1

["Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 28 EFFECTIVE WORD USE Regionalisms L anguage varies from place to place and from group to As you move across the United States, you\u2019ll find that people use different words group\u2013\u2013there is no one and only for the same thing. So, for example, a soft drink might be called a soda in one place \u201ccorrect\u201d English; rather, there are and pop in another; the evening meal might be dinner in one place and supper varieties of English. Standard Written somewhere else. In addition, groups of people\u2014different socioeconomic classes English, Southern States English, or ethnic groups, for example\u2014may also share speech patterns because of a Boston Brahmin English, American shared cultural background. Along with variations in word usage, dialects may also Indian English, Appalachian English, exhibit grammatical variations. It is critical to note that these variations are each Spanish-influenced English, and worthy of our respect. All dialects bind a people together, have a long and inter- African American Vernacular esting history, and show regular and consistent grammatical principles at work. English, among others, are all equally valid varieties. Using Standard Written English in Most College Writing 28a Project Checklist Standard Written English (SWE) is the English of newspa- Revising for Standard Written English pers, books, and magazines; the English of government publica- Ask yourself these questions as you revise for word use. tions; the English of business and \u274f Are any words too informal or too fancy for the context in which you are professional life and of academia. writing ( section 28b)? As its name suggests, Standard \u274f Do any words have unintended denotative or connotative meanings Written English conforms to cer- tain standards of grammar and us- ( section 28c)? age (themselves the topic of this \u274f Do words convey the right level of specificity and concreteness handbook). Although the idea of a standard has been wrongly used to ( section 28d)? treat other varieties of English as \u274f Are any words inappropriate for your audience, such as jargon used inferior, a mastery of Standard Written English is imperative for outside its field ( section 28e)? having one\u2019s point of view or one\u2019s \u274f Are any uses of figurative language overblown, trite, or inaccurate presentation of self given serious consideration in public contexts. ( section 28f)? USING STANDARD WRITTEN ENGLISH IN COLLEGE 421 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 28b Understanding the Levels of Diction Most academic writing calls for Diction on a Continuum from Informal to Formal the use of Standard Written English and a more formal level of diction Least formal than that found in everyday speech. Diction is just a fancy word for word Slang Informal or Colloquial Diction choice, and level of diction refers to where your language sits on a con- Street talk, a word of recent Language appropriate to everyday tinuum of least to most formal. coinage, often the specialized speech but unlikely to be Students writing in college should vocabulary of a particular group, appropriate to the more formal typically strive for a level of diction \u201clingo\u201d demands of college writing more formal than \u201cWhat\u2019s up?\u201d but not so stuffy or overblown as to \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum\u201d \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum\u201d scares make them sound like pompous creeps me out. It gives me me. It gives me goosebumps. windbags. Readers of academic the willies. writing value above all clarity, sim- plicity, and intelligibility. Lots of companies treat the acid Lots of companies treat the acid rain issue like a big pain in the rain issue as too big a hassle or butt. too small to deal with. Jane\u2019s future sucks. Jane is doomed. Using a Dictionary When in doubt about a word or usage, consult your dictionary. Most dictionaries apply usage labels to words or usages of words that are likely to be questionable in Standard Written English. In addition to the labels noted above, the following labels are sometimes used. \u25a0 Nonstandard means that a word or usage is unacceptable to educated speakers and writers. \u25a0 Regionalism or dialect indicates that a word or meaning is restricted to a partic- ular group or area. \u25a0 Archaic refers to words or meanings now rare. \u25a0 Obsolete refers to words or meanings no longer in use. 422 EFFECTIVE WORD USE www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 28b Most formal Even when you are writing in college, certain rhetorical situa- Formal Diction Pompous Language tions may call for using diction other than Standard Written Language characterized by precise Language that uses long words where English. For example, if you are word choice, minimal use of short ones will do, obscure ones writing dialogue, you may want to contractions, formal but not where direct ones exist, old forms represent a particular way of speak- pompous tone, terminology of a where new ones have become ing in order to get across a speak- field common, hyphenated words, er\u2019s tone, style, or background. In nominalizations, and passive voice other rhetorical situations, you\u2019ll also vary the level of diction: if you In \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum,\u201d Poe \u201cThe Pit and the Pendulum\u201d arouses are writing a survey for teenagers creates an atmosphere of terrifying physiologically a fight-or-flight that will appear in a music maga- claustrophobia, torture, and reaction, indicative of anxiety. zine, your diction may well be suspense. slang. The point is not to restrict yourself to one level, but to be- Many polluting industries try either Pollution-incognizant companies come aware of which level of dic- to minimize the seriousness of overestimate their inculpability and tion is most appropriate for a given exhibit reluctance to accept context. acid rain\u2019s devastating effect on the responsibility for the infraction of environment or to overplay the acid-rain build-up. costs of implementing environmental regulations. Jane\u2019s future looks bleak. The prognostication for Jane\u2019s future was beset by darkening clouds. Sample Dictionary Entry with Usage Label By permission. From Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary \u00a9 2010 by Merriam-Webster, Incorporated (www.learnersdictionary.com). UNDERSTANDING THE LEVELS OF DICTION 423 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 28c Considering Denotation and Connotation Denotation is the meaning of Decide Which Synonym to Use by Checking Your a word. Connotation is an emo- Dictionary\u2019s Usage Notes tional association a word implies. To choose and use a word effec- Consider a word\u2019s connotations when deciding which of several synonyms to use. tively, you must know what a word means and be aware of what it They help set the emotional context of your ideas for readers. Here is a discus- implies. sion of some of the synonyms for easy from Merriam-Webster Online. Denotation Find a word\u2019s denotative mean- ings in a good college-level diction- ary, such as the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Merriam-Webster\u2019s Collegiate Dictionary, or the Random House Webster\u2019s College Dictionary. Connotation By permission. From Merriam-Webster's Collegiate\u00ae Dictionary, 11th Edition \u00a9 2010 by Merriam-Webster, Incorporated (www.Merriam-Webster.com). Many words share a basic mean- ing but imply shades or differences The Dangers of Using Biased Language of meaning that are distinctly important. Consider this quotation Be deliberate in your use of connotation, taking care not to undermine your from the British journalist own argument by sloppily using words with negative connotations to smear a Katherine Whitehorn: person or position with which you disagree. Some words are especially loaded and, if used unthinkingly, can make your work seem biased. If, for example, all I am firm. You are obstinate. women politicians are shrill in your vocabulary or all union organizers are bull- He is a pig-headed fool. headed, you might want to examine your writing for gender or class bias over- Firm, obstinate, and pig-headed all all. The challenge here is not to censor your criticisms but to be aware that mean \u201cstrong willed,\u201d but the con- your argument will be undermined if you use emotionally loaded language or notation of pig-headed is that one is promote biased stereotypes rather than presenting your position objectively stupidly obstinate; the connotation and reasonably. (For more on eliminating biased language, see Chapter 29.) of firm is that one is admirably reso- lute. You can use a thesaurus to find synonyms (words that are alike in meaning), but to clarify differences in connotation, use a dictionary. 424 EFFECTIVE WORD USE www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Balancing the Specific and the General, the Concrete and the Abstract 28d Sample Paragraph from Judith Ortiz Cofer Good writing requires the deft balancing of the specific and the Color general, the concrete and the In the animal world it indicates danger: the most colorful creatures are abstract. often the most poisonous. Color is also a way to attract and seduce a mate. In the human world color triggers many more complex and often deadly \u25a0 General words are used to reactions. As a Puerto Rican girl born of \u201cwhite\u201d parents, I spent the first define a category of thing: verte- years of my life hearing people refer to me as blanca, white. My mother brates, American literature, under- insisted that I protect myself from the intense island sun because I was more graduates. Specific words locate prone to sunburn than some of my darker, trigue\u00f1o playmates. People were an item within that category: always commenting within my hearing about how my black hair contrasted aardvark; Toni Morrison\u2019s novel so nicely with my \u201cpale\u201d skin. I did not think of the color of my skin Beloved; Jane Smith, first-year consciously except when I heard the adults talking about complexion. It student at Seattle Central Commu- seems to me that the subject is much more common in the conversation of nity College. mixed-race peoples than in mainstream United States society, where it is a touchy and sometimes even embarrassing topic to discuss, except in a \u25a0 Abstract words identify con- political context. cepts: truth, justice, freedom, equality. Concrete words create From Judith Ortiz Cofer, \u201cThe Story of My Body,\u201d in The Latin Deli: Prose and Poetry (Athens: University of Georgia Press, impressions based on our five 1993). senses (seeing, hearing, smell- ing, tasting, and touching): yel- The first three sentences are mostly general and abstract. The author makes gen- low, loud, rank, sweet, soft. eralizations about the significance and effects of skin color. Sentences 4\u20137 become Specific and concrete words put more specific and concrete; the author shares her personal experiences with readers. The last sentence zooms out to abstraction again to compare the fre- readers in actual contexts, helping quency of conversation about skin color in two cultures. them identify people, actions, scenes, and the particularities of a moment. General