The Illustrated On the Shoulders of Giants The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy

Stephen Hawking is considered the most brilliant theoretical physi- cist since Einstein. He has also done much to popularize science. His book, A Brief History of Time, sold more than 10 million copies in 40 lan- guages, achieving the kind of success almost unheard of in the history of science writing. His subsequent books, The Universe in A Nutshell, and The Future of Spacetime, with Kip S. Thorne and others, have also been well- received. He was born in Oxford, England on January 8,1942 (300 years after the death of Galileo). He studied physics at University College, Oxford, received his Ph.D. in Cosmology at Cambridge and since 1979, has held the post of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. The chair was founded in 1663 with money left in the will of the Reverend Henry Lucas, who had been the member of Parliament for the University. It wasfirstheld by Isaac Barrow, and then in 1663 by Isaac Newton. It is reserved for those individuals considered the most brilliant thinkers of their time. Professor Hawking has worked on the basic laws that govern the uni- verse. With Roger Penrose, he showed that Einstein's General Theory of Relativity implied space and time would have a beginning in the Big Bang and an end in black holes. The results indicated it was necessary to unify General Relativity with Quantum Theory, the other great scientif- ic development of thefirsthalf of the twentieth century. One conse- quence of such a unification was that he discovered that black holes should not be completely black but should emit radiation and eventual- ly disappear. Another conjecture is that the universe has no edge or boundary in imaginary time. Stephen Hawking has twelve honorary degrees, and is the recipient of many awards, medals, and prizes. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. He continues to combine family life (he has three children and one grandchild) and his research into theoretical physics together with an extensive program of travel and public lectures. 251

ENDNOTES nicolaus copernicus 1. T h i s f o r e w o r d , at first a s c r i b e d t o C o p e r n i c u s , is h e l d t o h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b y A n d r e w O s i a n d e r , a L u t h e r a n t h e o l o g i a n a n d f r i e n d o f C o p e r n i c u s , w h o s a w t h e De Revolutionibus through the press. 2. Ptolemy makes Venus move on an epicycle the ratio of whose radius to the radius of the e c c e n t r i c circle c a r r y i n g the epicycle itself is n e a r l y t h r e e to four. H e n c e t h e a p p a r e n t m a g - nitude of the planet would be expected to vary with the varying distance of the planet from the Earth, in the ratios stated by Osiander. Moreover, it was f o u n d that, w h e n e v e r the plan- e t h a p p e n e d t o b e o n t h e e p i c y c l e , t h e m e a n p o s i t i o n o f t h e S u n a p p e a r e d i n l i n e w i t h EPA. A n d so, granted the ratios o f epicycle and eccentric, Venus w o u l d never appear f r o m the Earth to be at an angular distance of m u c h m o r e than 40° f r o m the center of her epicycle, t h a t is t o say, f r o m t h e m e a n p o s i t i o n o f t h e S u n , as it t u r n e d o u t b y o b s e r v a t i o n . 3.The three introductory paragraphs are found in the T h o r n centenary and Warsaw editions. 4. T h e \" o r b i t a l circle\" (orbis) is t h e great circle w h e r e o n t h e p l a n e t m o v e s in its s p h e r e (sphaera). C o p e r n i c u s uses t h e w o r d orbis, w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s a c i r c l e p r i m a r i l y r a t h e r t h a n a sphere because, while the sphere may be necessary for the mechanical explanation of the m o v e m e n t , o n l y t h e circle is necessary f o r t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l . galileo galilei 1. \" N a t u r a l m o t i o n \" o f t h e a u t h o r has h e r e b e e n translated i n t o \" f r e e m o t i o n \" — s i n c e this is the term used today to distinguish the \"natural\" from the \"violent\" motions of the R e n a i s s a n c e . [Trans.] johannes kepler 1. F o r i n t h e Commentaries on Mars, c h a p t e r 4 8 , p a g e 2 3 2 , 1 h a v e p r o v e d t h a t t h i s A r i t h m e t i c m e a n is e i t h e r t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e circle w h i c h is e q u a l in l e n g t h t o t h e elliptic orbit, o r else is v e r y slightly less. 2. Kepler always measures the magnitude of a ratio from the greater term to the smaller, rather t h a n f r o m t h e a n t e c e d e n t t o t h e c o n s e q u e n t , as w e d o today. F o r e x a m p l e , as Kepler speaks, 2:3 is t h e s a m e as 3:2, a n d 3:4 is greater t h a n 7 : 8 . — C . G.Wallis. 3. T h a t is t o say, since S a t u r n a n d J u p i t e r have o n e r e v o l u t i o n w i t h respect to o n e a n o t h e r every twenty years, they are 81° apart once every twenty years, while the end-positions of this 81° interval traverse the ecliptic in leaps, so to speak, and coincide with the apsides approximately once in eight hundred years.—C. G.Wallis 252

