 force: 129 mixture: compression, 98, 127 de\ufb01nition of, 10, 129 de\ufb01nition of, 11, 98, 128 inhale, 62, 128 dyes, 102\u2013103 gravity, 98, 128 inhibition, 65, 129 heterogeneous mixture, 10, lateral, 98, 129 inquiry questions, 12, 128 tension, 98, 132 insecticide, 38\u201339 78\u201379, 128 weight, 98, 132 homogeneous mixture, 10, 128 frequency, 110, 128 de\ufb01nition of, 38, 128 suspension, 91, 131 fungus, 58, 128 insect pest management, 9, 129 mold, 58, 129 interference, 66, 129 gas, 72, 128 interpret, 22, 129 introduction, 26\u201327, 129 invertebrates, 60, 129 ketchup: 134","Moon, 9, 42\u201343 physics, 11, 130 primary research, 14\u201315, 129 mordant, 83, 128 project ideas, 120\u2013121 secondary research, 15\u201316, 130 mycelium, 58, 129 projects, 104\u2013115 project summaries, 8, 25\u201329 abstract, 25, 130 natural satellite, 9, 100, 129 physiography, 9, 130 report, 2, 26, 130 negative tropism, 46, 129 physiology, 9, 10, 130 project title, 25, 130 net force, 114, 129 pie chart. See circle graph project topic research. See topic neutral, 81, 129 pigment, 55, 130 Northern Hemisphere, 41, 129 pitch, 110, 130 research nutrients: pivot, 114, 130 protective coloration, 54, 130 planaria, 60 protein, 56, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 9, 36, 129 plant: primary, 36, 130 qualitative observations, 21, 130 secondary, 36, 131 growth, 48\u201349 quantitative observations, 21, leaves, 52\u201353 observations: seeds, 50\u201351 130 de\ufb01nition of, 21, 129 transpiration, 52\u201353, 132 qualitative, 21, 130 plastic food wrap: radiant energy: quantitative, 21, 130 food freshness, 96\u201399 de\ufb01nition of, 11, 46, 51, 108, positive tropism, 46, 130 128 oceanography, 10, 129 precipitating, 77, 132 light, 44, 46, 108, organic pesticide, 38, 129 predator, 54, 130 microwave, 51, 129 oxidation, 80, 129 primary nutrient, 36, 130 solar energy, 108\u2013109 primary research, 14\u201315 paper: de\ufb01nition of, 14, 130 rarefaction, 110, 129 absorbency, 10, 92, 126 product, 80, 130 ratio, 102\u2013103 printing quality, 92\u201393 product development engineer- de\ufb01nition of, 10, 102, 130 passive solar heating, 108\u2013109 ing, 10, 130 raw data, 21\u201324 de\ufb01nition of, 108, 130 project abstract, 2, 130 project acknowledgments, 28\u201329 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 21, 130 pendulum, 114\u2013115 project calendar, 7 reactant, 80, 130 bob, 115, 126 project category, 9\u201311 refrigerant, 104\u2013105 de\ufb01nition of, 114, 130 displacement, 114, 127 de\ufb01nition of, 1, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 104, 130 period, 114, 130 project conclusion, 2, 28, 127 surface area, 104\u2013105 pivot, 114, 130 project data, 8, 21\u201324 regeneration, 60\u201361, 130 project discussion, 28 reproduction, 10, 130 percussion instrument, 111, project display, 8, 30\u201332 research: 130 de\ufb01nition of, 1, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 130 primary, 14, 130 period (T), 114, 130 project evaluation, 33\u201334 project research, 2, 14\u201316, 130 periodic motion, 11, 130 project experiment, 8, 19\u201320, secondary, 15, 131 permeability, 96, 137 topic research, 1, 12\u201313, 132 pest, 38, 129 27\u201328 respiration rate, 17 pesticide: de\ufb01nition of, 2, 17, 19, 130 revolve, 41, 132 project hypothesis, 8, 18 root system, 50, 132 banned, 38, 126 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 130 rotation: de\ufb01nition of, 38, 130 examples, 18 Earth\u2019s, 40\u201343 herbicide, 38, 128 project oral presentation and de\ufb01nition of, 40, 42, 130 insecticide, 38, 129 row, 21, 130 organic, 38, 129 evaluation, 8, 33\u201334 pharynx, 62, 130 project problem, 8, 17 salinity, 88\u201389 photosynthesis, 44, 48, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 88, 130 phototropism, 