and abstract terms stand above the immediacy of context, making it possible for readers to think about what many contexts have in common. We need all kinds of words to capture experience and reflect upon it. BALANCING THE SPECIFIC AND THE GENERAL 425 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 28e Preferring Strong, Plain Words Don\u2019t confuse or mislead your Some Contemporary Buzzwords to Avoid reader with language that is overly specialized, obscure, pretentious, Nouns and Adjectives Verbs Created from Nouns or archaic. action plan buy-in to actualize centers of excellence to dialogue Cut Buzzwords core competencies to gift mission-critical to disincent Buzzwords are trendy words pushback to incentivize often chosen to signify that their thought leadership to monetize users are in the know. In academic trend rifts to operationalize writing, use words to convey your turnkey solution to productize thoughts rather than to signify your value added solutioning (a problem) membership in the club. value proposition Rewrite Bureaucratese Bureaucratese, Revised Bureaucratese is language Bureaucratese The experience of sudden hood fly-up may restrict the field that includes a high proportion of nouns and to be verbs; these make of vision such that unfortunate circumstances result for the writing seem weighty and conse- quential, but that impression is operator. false. This kind of writing obscures meaning rather than revealing it. Revision If the hood of your car opens while you\u2019re driving, you might Impress your readers instead with clear, direct, and vivid language. not see where you\u2019re going and crash. Use the Jargon of Fields Jargon in the Disciplines: An Example from Psychology of Study with Care Every field of study uses a specialized vocabulary. If you were writing a paper on Specialized language has a place in writing, depending on the con- learning for a psychology class, for example, you might well need to use some of text, including audience and pur- pose. Rock climbers know the the following terms: difference between scumming, smedging, and smearing, but the or- associative learning extinction dinary person might not. Specialists classical conditioning reinforcement need specialized language to talk to operant conditioning avoidance conditioning one another with clarity and preci- conditioned stimulus partial reinforcement schedule sion. To reach a general audience, conditioned response shaping you\u2019ll want to use a more accessi- backward conditioning modeling ble vocabulary. Because these terms are jargon, you should refer to the glossary of your text- book for exact definitions when using any of them in your project. If your audi- ence is only your instructor, you may not need to define these specialized terms, but if your audience includes others outside of the field, you may have to provide definitions for your readers. 426 EFFECTIVE WORD USE www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 28e Using Euphemisms to Cover Up Embarrassment, Fear, Recognize Euphemisms and Disgust A euphemism is a word that is At times euphemisms are appropriate\u2014writing a note to a bereaved mother, you substituted for another in an at- might well use the phrase passed on instead of died. In academic writing, however, tempt to make things \u201cnice\u201d: toilet it\u2019s best to be more direct. Each time you use a euphemism, consider what you becomes bathroom becomes wash- are hiding from readers or yourself. Also, although the euphemisms listed below room becomes restroom; undertaker are at approximately the same level of diction as the words they are covering up, becomes mortician becomes funeral many euphemisms lower the level and thus become unsuitable in Standard director. Written English: the facilities (the toilet) know [someone] in the biblical sense (have sex with) passed on, passed away (died) sanitary landfill (garbage dump) Using Figurative Language Effectively 28f Mixed Metaphors Figures of speech can help the reader see what you mean by creat- A mixed metaphor creates an awkward combination of images: ing word pictures. Mixed The burning anger of the colonists rained down over Taxation without Representation. [Mixes metaphors of fire and rain] Metaphor and simile both Revised The burning anger of the colonists blazed over Taxation without compare one thing to another. Representation. Metaphors imply a comparison: His mind is a steel trap. Similes spell out a comparison using the word like or as: His mind works like a steel Clich\u00e9s trap. A clich\u00e9 is a metaphor that has worn out its welcome through overuse: An allusion refers to a familiar bent out of shape phrase or other part of a literary between a rock and a hard place work, such as a character, sto- grasping at straws ryline, or title. If you call some- thing a \u201cSisyphean task,\u201d you\u2019re making an allusion to the myth of Similes Sisyphus, who was condemned to endlessly roll a giant boulder up a Similes make explicit comparisons between one thing and another using the word hill only to have it fall down again like or as: The man . . . had to walk half a mile to water, the weasel dangling from his each time he reached the top. palm, and soak him off like a stubborn label. Hyperbole is the use of delib- From Annie Dillard, \u201cLiving like Weasels,\u201d in Teaching a Stone to Talk (New York: HarperCollins, 1982). erate exaggeration to make a point: This book weighs a ton. USING FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE EFFECTIVELY 427 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 29 L A N G U A G E A N D D I V E R S E A U D I E N C E S A ll biased language is based Project Checklist on unstated assumptions that position one group as dominant Reviewing for Biased Language and normative and give that group the right to speak and to name oth- 1. Have you been fair and accurate in your descriptions of people or ers, while denying equal voice or groups, or does your language promote stereotypes? Is your writing dignity to those others. based on clear thinking or on unexamined assumptions? Is your language free of unwitting connotations? Inclusive language respects differences and seeks to present 2. Who is the implied audience? Does your language enhance your them in nonjudgmental terms. credibility with a wide audience by being inclusive, or does it unwittingly offend, exclude, or marginalize? Biased language harms your credibility with potential readers. 3. Is information about a person\u2019s gender, race or ethnicity, disability, Inclusive language widens your class, religion, age, or other group-based characteristic mentioned only audience. where relevant? 4. Are different persons or groups in parallel contexts treated in a parallel fashion? 5. Do you refer to persons or groups by the names that they themselves prefer? 29a Eliminating Gender Bias Avoid using the pronoun he to refer Approaches to Eliminating the Generic he to a person whose gender is unknown. Strategies to consider 1. Eliminate the pronoun altogether. are listed to the right. a. Delete it. b. Replace it with an article. Original Every citizen should cast his vote on November 2. Deleted Every citizen should vote on November 2. Replaced Every citizen should cast a vote on November 2. 428 LANGUAGE AND DIVERSE AUDIENCES www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 29a 2. Change the person or number of antecedent and pronoun. Another linguistic trouble spot a. Use we, one, or you. is the word man used to represent b. Make the antecedent itself plural. all of humanity. Other man words, such as manpower or the verb to Original The savvy traveler packs his suitcase lightly. man, also require careful scrutiny, Revised Savvy travelers pack their suitcases lightly. as do historical and cultural refer- Revised Savvy travelers pack lightly. ences to figurative fathers when what is meant is the more-inclusive 3. Recast the sentence altogether. founders, innovators, pioneers, or a. Use the imperative mood. ancestors. b. Use the passive voice. c. Use entirely different wording. Many job titles that used to be gender specific have been revised Original A zookeeper observes several precautions when he feeds the lions. for inclusivity. Equally important is Imperative Observe these precautions when feeding the lions. not labeling occupations as male or Recast Without proper precautions, feeding the lions can be dangerous. female, as in male nurse, male secre- tary, female engineer, or female execu- Original Every citizen must pay his taxes by April 15. tive. Refer to gender only when Passive Taxes must be paid by April 15. gender is relevant, and try to word Recast April 15 is the deadline for paying federal taxes. your sentences to put the emphasis on accomplishment, not gender. 4. Use the phrase his or her sparingly. While too-frequent use of the combination pronoun his or her can result in unwieldy or awkward prose, sometimes it\u2019s the right choice for a particular context. Original Each child paid for his ice cream. Revised Each child paid for his or her own ice cream. Occupational Titles: Men and Women at Work Instead of . . . Consider using . . . businessman businessman or businesswoman, businessperson chairman chair, chairman or chairwoman, chairperson, congressman convener, coordinator, presiding officer congressional representative, congressman or fireman housewife congresswoman, legislator, member of mailman, postman Congress, representative firefighter homemaker, householder letter carrier, mail carrier, postal worker ELIMINATING GENDER BIAS 429 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 29b Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Bias In scientific circles, the notion Writing about Ethnicity: Which Do You Prefer? of race is an increasingly contested one, with current research showing African American Preferred by some groups and individuals that so profound are genetic inter- Afro-American Considered dated connections around the globe that Black, black Preferred by some groups and individuals; may be either variation between individuals is lowercased or capitalized; consult a style guide more significant than variation colored, Negro Use only as part of the name of an organization (e.g., the among groups. A more current National Association for the Advancement of Colored way of discussing our differences is People, founded in 1909) by referring to the idea of ethnicity, which looks beyond skin color to American Indian Most widely used term; use a more specific description ancestry, language, and custom. Nevertheless, discussions about when appropriate; does not refer to Inuits or Aleuts race and ethnicity remain among the most difficult in contemporary Eskimo, Inuit, Though still widely used and most recognizable, Eskimo America. And group differences remain a source of pride as well as Native Alaskan is considered offensive by many; Inuit is preferred; some prejudice. groups and individuals use Native Alaskan Eliminating language bias in re- gard to race or ethnicity is a matter Indian Preferred by some groups and individuals; use a more of applying the five guidelines\u2014to be fair and accurate, inclusive, rel- specific description when appropriate evant, parallel, and respectful of preferences\u2014and then stepping native, indigenous, As nouns, native and aboriginal can be considered offen- back