ALBERT EINSTEIN 1 . T h e preceding m e m o i r by Lorentz was not at this time k n o w n to the author. 2. I.e. t o t h e first a p p r o x i m a t i o n . 3. W e shall not here discuss the inexactitude which lurks in the concept of simultaneity of two events at approximately the same place, w h i c h can only be removed by an abstraction. 4. \" T i m e \" here denotes \"time of the stationary\" and also \"position of hands on the moving clock situated at the place under discussion.\" 5. A. Einstein, Jahrbuch fiir Radioakt. u n d Elektronik, 4 , 1 9 0 7 . 6. O f c o u r s e w e c a n n o t r e p l a c e a n y a r b i t r a r y g r a v i t a t i o n a l field b y a state o f m o t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m w i t h o u t a g r a v i t a t i o n a l field, a n y m o r e t h a n , b y a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f relativity, w e c a n transform all points of a m e d i u m in any kind of m o t i o n to rest. 7. T h e dimensions of Sj and S2, are regarded as infinitely small in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h h. 8. See above. 9. L. E Jewell (Journ. de Phys., 6, 1897, p. 84) and particularly C h . Fabry and H . Boisson ( C o m p t e s r e n d u s , 148, 1 9 0 9 , pp. 6 8 8 - 6 9 0 ) have actually f o u n d s u c h d i s p l a c e m e n t s o f fine spectral lines toward the red end of the spectrum, of the order of magnitude here calculat- ed, but have ascribed t h e m to an effect of pressure in the absorbing layer. 10. O f course an answer may be satisfactory from the point of view of epistemology, and yet be u n s o u n d physically, if it is in conflict w i t h o t h e r experiences. 11. E o t v o s has p r o v e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l field has this p r o p e r t y in g r e a t accuracy. 12. We assume the possibility of verifying \"simultaneity\" for events immediately proximate in space, or—to speak more precisely—for immediate proximity or coincidence in space- time, without giving a definition of this fundamental concept. 13. D is t h e m e a n density of matter, calculated f o r a r e g i o n w h i c h is large as c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e distance b e t w e e n n e i g h b o r i n g fixed stars, b u t small i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e d i m e n s i o n s of the whole stellar system. 14. Akad de Sitter.Van Wetensch. te Amsterdam, November 8,1916. 253

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Page 6: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 8: M o o n runner D e s i g n . Page 12: Portrait of Nicolas Copernicus, Detlev van Ravenswaay/Science Photo Library. Page 14: Geocentric model of Ptolemy; Kupferstich, 1742/Doppelmaier, 1742. Page 1 5 : T h e C o p e r n i c a n system; N i c h o l a u s C o p e r n i c u s : De Revolutionlbus Orbium Socelestium Libri VI, Nurnberg, 1543. Page 16: NASA Johnson Space Center—Earth Sciences and Image Analysis (NASA-ES&IA). Page 17: Portrait of P t o l e m y f r o m a fifteenth-century m a n u s c r i p t ; Biblioteca Marciana, Florence. Page 18: Discussion b e t w e e n T h e o l o g i a n and A s t r o n o m e r ; Alliaco, Concordantia Astronomiae cum Theologia. E r h a r d R a t d o l t , A u g s b u r g , 1490. Page 19: Etching by Jan Luyken; Moravska Gallery, Brno. Page 20: N i c o l a u s C o p e r n i c u s w i t h h e l i o c e n t r i c system; C o p p e r engraving, Pierre Gassendi, Biography of Copernicus. Paris, 1654. Page 21: A C h r i s t i a n P h i l o s o p h e r ; G e o r g e Hartgill, General Calendars, L o n d o n , 1594. Page 22: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 25: M o o n runner Design. Page 26: M o o n runner Design. Page 2 8 - 2 9 : P r o o f that t h e E a r t h is a sphere; Peter Apian, Cosmographicus Liber. A n t w e r p , 1533. Page 30: NASA Glenn Research Center (NASA-GRC). Page 31: NASA Johnson Space Center (NASA-JSC). Page 34: John Feld, PC Graphics Reports. Page 36: Atlas b e a r i n g U n i v e r s e by W i l l i a m C u n n i n g h a m ; W i l l i a m C u n n i n g h a m , The Cosmographical Glasse, L o n d o n , 1559. Page 37: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA-GSFC) Page 38-39: Flemish armillary sphere, 1562; Adler Planetarium, Chicago. Page 42—43: Pair of Spanish o n e - h a n d e d dividers, 1585; Dudley Barnes Collection, Paris. Page 46: NASA Glenn Research Center (NASA-GRC). Page 50: Galileo about age 46; Scala, Florence. Page 52: Galileo; History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. Page 53: Galileo on Trial; Bridgeman Art Library, London. Page 54: Florence by Giorgio Vasari; Scala, Florence. Page 55: University of Padua; Scala, Florence. Page 56-57: NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA-JPL). Page 5 9 : T i t l e p a g e for G a l i l e o s b o o k Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems; H i s t o r y of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. Page 61: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 63: Moonrunner Design. Page 65: Moonrunner Design. Page 67: Moonrunner Design. Page 68—69: Telescopes designed and built by Galileo—both preserved in Venice; T h e Mansell Collection, London. Page 70: M o o n runner Design. Page 74: (Taxi) Getty Images. Page 76-77: Science Photo Library. Page 78: Steve Allen/Science Photo Library. Page 84: NASA Johnson Space Center—Earth Sciences and Image Analysis (NASA-JSC-ES&IA). 254