46\u201347 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 130 ocean, 88\u201389 de\ufb01nition of, 9, 130 project references, 29 parts per thousand, 88 effect of the color of light, project report, 8, 26\u201327 sap, 44, 130 46\u201347 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 26, 130 satellite, 100 pH scale, 81, 130 project research, 14\u201316 saturated solution, 75, 130 physical changes, 10, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 2, 130 exploratory experiment, 2, 128 135","saturated solution (continued) speed: rate of, 52, 132 effect of temperature on angular speed, 100\u2013101, 126 tropism: preparing, 74\u201375 de\ufb01nition of, 101, 131 Moon, 100\u2013101 de\ufb01nition of, 9, 132 science, 1, 131 geotropism, 9, 128 science fair, 1, 131 spore, 58, 131 negative tropism, 46, 129 science problem, 1, 131 spring, 54, 131 phototropism, 9, 46\u201347, 130 science project, 1, 131 sprout, 50, 131 positive tropism, 46, 130 secondary nutrients, 36, 131 stale, 94, 131 truss, 99, 132 secondary research, 15\u201316 states of matter: truss bridge, 98\u201399 de\ufb01nition of, 99, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 15, 131 de\ufb01nition of, 10, 72, 131 turgor, 52, 132 seed: gas, 72, 128 liquid, 72, 129 unit cell, 76, 132 effect of microwaves on, 50\u201351 solid, 72, 131 unsaturated solution, 75, 132 germination, 50\u201351, 128 stellar science, 9, 131 germination starting time, 51, stimulus: vapor, 73, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 9, 46, 131 vaporize, 13, 52, 73, 132 128 light, 46\u201347 variable: germination time, 51, 128 stomata, 52, 131 semipermeable, 96, 131 Stroop test, 64\u201365, 131 controlled, 3, 19, 127 sensory information, 66, 131 structural engineering, 10, 131 de\ufb01nition of, 3, 132 sensory memory, 66, 131 sublimation, 13, 131 dependent, 3, 19, 127 sensory receptors, 131 summer, 54, 131 independent, 3, 19, 129 sexual reproduction, 10, 131 summer solstice, 41, 131 vascular plants, 37, 132 shelf life, 94\u201395 sundial, 40, 131 vibration, 11, 76, 110, 132 date mark, 94, 127 surface area, 104, 131 visible light, 46, 82, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 94, 131 suspension, 91, 131 visible spectrum, 46, 82, 132 expiration date, 94, 128 system, 98, 131 vital capacity, 63, 132 shoot system, 50, 131 root system, 50, 130 volume, 72, 132 short-term memory: 66\u201367 shoot system, 50, 131 de\ufb01nition of, 66, 131 systolic pressure, 70, 131 weather: solar, 108, 131 de\ufb01nition of, 84, 132 solar energy, 108, 131 table, 21, 131 predicting, 84\u201385 solar heating: table of contents, project report, active, 108, 127 weathering: de\ufb01nition of, 108, 131 26, 131 chemical, 90, 127 passive, 108\u2013109, 129 tarnish, 80\u201381, 131 de\ufb01nition of, 90, 132 solid, 72, 131 taste, 68\u201369 mechanical, 90, 129 solute, 74, 131 taste buds, 67, 131 solutions: temperature, 75, 86, 104, 131 weight, 98, 132 aqueous, 74, 126 texture, 92, 132 white light, 46, 82, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 10, 44, 74, 131 thixotropic liquid, 78\u201379 wilt: sap, 44, 131 saturated, 75, 130 de\ufb01nition of, 78, 131 de\ufb01nition of, 44, 52, 132 unsaturated, 75, 132 tidal air, 63, 132 \ufb02owers, 44 solvent, 74, 131 title, 21, 132 winter, 54, 132 sound, title page, 132 winter solstice, 41, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 11, 110, 131 topic research, 12\u201313 work, 11, 132 sound waves. See sound speci\ufb01c gravity: de\ufb01nition of, 1, 12, 132 x-axis, 24, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 88, 131 log book, 7\u20138 xylem, 37, 132 water, 88 trace elements, 36, 132 speci\ufb01c heat, 106\u2013107 trachea, 62, 132 y-axis, 24, 132 de\ufb01nition of, 106, 131 transpiration, 52\u201353 de\ufb01nition of, 9, 52, 132 zoology, 10, 132 136"]