to consider how your lan- guage might sound to another. aboriginal sive; as an adjective, indigenous is more widely preferred, but native (as in Native American, Native Hawaiian) and aboriginal are still widely used Native American Preferred by some groups and individuals; use a more specific description when appropriate nation, people Preferred to tribe Chicana, Chicano Derived from the Spanish term mexicano; preferred by Hispanic some Mexican Americans but considered objectionable by others\u2014use with care; Chicano refers to a man, Chicana Latina, Latino to a woman, though specific English usage varies Refers to persons descended from residents of Spanish- speaking countries or cultures, including Spain (cf. Latino, Latina); preferred by some groups and individuals; does not mean the person speaks Spanish; does not refer to race; use a more specific description when appropriate, such as Mexican American, Puerto Rican, or Cuban American Refers to persons of Latin American origin; preferred by some groups and individuals; does not refer to race; Latino refers to a man, Latina to a woman, though specific English usage varies; use more specific description when appropriate, such as Mexican American, Puerto Rican, or Cuban American 430 LANGUAGE AND DIVERSE AUDIENCES www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 29b Caucasian, Derives from nineteenth-century pseudo-anthropological Using Preferred Terms Caucasoid system of racial classification and refers to peoples from Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, and parts of India; One issue that demands special at- Amerasian has been misused as a synonym for European or white tention is the importance of using Asian preferred terms. Preferences aren\u2019t Refers largely to children fathered by American static; they change as the social land- Asian American servicemen during Korean and Vietnam wars scape itself changes. As Harvard pro- Preferred term to refer to residents of Asian countries fessor Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in Asiatic (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, etc.) and to things relating his 1969 application to college, \u201cMy Oriental to Asia; use more specific national descriptions when grandfather was colored, my father hyphenated appropriate was a Negro, and I am black.\u201d Some American Preferred term; use more specific description when Native Americans prefer to be called hyphen as appropriate, such as Korean American, Chinese American, American Indians; some persons of punctuation or Filipino American Latin American origin call themselves Considered offensive; do not use Hispanic, some Latino, some ethnicity Considered dated or offensive; do not use Chicano, and others something else race entirely, depending on gender, cul- Disparaging; do not use tural identification, and country of minority ancestry. Do your homework: if nonwhite Open compounds are more widely preferred; but usage you\u2019re writing about a particular persons of color varies (e.g., the New York Times still hyphenates such group of people, know what they call brown, yellow, terms as Vietnamese-American) themselves and prefer for others to red, white call them, and use terms accurately. A group definition based on culture, geography, language, country of origin It is also important to use more A contested term, so use with consideration; avoid specific designations as appropri- nineteenth-century pseudo-anthropological terms, such ate. There are over three hundred as Negroid, Mongoloid, Caucasoid (or Caucasian), and American Indian nations currently Australoid identified in the United States Considered offensive by some but appropriate and useful alone. A Hispanic person might be by others; use with consideration from Spain, Paraguay, Cuba, Considered offensive by some but appropriate and useful Mexico, or any point in between. by others; use with consideration Asian Americans come from coun- Preferred by some groups and individuals as an alternative tries as diverse as India, China, and to minorities for referring to people other than whites the Philippines. Use with consideration; can be considered offensive A final usage note: Don\u2019t use hyphens in terms like Chinese American or Cuban American. The use of hyphens in such compounds, as well as the term hyphenated American itself, has increasingly come under criticism. ELIMINATING RACIAL AND ETHNIC BIAS 431 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 29c Eliminating Bias Related to Disability One of the most useful guide- Writing about Disability lines for eliminating bias in all writ- ing has come out of the disability Words to use movement: the People First rule, Preferred terms for talking about disability are disability (noun) and disabled (adjec- which says to put the person first, tive); they are considered to be the most straightforward and hence respectful. not the disability (or any other Their English usage dates back to 1557. qualifier, such as gender, ethnicity, age, or class). Rather than calling Follow the People First rule: put the person first, then the disability. someone an AIDS patient, use person Yes persons with disability living with AIDS; rather than refer- No the disabled, disabled persons ring to an entire group of persons as the learning disabled, use persons Yes person with paraplegia with learning disabilities or, more No paraplegic specifically, children with dyslexia. Calling someone a diabetic equates Yes person with cancer the person with the disease; calling No cancer patient someone a person with diabetes re- quires more words, but it more Yes person with bipolar disorder fully recognizes that person\u2019s No manic-depressive humanity. Words to avoid In writing about disabilities, be Though still widely used in law and in everyday speech, handicapped\u2014as in handi- specific and accurate. For example, capped parking or handicapped accessible\u2014is considered by many to be offensive deaf means that a person cannot or euphemistic. For many disabled persons, the handicap is not the disability itself hear; Deaf means that the person is but the physical, legal, and social barriers they may encounter. self-identified as belonging to a community that uses American Challenged, differently abled, and handicapable should be avoided as condescend- Sign Language as the primary form ing, awkward, or euphemistic. of communication. Blind refers to Yes She uses a wheelchair. someone without sight; someone No She is mobility challenged. with limited sight might also be re- ferred to as visually impaired or Afflicted with, crippled by, cripple, suffers from, sufferer, victim of, victim, and de- partly blind. formed should be avoided as unnecessarily negative or emotional. Yes . . . the study found that those with arthritis . . . In writing about a particular No . . . the study found that arthritis sufferers . . . group, do your homework: be in- formed enough to be current and Confined to a wheelchair should be avoided; wheelchairs are not necessarily accurate. Avoid terms that are un- confining to those who need them. necessarily emotional or negative, Yes . . . student Tom Baker, who uses a wheelchair . . . such as victim of or cripple, as well as No . . . student Tom Baker, who is confined to a wheelchair . . . euphemisms such as challenged. 432 LANGUAGE AND DIVERSE AUDIENCES www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 9 Understanding and Revising Sentences PART 9 Understanding and Revising Sentences www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 9 Understanding and PART 9 Revising Sentences Understanding and Revising Sentences 30 Parts of Speech and 439 d Punctuation with Transitional 35 Subject-Verb Agreement 482 Sentence Structure Expressions 456 a Compound Subjects 483 a Nouns 435 e Revising by Rewriting the Sentence 457 b Words Coming between Subject b Pronouns 436 33 Pronouns 457 and Verb 484 c Linking Verbs Agree with Subjects, c Verbs 437 a Understanding Pronoun Case 458 b Pronoun Case in Compounds 459 Not Subject Complements 485 d Adjectives 437 c Pronoun Case after than or as 459 d AgreementWhen Subject Follows d Pronoun Case and Appositives 460 e Adverbs 438 e Pronoun Case with In nitives 460 Verb 485 f Choosing who or whom 461 e Inde nite Pronouns as Subjects 486 f Prepositions 439 g Understanding Pronoun f Collective Nouns as Subjects 487 g Measurement Words as Subjects 488 g Conjunctions 440 Agreement 462 h Singular Words Ending in -s as h Agreement with Antecedents Joined h Interjections 441 Subjects 488 by and, or, or nor 462 i Titles, Names,Words Used as i Subject and Predicate 441 i Agreement with Collective Words, and Gerunds as Subjects 488 j Five Basic Patterns of English Nouns 463 j Agreement in Relative Clauses and j Agreement with Inde nite Pronouns Sentences 442 with Clauses Beginning with what 489 and Generic Nouns 463 k Phrases 444 k Using Inclusive Language with 36 Adjectives,Adverbs, and Modifying Phrases 490 l Clauses 446 Pronouns 464 l Understanding Pronoun a After Linking Verbs 490 m Classifying Sentences by b After Direct Objects 491 Reference 464 c Commonly Misused Adjectives Grammatical Structure 448 m Reference to More Than One and Adverbs 491 n Classifying Sentences by Discourse Possible Antecedent 465 d Understanding Comparatives n Reference to a Distant Function 449 and Superlatives 492 Antecedent 465 e Do Not Use Double Comparatives 31 Sentence Fragments 450 o Antecedent Implied,Vague, or a Incomplete and Missing Verbs 451 or Superlatives 493 Missing 466 f Using Absolute Adjectives 493 b Missing Subjects 452 p Using who, which, and that 467 g Do Not Use Double Negatives 494 h Understanding the c Missing Subjects and Missing Verbs: 34 Verbs 468 Placement of Modi ers 494 Phrase Fragments 452 a Irregular Verbs 469 i Placing Modi ers Near the Words b Auxiliary Verbs 471 d Subject-Verb Pairs That Can\u2019t Act as c Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 473 They Modify 495 d Verb Tenses 474 j Revising Squinting Modi ers 496 Sentences: Dependent Clauses 453 e Mood 479 k Revising Dangling Modi ers 496 f Active and Passive Voice 480 e Deliberate Fragments 454 32 Run-On Sentences 454 and Comma Splices a Revising by Separating into Two Distinct Sentences 455 b Revising by Using a Comma and Then a Coordinating Conjunction 455 c Revising by Using a Semicolon or Colon 456 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30 PARTS OF SPEECH AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE The context of grammar is the sentence.The grammatical functions of some K nowing how words function words in the following sentence are labeled. within a sentence and how sen- tences are structured will increase ADJECTIVE PREPOSITION NOUN VERB your options as a writer. In a corporate jet flying 37,000 feet above the Amazon rainforest, I heard the PRONOUN ADVERB Nouns 30a three words I will never forget:\u201cWe\u2019ve been hit.