Page 88: Galileo presenting his telescope to the Doge ofVenice; Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence. Page 90—91 : Picture of M o o n at first q u a r t e r d r a w n by Galileo; H i s t o r y o f Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. Page 93: Phases of the Earth's Moon—watercolor by Galileo; Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence. Page 97: Moonrunner Design. Page 98: Kepler; Sternwarte Krenismunster, Austria. Page 100: Danish Astronomer Tycho Brahe; Royal Library, Copenhagen. Page l()l:Weilderstadt, Germany; Landesbildstelle Wurttemberg, Stuttgart. Page 102: University ofTubingen; N e w York Public Library, N e w York. Page 103: Graz; N e w York Public Library, N e w York. Page 104: Johann Kepler's Diagram of the Geometric Relationships underlying G o d s Scheme for the planetary orbits; J o h a n n Kepler: Mysterium Cosmographicum, 1596. Page 106: First Wife of Kepler; Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. Page 107: Johannes Kepler; Dr. D o w Smith in association with Itec Corp, Seattle/Tokyo. Page 108: T y c h o B r a h e and J o h a n n e s Kepler; Atlas Coelestis. D o p p e l m a i e r , N u r n b e r g , 1742. Page 110: Johannes Kepler;The Library of Congress, Washington D C . Page 111 : Great Globe; Pramonstratenserkluster in Strahov, Prague. Page 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 : Moonrunner Design. Page 1 1 5 : T y c h o Brahe's q u a d r a n t ; Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica. Levin Hulsi, N u r e m b e r g , 1598. Page 116-117: Moonrunner Design. Page 120: Moonrunner Design. Page 125: M o d e l s of Ptolemy, C o p e r n i c u s , and Tycho Brahe; J o h a n n e s Z a h n , Specula Physico-Mathematico- Historica Notabilium ac Mirabilium Scientiamm; in qua Mundi Mirabilis Oeconomia. N u r n b e r g , 1696. Page 126: Drawing of Copernican system by Thomas Digges; Thomas Digges, 1576. Page 128-129: John Feld, PC Graphics Report. Page 130: World system d e t e r m i n e d by g e o m e t r y o f the regular solids; J o h a n n Kepler, Harmonices Mundi Libri. Linz, 1619. Page 134: T y c h o Brahe's q u a d r a n t and mural at U r a n i b o r g ; Astromias Instauratae Mechanica. W a n d e s b u r g , 1598. Page 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 : T h e world system o f T y c h o Brahe; T y c h o Brahe, De Mundi Aethere: Recentioribus Phaenomicum. U r a n i b o r g , 1599. Page 139: NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA-JPL). Page 140—141: Moonrunner Design. Page 1 4 2 : T h e universe as a m o n o c h o r d by R o b e r t Fludd; Utriusque Cosmic.. .Historia (4 vols.). Oppenheim, 1617-19. Page 143: Frontpiece, F r a n c h i n o G a f o r i , Practica Musicae. M i l a n , 1496. Page 144: Universe as a h a r m o n i o u s a r r a n g e m e n t based on the n u m b e r 9; Anthansius Kircher, S.J., Musurgia Universalis (2 vols.). R o m e , 1650. Page 146: Isaac N e w t o n ; Getty Images Page 149: Frontpiece, Giovanni-Battista R i c c i o l i , S.J, Almagestum Novum Astronomiam Veterum Novamque Complectens (2 vols.). B o l o g n a , 1671. Page 150: Isaac N e w t o n age 12; Lincolnshire C o u n t y Council. Page 151: Artists impression of the apple falling on Newton's head; Mikki Rain, Science Photo Library. Page «152: N e w t o n fascinated w i t h the properties o f the prism; T h e Mansell Collection, L o n d o n . Page 154: Sir Isaac N e w t o n at the age of 77; Zeichung vonWilliam Stukeley. 255