\u201d A noun refers to a person, place, thing, quality, state, action, From Joe Sharkey, \u201cColliding with Death at 37,000 Feet, and Living,\u201d New York Times, Oct. 3, 2006. or concept.Anything that can be pointed to or singled out can be Examples of Nouns named with a noun. Proper Common Concrete Abstract \u25a0 Proper nouns name a specific Tony Hawk man bed comfort person, place, or thing.The Vancouver city wind change first letter of a proper noun is Hyundai car bells belief capitalized. Common nouns name the types of things that a Collective Countable Uncountable proper noun represents. team players team spirit faculty classmates homework \u25a0 Concrete nouns name things army soldiers equipment or objects that you can see, hear, taste, smell, touch, or Multilingual writers: Most errors in noun form result from problems in distin- experience in the world. guishing between countable and uncountable nouns; see Chapter 48. Abstract nouns name things that cannot be known How Can You Identify . . . through the senses. A Noun? \u25a0 Collective nouns name a col- lection or group. Countable The following questions can help you decide whether a word is acting as nouns name things that may a noun. exist as distinct units and that 1. Can the form of the word be changed to indicate singular or plural may be counted. Most count nouns can be made plural by ( section 48a)? adding s: voters. Uncountable nouns name things that are 2. Can you make the word possessive ( section 41a)? usually considered wholes or abstract ideas and can\u2019t be 3. Can you insert a, an, the, or some directly before the word? counted: mud, confusion, enthu- siasm. They normally can\u2019t be 4. Does the word end with one of these suffixes, which usually indicate made plural. nouns: -ance, -ence, -ment, -ness, or -ty? NOUNS 435 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30b Pronouns A pronoun usually substitutes Example 1 Pronouns for a noun in a sentence.The noun Personal pronouns: that the pronoun refers back to or replaces is called the antecedent. Grace went to the website, but she could not find the movie her mother wanted to see. \u25a0 Personal pronouns refer to Indefinite pronouns: people or things: I, you, he, she, All it takes to succeed in this course is a little hard work. it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them. Relative pronouns: \u25a0 Indefinite pronouns, such NOUN CLAUSE as all, anyone, each, everybody, and some, refer to unnamed or in- She is the girl who earned straight As in high school. definite antecedents. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE \u25a0 Relative pronouns, includ- ing which, that, who, and whom, Go up the trail that starts at the beach. introduce a noun clause or an Interrogative pronouns: adjective clause. Which television program will you watch tonight? Demonstrative pronouns: \u25a0 Interrogative pronouns, This is the best book I have ever read. [A book the speaker is holding] including who, whom, and which, introduce questions. That one makes me fall asleep. [A book that is farther away] Reflexive pronouns: \u25a0 Demonstrative pronouns\u2014 He hit himself in the foot with the puck. this, that, these, and those\u2014refer to Intensive pronouns: a noun or pronoun antecedent. The author herself signed the book for me. Reciprocal pronouns: \u25a0 Reflexive pronouns such as When two people are talking to each other at the same time, it\u2019s doubtful myself and yourselves refer back either one is listening. to nouns or personal pronouns when the subject of an action Indefinite Pronouns and the object of that action are the same. all each more one most several \u25a0 Pronoun forms such as myself another either neither some can also be used to intensify an nobody somebody antecedent.When they are used any everybody no one someone this way, they are called inten- none something sive pronouns. anybody everyone nothing \u25a0 Reciprocal pronouns\u2014each anyone everything other and one another\u2014refer to an action that two antecedents anything few perform mutually. See Chapter 33 for more on both many pronouns. 436 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Verbs 30c Example 2 Verbs A verb is the central unit of any Active sentence with action verb: sentence or clause, and all the other He sat quietly in front of the monitor. words in a sentence take grammati- Passive sentence with auxiliary and action verbs: cal form based on how they relate Mistakes were made. to it. A verb can express Sentence describing state of being: She is happy. \u25a0 action (run, live, change), \u25a0 states of being (is, are), or How Can You Identify . . . \u25a0 occurrences (happen, become). A Verb? See 30i and 30l for more infor- mation on how verbs function in The following questions can help you decide whether a word is acting as sentences and clauses. a verb in a sentence. 1. Can you change the tense to indicate past time? Most verbs add -ed or Action verbs express action by an agent in a sentence or clause. -d to the plain form to indicate past tense: played (play + ed), hiked The agent needn\u2019t be present in the (hike + d). Some verbs form the past tense irregularly: ride\/rode, run\/ sentence, however. For example, in ran, eat\/ate ( pages 469\u2013470). passive sentences agents may be de- 2. If you put the word after a singular noun subject, would it change form in liberately omitted ( 34f). the present tense? The child [swim] The child swims. Nearly all present tense verbs add -s or -es to the base form of the verb: hugs (hug + s), To be verbs express states of kisses (kiss + es). The two exceptions are be, which becomes is, and have, being; they are sometimes referred which becomes has. to as stative verbs. To be verbs are 3. Is the word one of two forms that can never be the verb in a sentence am, is, are, was, and were. unless other verbs are helping them: infinitives (to hug, to hit) and -ing forms (pleasing, writing) ( section 31a)? See Chapter 34 for more on verbs. Example 3 Adjectives modifying nouns Adjectives 30d Those new convertibles are beautiful cars. Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Some adjectives limit or specify the noun or pronoun by showing its quantity, location, own- ership, or other qualities. ADJECTIVES 437 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30d \u25a0 Articles are used before Example 4 Adjectives nouns.The articles are a, an, Articles: and the. The definite article the The teacher used a laser pointer. is used before a noun to indi- cate a specific item or items. Demonstrative adjectives: The indefinite articles a and an I\u2019ll carry these boxes if you take that one. indicate that a noun is used in a more general way. Indefinite adjectives: Other people like these apples. \u25a0 Demonstrative adjectives\u2014 Each kid ran away from that school bus. this, that, these, those\u2014emphasize Interrogative adjectives: a noun or pronoun. What kind of motorcycle is that? Whose machine broke first? \u25a0 Indefinite adjectives are In which tree did you build a fort? indefinite pronouns used to Possessive adjectives: modify nouns and work much She scored her second goal in the first game of the season. the same way as demonstrative Our apartment is too small for all of your furniture. adjectives. Proper adjectives: Swedish meatballs are less popular with children than Turkish taffy. \u25a0 Interrogative adjectives go Relative adjective: before a noun in a question. If you would ask for directions, we would know which road to take. Multilingual writers: Adjectives before a noun often need to be in a cer- \u25a0 Possessive adjectives de- tain order; see section 50c. scribe who possesses or owns the object named by a noun. \u25a0 Proper adjectives are proper nouns used to modify a noun. \u25a0 Relative adjectives are like relative pronouns, except they modify nouns instead of stand- ing in for them. 30e Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, but Example 5 Adverbs they also modify adjectives, other adverbs, and whole clauses.They I ran yesterday. [Modifies verb] answer the questions \u201cWhen?\u201d It was really dark. [Modifies adjective] \u201cWhere?\u201d \u201cHow?\u201d \u201cTo what degree Hibiscus blooms very profusely. [Modifies adverb] or extent?\u201d Quickly, the tourists snapped dozens of photos. [Modifies verb] 438 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30e Adverbs of degree I run quickly. \u25a0 Adverbs of degree answer Positive degree I run more quickly than he does. the question \u201cTo what degree or Comparative degree I run the most quickly of all the competitors. extent?\u201d Some adverbs of degree Superlative degree compare one item with a sec- ond; these are called compara- Conjunctive adverbs and their meanings tive adverbs. Others compare an item with two or more other Conjunctive Adverbs items; these are called superla- tive adverbs ( Chapter 36). Comparing and contrasting conversely, however, instead of, likewise, nevertheless, nonetheless, similarly, still \u25a0 Conjunctive adverbs indi- Adding information additionally, also, besides, furthermore cate specific relationships Suggesting implications and results accordingly, consequently, then, therefore, between sentences and ideas. thus Conjunctive adverbs create Expressing time order finally, first, meanwhile, next, second, lexical ties, which are direct subsequently, then relationships of meaning across Making or emphasizing a point always, certainly, definitely sentences ( Chapter 2). Prepositions 30f Example 6 Prepositions Prepositions indicate relation- I ran into the woods and across the stream to escape my little brother. ships, often of space or time, be- tween the nouns or pronouns that Common Prepositions follow them and the other words in a sentence. Prepositions do not about below in spite of past change form. English has many inside since prepositions, but you can recall above beneath instead of through some of the most familiar ones if into to you imagine all the places you can according to beside near toward be in relation to, for example, a of under house: in, on, above, below, beside, across between off underneath around, between, over, under, at, and so on until on. Some prepositions consist of after beyond onto upon more than one word. out with against by outside within over without along despite among down around during aside from except at for before from behind in PREPOSITIONS 439 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30g Conjunctions Conjunctions connect clauses, Example 7 Conjunctions phrases, and individual words. Three types of conjunctions are Coordinating conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and He studies every afternoon, but he rarely passes his exams. [But joins two correlative. independent clauses. Notice the comma.] \u25a0 Coordinating conjunctions I like to run marathons and lift weights. [And joins two phrases.] place words in a sentence in coordinate (that is, parallel) Subordinating conjunctions: relationships.The seven coor- Although he was quick on his feet, the attack surprised him. dinating conjunctions are and, but, so, yet, for, or, and nor. Notice You\u2019d better have lots of money with you when you go shopping for a that when the conjunction joins plasma TV. independent clauses, a comma must precede the conjunction. Correlative conjunctions: She not only rose to the top of her class but also became an ambassador \u25a0 Subordinating conjunc- for the school. tions express a logical or temporal relationship among Note: elements in a sentence or be- The words following each part of the correlative conjunction are of the tween ideas across sentence same grammatical form (rose and became are both past-tense verbs).When boundaries. If the subordinate you use correlative conjunctions, take care to preserve this parallel clause precedes the indepen- structure. dent clause to which it is at- tached, separate the clauses Subordinating Conjunctions with a comma. after if till \u25a0 Correlative conjunctions unless express relationships of contrast although if only until or similarity between different when elements in a sentence.They as in order that whenever come in pairs: both . . . and, where either . . . or, neither . . . nor, and as if now that whereas not only . . . but also. wherever as long as once whether which as soon as provided (that) while why as though rather than because (of) since before so that due to such that even if than even though that how though 440 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Interjections 30h Example 8 Interjections Interjections begin or inter- rupt sentences and express strong Wow! That McDonald\u2019s coffee is hot. or sudden emotion, as well as atti- Oh, how disappointing! tude or tone, such as surprise, res- ignation, or irony. Interjections can also be words used to address someone, such as hi, hello, or hey. Subjects Predicates Subject and Predicate 30i Bao is funny. The beautiful boat sails in the harbor. The grammatical terms for the Throwing pottery on a wheel takes practice. noun-verb pair that is the core of She has been thinking about her family. every sentence are simple subject and Suki and Eriko laughed loudly. simple predicate. Every sentence can Tomas\u2019s car skidded and flipped over. be broken into these two parts. How Can You Identify . . . \u25a0 The simple subject is whom- ever or whatever the sentence The Subject of a Sentence? is about; it and all the words that go with it are called the 1. Find the verb. complete subject. In the The peacock runs. [Active voice] complete subjects to the left, The research study was conducted by first-year students. [Passive voice] the simple subjects are in bold. 2. Ask \u201cWho or what . . .?\u201d \u25a0 The simple predicate is the Who or what runs? [The peacock is the subject of the first sentence.] verb that relays the subject\u2019s ac- Who or what was conducted? [The research study is the subject of the tion or state of being.The verb second sentence.] and all the words that go with it are called the complete predicate. In the complete predicates to the left, the verbs are in bold. Sentences can also have com- pound subjects and compound predicates. Compound subjects consist of two or more nouns linked by and. Compound pred- icates include two or more verbs joined by and. S U B J E C T A N D P R E D I C AT E 441 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30j Five Basic Patterns of English Sentences Most English sentences conform to one of five standard patterns. Sentence Pattern 1 Pattern 1: Intransitive verbs don\u2019t need objects or complements Subject Verb Subject Verb Lightning flashed. The predicate in the subject + The clock ticks. verb pattern consists of the intransi- The library will open at 10 a.m. [At 10 a.m. is a prepositional phrase, not an tive verb only. Intransitive verbs object or a complement.] do not take objects or complements; Visitors should leave now. [Now is an adverb.] their meaning is complete.You can add descriptive details, however. Sentence Pattern 2 Pattern 2: Transitive verbs require direct objects Subject Verb Direct Subject Verb Direct Object Object Alexander Selcraig navigated [what?] a British ship. Transitive verbs require a di- rect object to complete the thought. The sailors ate [what?] peas and salt meat. [Compound Transitive verbs can be in the active voice or the passive voice. In the ac- object] tive voice, the subject of the sen- tence performs the action. In the Many verbs have both transitive and intransitive meanings. Consult a dictionary if passive voice, the subject receives the action ( section 34f). you need to. In a sentence in the active voice, Intransitive Transitive the direct object receives the ac- The water runs. Luca runs the drill press. tion and is usually a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase. Sentence Pattern 3 Pattern 3: The indirect object usually receives or benefits from the action of the verb on the direct object Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object David sent Angelina Silent Snow. Indirect objects indicate to This book tells readers a frightening story. whom or to what or for whom or for what an action is performed. Multilingual writers: See section 50b on the order of direct and indirect ob- jects following different verbs. 442 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30j Pattern 4: The object complement renames or describes the direct Sentence Pattern 4 object Subject Verb Direct Subject Verb Direct Object Object Object Object Complement The voters elected Hawley Complement Environmentalists found McKibben\u2019s argument mayor. Object complements add to, de- compelling. scribe, identify, or rename the di- rect object. Complements can be nouns, noun phrases, or adjectives. Object complements help complete the meaning of transitive verbs such as call, elect, make, and name. Pattern 5: The subject complement renames or describes the subject Sentence Pattern 5 Subject Verb Subject Complement Subject Verb Subject This forest feels Complement The dinner was lonely. [forest = lonely] a disaster. [dinner = disaster] The linking verbs used in the subject + verb + subject comple- Example 9 Word order shifts ment pattern require a comple- ment to complete the thought.The Forming a yes\/no question: complement renames, identifies, Statement Taxes are high. adds to, or describes the subject. Question Are taxes high? Complements can be nouns, noun phrases, or adjectives.The most Multilingual writers: See section 50d. common linking verb is be (in all its forms, such as is, are, was, were, was Inverting a declarative sentence: being). Other linking verbs include appear, become, feel, grow, look, make, VERB SUBJECT seem, smell, sound, and taste. At the end of the elf\u2019s nose grew a large wart. Word Order Shifts For more on reversing subject-verb order, see page 419. Three kinds of sentences call for inverting subject and verb. See Expletive construction: Example 9. VERB SUBJECT There are one hundred violinists in that orchestra. [One hundred violinists are in that orchestra.] F I V E B A S I C PAT T E R N S O F E N G L I S H S E N T E N C E S 443 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30k Phrases Phrases are word groups that Example 10 Phrases do not contain the subject-verb pair needed for a complete sentence. SV Phrases function as a single part of speech: as a noun, verb, adjective, In summer she likes getting chocolate ice cream cones from the or adverb. vendor at the beach. Noun Phrases Example 11 Noun phrases Noun phrases function as NOUN PHRASE nouns and are made up of the main noun and its accompanying modi- Nineteenth-century scientist Charles Darwin lived fiers (adjectives and adverbs). NOUN PHRASE Verb Phrases a very nomadic life in his youth. Verb phrases function as verbs and are made up of the main verb Example 12 Verb phrases and any accompanying auxiliaries, including be, can, could, do, have, may, VERB PHRASE might, must, shall, should, will, and would, in all their forms. His many illnesses might have been caused by the approaching final exams. Verbal Phrases Example 13 Infinitive phrases To live fully is to welcome every new opportunity. [As nouns] Verbal phrases are made The cakes in the window were only to look at. [As adjective] up of a verbal\u2014an infinitive, ger- They were afraid to speak. [As adverb] und, or participle\u2014and its accompanying modifiers, objects, Example 14 Gerund phrases or complements. Going to school is part of growing up. \u25a0 Infinitive phrases can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. The infinitive is made up of to plus the root form of the verb. \u25a0 Gerund phrases act as nouns. A gerund is formed from the -ing form of the verb. 444 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30k Example 15 Participial phrases \u25a0 Participial phrases function as adjectives.A present participle is Present participle phrase: formed from the -ing form of the Swinging with all his might, he struck a homer into the bleachers. verb.A past participle is formed from the -ed form for regular Past participle phrase: verbs and variously for irregular Chosen in a competition that included 1,421 submissions, Maya verbs (the past participle of to Ling Lin\u2019s design for the Vietnam Memorial was a V-shaped black granite wall choose is chosen). Irregular verbs etched with the names of the war\u2019s 58,000 American casualties. are listed in section 34a. Example 16 Prepositional phrases Prepositional Phrases PREP OBJ PREP PREP OBJ PREP Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition followed by a noun, On NASA Road in Houston,Texas, is the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. pronoun, or noun phrase known as the object of the preposition. As adjective The quest for greater knowledge continues. The prepositional phrase also in- cludes any modifiers of the object of As adverb Everyone in the area was evacuated to higher ground. the preposition. For a list of preposi- tions, see page 439. As adverb The movie will be shown at the park by the mall. Prepositional phrases can func- tion as adjectives and adverbs. Example 17 Absolute phrases Absolute Phrases The gold hidden, the pirates sailed away. Absolute phrases function as Example 18 Appositive phrases adverbs for an entire independent clause. An absolute phrase is usually Nonrestrictive (nonessential) appositive phrase with commas: made up of a noun and a present or past participle. (Sometimes the NOUN APPOSITIVE participle is understood but omit- ted.) Absolute phrases are set off by Charlotte Bronte\u2019s Jane Eyre, a novel that shocked Victorian England, a comma. made her both famous and infamous. Appositive Phrases Restrictive (essential) appositive phrase with NO commas: Appositive phrases function as noun equivalents and restate, rename, NOUN APPOSITIVE or more fully define the noun imme- diately preceding. The novels Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights shocked Victorian England See section 38f. with their portrayals of passionate, strong-willed women. PHRASES 445 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30I Clauses Clauses are word groups that Example 19 Clauses contain both a subject and a verb. An independent clause\u2014as the Independent clause as simple sentence: name implies\u2014can function inde- pendently as a simple sentence. It is I like chocolate ice cream. grammatically independent. An inde- Independent clauses as part of larger sentence: pendent clause can also combine Although I\u2019m allergic to chocolate, I like chocolate ice cream. with other clauses to form a larger, more complex sentence. I like chocolate ice cream because it is delicious. A dependent clause\u2014as the Dependent clauses although I\u2019m allergic to chocolate name implies\u2014cannot function in- dependently as a simple sentence. because it is delicious It is grammatically dependent. All dependent clauses begin with a Noun clause What I love best about summer is eating chocolate subordinating word, usually a sub- ordinating conjunction or relative ice cream cones at the beach. pronoun, that leaves them unable to stand on their own as an inde- Adjective clause The ice cream that I love best is chocolate. pendent sentence. Subordinating conjunctions are words like because, Adverb clause I like chocolate ice cream because it is delicious. as if, wherever, and even though. A list of subordinating conjunctions ap- Relative Pronouns pears on page 440. that which whoever whomever Dependent clauses, like phrases, whom whose function as a single part of speech. what whichever They can be nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. whatever who Noun Clauses Example 20 Noun clauses A noun clause begins with a Noun clauses introduced by relative pronoun: relative pronoun (listed to the That men still make more money is a fact. That they deserve it is not. right) or a subordinating conjunc- Noun clauses introduced by subordinating conjunction: tion (usually when, where, whether, We can never know whether he committed the crime or lied to the why, or how). Like all nouns, noun jury about his innocence. clauses answer the question \u201cWho?