Page 155: Newton, color print 1795 by William Blake;Tate Gallery, London. Page 156-157: T h e Principa; Tessa Musgrave, National Trust Photographic Library. Page 158: C a r t o o n (18th c.) lampooning Newton's theory of gravity; British Library, London. Page 161: Sir Issac N e w t o n ; National Portrait Gallery, London. Page 163: M o o n runner D e s i g n . Page 166-168: Diagram of a reflecting telescope by Sir Issac N e w t o n ; Prepared by Dr. D o w Smith in association with Itec Corporation, Seattle/Tokyo. Page 171: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 174: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 176-177: English telescope, c.1727-1748; Private collection. Page 179: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 182: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 186-188: Moonrunner Design. Page 190: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 193: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 194: Albert Einstein in 1920; Albert Einstein.' Page 196: Young Albert Einstein; Einstein Archives, N e w York. Page 199: Albert Einstein with his family; Einstein Archives, N e w York. Page 200: Albert Einstein in Berlin; Schweizerische Landesbibliothek, Bern. Page 201: Albert Einstein with Charlie Chaplin at the Premier of City Lights; Ullstein Bilderdienst. Page 202: Albert Einstein; The Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. Page 204: Moonrnfmer Design. Page 207: M o o n runner Design. Page 212: Moonrwrwer Design. Page 214: M o o n runner Design. Page 219: Moonrunner Design . Page 221: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 223: Moonrunner Design. Page 2 2 4 - 2 2 5 : Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 : M o o n runner Design. Page 2 3 0 - 2 3 1 : M o o n runner Design. Page 233: M o o n runner Design. Page 235: M o o n runner Design. Page 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 : M o o n runner D e s i g n . Page 240-243: Moonrunner Design. Page 244: M o o n runner D e s i g n . Page 247: Moonrunner D e s i g n . Page 250: Stephen Hawking in 2001; Stewart Cohen. Jacket: M o o n runner D e s i g n . 256

(Continued from front flap) This version of Giants is also fascinating because of the sto- ries it tells—in words and pictures. Sandwiched between the master works are essays that will increase your understanding of who these men were, and their lasting contributions to physics and astronomy. Learn about Copernicus' unwavering commitment to truth over religious doctrine, despite his posi- tion as a Polish priest; Galileo's spirit of defiance; Kepler's family and financial woes; Newton's passionate feuds; Einstein's humble beginnings. And enjoy more than 125 full- color illustrations throughout. This beautifully illustrated, fascinating book will no doubt inspire awe, and provide a bet- ter understanding of the universe and man's place in it. Theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, like Sir Isaac Newton before him, is a Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. He is the author of numerous papers and books, including the phenomenal- ly successful 1988 publication, A Brief History of Time, w h i c h r e m a i n e d o n t h e New York Times bestseller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. His recent book, The Universe in a Nutshell, was also a bestseller. Curiously, Hawking was born 300 years to the day after Galileo died. Photograph of Stephen Hawking by Kimberley Butler Photography Front Cover Illustration by Moonraimer Design Jacket Design by Amy Ray Visit us on the web! www.runningpress.com

ON THE SHOULDERS OF G I A N T S World-renowned physicist and best-selling author I n t h i s s i n g l e v o l u m e , y o u ' l l find a b r i d g e m e n t s o f : Stephen Hawking presents a revolutionary look at the momentous discoveries that changed our perception of • On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres b y N i c o l a u s t h e w o r l d w i t h t h i s first e v e r c o m p i l a t i o n o f five c l a s s i c works on physics and astronomy...His choice of landmark Copernicus writings by some of the world's great thinkers traces the brilliant evolution of m o d e r n science and shows how each • Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences b y G a l i l e o G a l i l e i figure b u i l t u p o n t h e g e n i u s o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . \" —Review in the Amazon Top 10 Science Announcements • Harmonies of the World, Book Five b y J o h a n n e s K e p l e r 'Acclaimed physicist Hawking has collected in this single • Prittcipia b y I s a a c N e w t o n illuminating volume the classic works of physics and astron- o m y that in their day, revolutionized humankind's percep- • O r i g i n a l p a p e r s f r o m A l b e r t E i n s t e i n , first p u b l i s h e d i n tions of the world. . .To read the w o r k s themselves is t o feel the thrill and mystery of intimacy with oft-cited docu- The Principle of Relativity ments. Despite the volume's heftiness, Hawking has given these works a setting that is elegantly simple, effectively Hawking prefaces each groundbreaking work with a biog- broadening. raphy that reveals the m a n behind the scientist, and pro- vides context for the discoveries. M o r e than 125 full-color •Publisher's Weekly illustrations c o m p l e m e n t the text. These science classics have never been more accessible. I n t h i s l a v i s h l y i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n o f On the Shoulders of Giants, p h y s i c i s t S t e p h e n H a w k i n g t a k e s r e a d e r s o n a t o u r of the scientific masterworks that gave rise to m o d e r n physics and astronomy.