\u201d How we live matters. or \u201cWhat?\u201d in relation to the verb. Noun clause as subject: How wood frogs restart their hearts when unfreezing from hiber- Like all nouns, noun clauses can nation is still a mystery. function within a sentence as sub- Noun clause as direct object: jects, objects, or complements. Scientists still don\u2019t understand how wood frogs restart their hearts when unfreezing from hibernation. Noun clause as subject complement: For scientists studying amphibians, one of the most intriguing questions is how wood frogs restart their hearts when unfreezing from hibernation. 446 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30I Example 21 Adjective clauses Adjective Clauses According to a recent study, athletes who wear red win more often. Adjective clauses are usually introduced by relative pronouns Revenge of the Sith, which completes the Star Wars saga, tells the story and occasionally by when, where, or of how Anakin Skywalker becomes Darth Vader. why. Like all adjectives, they modify nouns and pronouns and answer the Manhattan\u2019s Lower East Side is a place where many immigrants first question \u201cWhich one?\u201d or \u201cWhat began life in the United States. kind of?\u201d An adjective clause usually comes immediately after the noun Elliptical adjective clause: it modifies. This is a movie [that] everyone should see! Some adjective clauses are elliptical\u2014that is, some part of the wording is understood rather than stated. Example 22 Adverb clauses Adverb Clauses They finally left the party after eating all the food, drinking all the Adverb clauses are always in- drinks, and monopolizing every conversation. troduced by subordinating conjunc- tions. Like all adverbs, adverbial At that moment, my father looked older than he ever had before. dependent clauses modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even The hair tonic never worked as well as the advertisement promised. entire clauses.They answer the questions \u201cHow?\u201d \u201cWhen?\u201d When the tornado sirens sound, seek shelter. \u201cWhere?\u201d \u201cWhy?\u201d \u201cIn what man- ner?\u201d \u201cUnder what conditions?\u201d Elliptical adverb clauses: \u201cWith what result?\u201d \u201cTo what George is just as boring as Henry [is]. degree?\u201d Illogical While mowing the lawn, a frog jumped in my way. [Here, readers Some adverb clauses are may try to imagine just how frogs look while mowing the lawn, elliptical\u2014that is, some part of the when you really intended one of the following.] wording is understood rather than explicit. In elliptical constructions Logical While I was mowing the lawn, a frog jumped in my way. in which both subject and verb are or omitted from the adverb clause, watch out for illogical phrasings. While [I was] mowing the lawn, I tripped over a frog. CLAUSES 447 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30m Classifying Sentences by Grammatical Structure Sentences can be classified by Example 23 Simple sentences: one independent clause grammatical structure\u2014that is, by the kinds of clauses they are built SV out of.The four kinds of sentences are simple, compound, complex, Snow is cold. and compound-complex. We saw the Grand Canyon. Simple Sentences Madame C. J. (Sarah Breedlove) Walker is considered to be America\u2019s first A simple sentence consists of African American woman millionaire. one independent clause.The es- sence of the simple sentence is the Example 24 Compound sentences subject-verb pair. Although built on a single subject-verb pair, simple INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE sentences can vary in length and complexity. We saw the Grand Canyon \/ , and \/ they saw the ocean. Compound Sentences INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE A compound sentence is Madeleine is our calico cat \/ ; \/ she hates to catch mice. made up of at least two indepen- dent clauses. In a compound sen- INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE tence, the two independent clauses are usually joined by a comma and a Walker made millions \/ , and \/ she donated generously to African American coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet).The two clauses causes, becoming one of the early twentieth century\u2019s most notable can also be joined by a semicolon ( sections 26a\u201326b). philanthropists. Complex Sentences Example 25 Complex sentences A complex sentence consists DEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause While we saw the Grand Canyon, \/ they saw the ocean. ( sections 26c\u201326d). INDEPENDENT CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE In visiting the rain forest, we at last saw the landscape \/ that we had imagined so vividly. DEPENDENT CLAUSE Although she was born to sharecroppers, orphaned at age seven, and INDEPENDENT CLAUSE widowed at twenty, \/ Walker made an independent fortune by developing and selling her own line of beauty products. 448 PA RT S O F S P E E C H A N D S E N T E N C E S T RU C T U R E www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 30m Example 26 Compound-complex sentences Compound-Complex Sentences INDEPENDENT CLAUSE A compound-complex sen- Walker used her wealth to support the preservation of African tence is made up of two or more American history and the advancement of black culture \/ : \/ independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.To learn INDEPENDENT CLAUSE more about creating compound, complex, and compound-complex she helped to purchase the home of Frederick Douglass \/ , \/ sentences, see Chapter 26. DEPEPENDENT CLAUSE which is today a National Historic Site under the National Park Service \/ INDEPENDENT CLAUSE ; and \/ the townhouse she built in New York City became an important gathering place for black artists during the Harlem Renaissance. In the final independent clause, a dependent clause comes between subject and verb: [that] she built in New York City. Classifying Sentences by Discourse Function 30n Sentences Classified by Discourse Function Sentences can also be classified by discourse function\u2014that is, by Declarative sentences give information: considering one\u2019s purpose in writ- Charlie found a worm in his apple. ing or speaking. Interrogative sentences ask questions: Did he eat it? Rhetorical questions, rather than being literal requests for information, are intended to engage or focus the reader\u2019s attention: What is freedom? Freedom is a right and a privilege . . . Imperative sentences issue commands; the subject, you, is usually implied: Spit out that worm! Exclamatory sentences express strong feelings or judgments; they usually begin with what or how, and they may be fragments rather than complete sentences: What a strange thing to do! How disgusting! CLASSIFYING SENTENCES BY DISCOURSE FUNCTION 449 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 31 S E N T E N C E F R A G M E N T S A sentence is a grammatically Example 1 Revising fragments and rhetorically complete unit that contains a subject and a verb. Fragment\u2014no verb: Whether a sentence is two words The stolen bicycle. long or two hundred, the core of each sentence is someone or some- Revised by adding a verb: thing (the subject) carrying out some action or expressing a state of SV being (the verb). The stolen bike reappeared. Sentence fragments are gram- matically and rhetorically incom- Fragment\u2014no subject or verb: plete constructions, masquerading After stealing the bike. as sentences. Fragments lack a verb, a subject, or both. Sometimes a Revised by adding an independent clause: fragment has a subject and verb, but these appear in a subordinate SV clause that makes the clause depen- dent on another sentence for mean- After stealing the bike, that kid apologized. ing. Even though fragments may be punctuated as if they were com- Fragment\u2014subordinate clause: plete sentences, they are not. Because the bike had been stolen months ago. No one expected to find it that day. Eliminate fragments by attach- ing them to complete sentences or Revised by attaching to a nearby independent clause: by revising the fragment itself to make it a complete sentence. SV Because the bike had been stolen months ago, no one expected to find it that day. Fragment\u2014two parts of a compound predicate separated: That kid stole the bike. But apologized afterwards. Revised by joining them: SV V That kid stole the bike but apologized afterwards. 450 SENTENCE FRAGMENTS www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Incomplete and Missing Verbs 31a Example 2 Revising a fragment caused by an infinitive A complete sentence requires a Fragment The students to run in the halls. subject and a complete verb. Some Revised by adding a verb before the infinitive: verb forms (called verbals) cannot function independently as verbs. want Watch for these verb forms when The students^to run in the halls. revising to eliminate sentence Revised by making the infinitive phrase into the subject: fragments. To is fun \u25a0 Infinitives, such as to run, to The students to^run in the halls^. laugh, or to hit, cannot act as verbs. Example 3 Revising a fragment caused by an -ing verb Fragment The python swallowing its prey whole. \u25a0 -ing verbs, such as running, Revised by adding a helping verb before the -ing verb: laughing, and swallowing, cannot act as verbs unless paired with was helping (auxiliary) verbs like am The python^swallowing its prey whole. and have. Revised by changing the -ing verb to a simple past tense verb: \u25a0 Past participles, such as swallowed washed and hidden, can act as The python^swallowing its prey whole. verbs only if paired with help- Revised by making the verbal phrase into the subject and adding information: ing (auxiliary) verbs like am and have. is an amazing example of nature\u2019s adaptability The python swallowing its prey whole^. While past participles are usually created by adding -ed to Example 4 Revising a fragment caused by a past participle the base verb, some common Fragment The blankets washed. verbs form the past participle Revised by adding a helping verb to make it a complete verb: irregularly\u2014for example, bitten, slept, and blown. (For a list of were irregular verbs, see section 34a.) The blankets^washed. Revised by making the past participle into a simple past tense verb: She washed the ^The blankets washed. Revised by changing the past participle into an adjective and then adding a new verb: washed smelled clean The^blankets^washed. INCOMPLETE AND MISSING VERBS 451 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 31b Missing Subjects All sentences require a subject: Example 5 Revising a fragment caused by a compound predicate a noun or pronoun that defines who or what the sentence is about. The second word group is a fragment: Chan spent the money. Spent it wisely. Compound predicates are a common source of sentence frag- Revised by putting the verbs back together in the same sentence: ments. A compound predicate con- Chan spent the moneyb^.uBtut spent it wisely. sists of two verbs that belong to Revised by repeating the subject: one subject: She ate and drank. The Chan spent the moneyH^. Ce han spent it wisely. second verb sometimes is cut off and put into its own sentence.To revise, either put the verbs back to- gether in one sentence or repeat the subject for one of the verbs. 31c Missing Subjects and Missing Verbs: Phrase Fragments A phrase is a group of words Example 6 Revising phrase fragments that lacks a subject-verb combina- tion and that functions as a single Prepositional phrase fragment: part of speech. A phrase can be After walking down the street a little ways. She turned into the library. (and usually is) part of a sentence, but a phrase cannot be a sentence. Complete sentence: , she An orphaned phrase is a sentence fragment. After walking down the street a little ways^. She turned into the library. Infinitive phrase fragment: For a review of phrases, see section 30k. To walk down the street unhindered. It was a luxury she could scarcely imagine. Complete sentence: was To walk down the street unhindered. It was a luxury she could scarcely ^ imagine. Participial phrase fragment: People walking down the street. No one noticed the fire. Complete sentence: didn\u2019t notice People walking down the street. No one noticed the fire. ^ Gerund phrase fragment: What\u2019s my favorite pastime? Walking down the street and looking in the shop windows. 452 SENTENCE FRAGMENTS www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 31c Complete sentence: Walking down the street and looking in the shop windows is my favorite pastime. The second word group is an appositive fragment: To add a reddish cast to gold, medieval artists used dragon\u2019s blood. A darkish red paint made from palm tree resin. Complete sentence: ,a To add a reddish cast to gold, medieval artists used dragon\u2019s blood.A ^ darkish red paint made from palm tree resin. The second word group is a list fragment: For my birthday I want four kinds of cake. Specifically, lemon, German chocolate, coconut with custard filling, and Boston cream pie. Complete sentence: : specifically, cFhoorcmoylatbeir,tchodcaoynIuwt wanitthfocuurstkairnddsfilolinf gc,aakne^d. SBpoesctifoicnalclyr,elaemmopnie,.German Subject-Verb Pairs That Can\u2019t Act as Sentences: Dependent Clauses 31d Example 7 Revising a fragment caused by a subordinating word A dependent (or subordinate) clause begins with a subordinating The first word group is a fragment: word. Common subordinating words include subordinate con- Because deforestation and pesticide use threaten the monarch butterfly. Its junctions (listed on page 440) and relative pronouns (listed on future is uncertain. page 446). Revised by attaching the dependent clause to the complete sentence with a A dependent clause on its own is a sentence fragment.To revise a comma: deforestation and pesticide use threaten the monarch butterfly,. iIttss dependent-clause fragment, either Because ^ attach it to an independent clause, eliminate the subordinating words future is uncertain. and make it into a complete sen- tence, or rewrite it entirely. Revised by eliminating the subordinating word because: Deforestation Because deforestation and pesticide use threaten the monarch butterfly. Its futur^e is uncertain. Revised by rewriting the sentence: Deforestation and pesticide use have made the monarch butterfly\u2019s future uncertain. DEPENDENT CLAUSES 453 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 31e Deliberate Fragments In general, it is best to avoid sen- Example 8 A deliberate fragment in fiction tence fragments in formal and col- lege writing. However, it\u2019s impor- [The peacock] shook itself, and the sound was like a deck of cards being tant to be aware that good writers shuffled in the other room. It moved forward a step.Then another step. do use fragments, sparingly but ef- fectively, in different contexts. From Raymond Carver,\u201cFeathers,\u201d in Where I\u2019m Calling From: New and Selected Stories (New York: Vintage Contemporaries, 1988), 351. 454 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 32 RUN-ON SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES R un-on sentences and comma Example 1 A compound sentence: two independent clauses splices are the result of prob- Each independent clause has a subject-verb pair and can stand alone as a lems in punctuating compound complete sentence. sentences.To find run-on sentences and comma splices, look for SV SV subject-verb pairs.When you find a sentence that includes more than Rover is our dog; \/ she loves to chase cats. one subject-verb pair, make sure that it is punctuated correctly. SV CONJ SV A run-on sentence occurs when Carlise sells software to businesses, \/ and \/ her friend Marcos installs it. two independent clauses are joined without punctuation and without Example 2 Run-on sentence an appropriate conjunction. Like a grammatical train wreck, the first Two sentences with no punctuation separating them: sentence runs right on into the No one would be more surprised than Mary Shelley at the idea most im- second. mediately evoked by the name Frankenstein she intended her novel as a meditation on creativity, not creepy monsters. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined Example 3 Comma splice by a comma only; like a splice in a length of rope, this joining creates a Two sentences with only a comma between them: weak spot. No one would be more surprised than Mary Shelley at the idea most im- mediately evoked by the name Frankenstein, she intended her novel as a Correct run-ons or comma meditation on creativity, not creepy monsters. splices using one of the strategies in sections 32a\u201332e. 454 RUN-ON SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Revising by Separating into Two Distinct Sentences 32a Example 4 Forming two distinct sentences To emphasize the distinction be- tween the ideas in the independent Comma splice: clauses, make each of the indepen- Ready-mixed paints weren\u2019t commercially available until the 1880s, before dent clauses into a separate sen- that time, artists had to mix their own colors. tence. (See section 30i for more Revised to become two distinct sentences by using a period and a capital about sentences.) letter: Ready-mixed paints weren\u2019t commercially available until the 1880s. Before that time, artists had to mix their own colors. Revising by Using a Comma and Then a Coordinating Conjunction 32b Example 5 Using a comma and coordinating conjunction Using a comma and a coordinat- ing conjunction to join the inde- Run-on sentence: pendent clauses is a good strategy Galileo recanted his confirmation that the Earth revolves around the Sun in when return the Pope commuted his sentence to house arrest. Revised with comma and coordinating conjunction: \u25a0 you want to give the ideas in Galileo recanted his confirmation that the Earth revolves around the each of the clauses equal weight Sun, and in return the Pope commuted his sentence to house arrest. \u25a0 you want to emphasize the par- Comma splice: allel relationship between the Galileo knew that the Earth revolved around the Sun, he recanted to es- two clauses cape Giordano Bruno\u2019s fate of being burned at the stake. Revised with comma and coordinating conjunction: \u25a0 the logic communicated by Galileo knew that the Earth revolved around the Sun, yet he recanted to a particular conjunction (for escape Giordano Bruno\u2019s fate of being burned at the stake. example, addition, contrast, choice, or causality) is the most effective way to emphasize this relationship The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, yet, or, nor, for, and so. To make a compound sentence, use the appropriate conjunction plus a comma. (See section 26a for more about using coordinating con- junctions to form compound sentences.) U S I N G A C O M M A & C O O R D I N AT I N G C O N J U N C T I O N 455 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 32c Revising by Using a Semicolon or Colon Use a semicolon when you Example 6 Using a semicolon want to emphasize the continuity of thought between two closely re- Run-on sentence: lated independent clauses. Although she doesn\u2019t care for competitive sports, Alphonia loves physical activity like running and golf , as a matter of fact, Alphonia plays golf about three times a week. Revised with semicolon: Although she doesn\u2019t care for competitive sports, Alphonia loves physical activity like running and golf; as a matter of fact, Alphonia plays golf about three times a week. Use a colon between indepen- Example 7 Using a colon dent clauses when the first sentence formally introduces the second. Comma splice: Colons are also used to introduce Phyllis Wheatley\u2019s life story is an astounding one, born in West Africa, kid- lists of related items (see Chapter 40 napped, and sold into slavery, she distinguished herself as an internationally for more about punctuating sen- celebrated poet and as the first African American to be published. tences with colons). Revised with colon: Phyllis Wheatley\u2019s life story is an astounding one: born in West Africa, kid- napped, and sold into slavery, she distinguished herself as an internationally celebrated poet and as the first African American to be published. 32d Punctuation with Transitional Expressions When two independent clauses Example 8 Punctuation with transitional expressions are joined by a transitional expres- sion (see section 2d), a semicolon Run-on sentence: or a period\u2014not a comma\u2014 Medieval artists created paints out of natural materials for instance ground separates them. Common transi- bugs became crimson and mollusk shells became purple. tional expressions include however, Revised with semicolon between the clauses and a comma after the indeed, likewise, notwithstanding, for transition: instance, subsequently, all in all, and Medieval artists created paints out of natural materials; for instance, ground consequently. After the transitional bugs became crimson and mollusk shells became purple. expression, use a comma to sepa- rate it from the rest of the second independent clause. 456 RUN-ON SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Revising by Rewriting the Sentence 32e Example 9 Revising by rewriting the sentence Depending on your purpose, sometimes the best strategy is to Comma splice: rewrite the sentence by making one Reality TV draws on our collective desire for instant status and celebrity, clause subordinate, by making one it puts ordinary people in the spotlight. clause a phrase, or by rewriting in some other manner. Revised by changing the second clause into a phrase, thus de-emphasizing it: Reality TV draws on our collective desire for instant status and celebrity by putting ordinary people in the spotlight. Revised by making the second clause subordinate and changing the order of the two clauses: Because it puts ordinary people in the spotlight, reality TV draws on our collective desire for instant status and celebrity. Revised by removing it and using a compound predicate (i.e., having two verbs but one subject): Reality TV draws on our collective desire for instant status and celebrity and puts ordinary people in the spotlight. 457 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com PRONOUNS 33 Example 1 Pronouns I n general, a pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence.The noun A pronoun replaces or refers back to an antecedent: the pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. ANTECEDENT PRONOUN PRONOUN Most antecedents come before Bruno was thrilled when he received his acceptance letter. their pronouns (indeed, as an adjec- tive antecedent means \u201cgoing be- A pronoun may come before its antecedent: fore\u201d), but occasionally an anteced- ent can follow its pronoun. PRONOUN ANTECEDENT Unlike their grandmothers\u2019 grandmothers, today\u2019s women can vote. PRONOUNS 457 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 33a Understanding Pronoun Case The personal pronouns I,we,you, Pronouns in the subjective case he,she,it,and they and the relative and interrogative pronoun who change Subject He flew through the air. their form, or case, to indicate how they function in a sentence. Subject complement The leading trapeze artist is he. Appositive that The leading trapeze artists\u2014Beaufort, Beaumont, renames a subject and he\u2014will be touring in the upcoming production. Subjective Case we Pronouns in the objective case I you you they Direct object She couldn\u2019t avoid him. he\/she\/it who Indirect object She gave him back his love notes. Object of the preposition She had seen enough of him. Appositive that Beaufort mistimed his somersault and dropped the Objective Case renames an object other two artists, Beaumont and him, as the me you us crowd gasped in horror. him\/her\/it you whom them Subject of an infinitive She wanted him to go away. Object of an infinitive She wanted to snub him in front of everyone. Possessive Case our\/ours Pronouns in the possessive case my\/mine your\/yours His tardiness was our undoing. your\/yours their\/theirs We made good use of their survival skills on our camping trip. his\/her\/hers\/its whose Possessives used as adjectives and nouns Some possessive pronouns have one form when used as an adjective and another The possessive pronouns its and when used as a noun. whose are commonly confused with contractions. If the pronoun in my\/mine It\u2019s my fault. question modifies a noun, then its your\/yours The fault is mine. or whose should not have an apos- her\/hers Your cat just ate my canary. trophe: its color;Whose cell is this? If their\/theirs That bad animal is yours. you can substitute it is for it\u2019s or Her persistence paid off. who is for who\u2019s, then it\u2019s and who\u2019s The victory was hers. should have an apostrophe: It\u2019s Their house was painted. raining;Who\u2019s calling? Theirs is the unpainted house. 458 P R O N O U N S www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Pronoun Case in Compounds 33b How Can You Identify . . . Pronouns that function as part of a compound word group are a Which Case to Use in a Compound? common source of confusion. But fortunately, the rule is clear: a pro- 1. Identify the compound: noun that is part of a compound Josef and [I or me] danced. word group takes the same case as He visited my friends and [I or me] every Friday afternoon. it would take if it were standing alone. 2. Make a sentence using only the pronoun part of the compound. [I or me] danced. A pronoun that is part of a com- He visited [I or me] every Friday afternoon. pound subject takes the subjective case. 3. Select the case that\u2019s right when the pronoun stands alone. I danced. He visited me. A pronoun that is part of a com- pound object takes the objective 4. Put the compound back together. case. Josef and I danced. He visited my friends and me every Friday afternoon. Example 2 Pronoun case in compounds Subjective case in a compound subject: Scotty and he worked on the warp drive engines. Objective case in a compound object: Eyes narrowed, Spock considered Captain Kirk and her. Pronoun Case after than or as 33c Example 3 Pronoun case when subjects or objects are being compared Which pronoun form should you use in a comparison after than Paulo likes Zack de la Rocha better than [I or me]. or as? It depends on what you want to compare. Often such construc- Revision if the comparison is between subjects Paulo and I: tions are elliptical\u2014that is, words Paulo likes Zack de la Rocha better than I [like Zack de la Rocha]. are understood but left out. So to Revision if the comparison is between objects Zack de la Rocha and me: supply the correct case of the pro- Paulo likes Zack de la Rocha better than [Paulo likes] me. noun, you must decide what mean- ing you want to communicate. PRONOUN CASE AFTER THAN OR AS 459 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 33d Pronoun Case and Appositives Pronouns can function as part of Example 4 Pronouns in appositives an appositive that renames a noun or as the noun that an appositive Appositive that renames a subject: renames. SUBJECT SUBJECTIVE CASE When you use a pronoun in an appositive, first identify whether The class officers, Tamika and he, get together at least once a week. the word it renames is a subject or an object. If the appositive renames Appositive that renames an object: a subject, use the subjective case. If the appositive renames an object, DIRECT OBJECT OBJECTIVE CASE use the objective case. The class officers chose my two friends, Raoul and him, for the faculty When we or us is followed by a noun appositive\u2014we students,us relations committee. students\u2014the correct case is deter- mined by the pronoun\u2019s function Example 5 Pronouns followed by a noun appositive within the sentence. If the pronoun functions as a subject, use the subjec- SUBJECT tive case; if the pronoun functions as an object, use the objective case. We students asked for changes in the cafeteria food. To decide which pronoun to OBJECT use, remove the noun that follows. Select the pronoun that best fits the The cafeteria food\u2019s lack of variety prompted us students to ask for sentence without the noun. changes. 33e Pronoun Case with Infinitives The base or root form of a verb Example 6 Pronouns as the subject or object of an infinitive is called the infinitive: to steal, to laugh, to run. Infinitives can have SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE both subjects and objects.The sub- ject of the infinitive is the noun that Zelda wanted him to leave that den of iniquity. does the infinitive\u2019s action.The sub- ject of the infinitive usually comes OBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE after the main verb and directly be- fore the infinitive. Scott wanted to leave her. The object of the infinitive re- SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE ceives the action of the infinitive. The reporters kept asking her to comment on the president\u2019s odd Pronouns take the objective case statement. when used as either the subject or the object of an infinitive. OBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE But the secretary of state refused to contradict him. 460 P R O N O U N S www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Choosing who or whom 33f The words who and whoever are subjective; The pronoun who functions both whom and whomever are objective as an interrogative pronoun and as a relative pronoun. Like the per- Subject Who is she? sonal pronouns (I, we, you, he, she, it, they), who has both a subjective and Subject complement Howard Stern is who he is. an objective form. Direct object They brought whomever they wanted. Use the subjective case who for subjects and the objective case Object of the preposition [A]nd therefore never send to know for whom whom for objects. the bell tolls; it tolls for thee. Keep in mind that (as with all other pronouns) case is deter- From John Donne, \u201cMeditation XVII.\u201d mined by the pronoun\u2019s func- tion within its clause, not by Example 7 Who as subject of clause serving as direct object that clause\u2019s function within the sentence. CLAUSE AS OBJECT In Example 7, although the SUBJECT VERB clause who did it is the object of the verb know, the pronoun who func- I know who did it. tions as the subject of the clause who did it. So the correct form is who. Example 8 Who as subject of clause serving as object of preposition In Example 8, although the CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION clause whoever wants them most is the object of the preposition to, the SUBJECT VERB pronoun whoever functions as the subject of the clause whoever wants [You] Give the apples to whoever wants them most. them most. So the correct form is whoever. How Can You Identify . . . Whether the Pronoun Is a Subject or an Object in Its Clause? Sample sentence: She was the star [who or whom] all the fans adored. 1. Identify the clause that the pronoun is in. [who or whom] all the fans adored 2. Change the order, if needed, to subject-verb-object. All the fans adored [who or whom]. 3. Substitute in the appropriate personal pronoun (he or him, she or her). All the fans adored her (or him). [In other words, an object] 4. If the pronoun is an objective form, reassemble the sentence using whom; if the pronoun is a subjective form, use who. She was the star whom all the fans adored. CHOOSING WHO OR WHOM 461 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 33g Understanding Pronoun Agreement A pronoun must match its ante- Example 9 Agreement in gender cedent in gender, number, and per- son. (The antecedent is the noun Feminine Rosa washed her hair. that the pronoun replaces or refers Masculine Raymond shaved off his beard. back to.) This matching is called Neutral The cat washed its paws. pronoun agreement. Example 10 Agreement in number The personal pronouns he, she, and it must take the same gender as Singular Billy shouted as he raced onto the playground. their antecedents. Plural The children shouted as they raced onto the playground. A singular antecedent requires a Example 11 Agreement in person singular pronoun; a plural anteced- ent requires a plural pronoun. First person We like washing our dishes the old-fashioned way. Second person How do you prefer to wash your dishes? A first-person antecedent re- Third person They would rather wash their dishes in a dishwasher. quires a first-person pronoun; a second-person antecedent requires a second-person pronoun; a third- person antecedent requires a third- person pronoun. First-person pronouns: I and we Second-person pronoun: you Third-person pronouns: he, she, it, and they 33h Agreement with Antecedents Joined by and, or, or nor Compound antecedents joined by Use a plural pronoun with antecedents joined by and and require a plural pronoun. As young boys,Wilbur and Orville Wright first became interested in flight when their father brought home a toy helicopter. An exception is when the ante- cedents are preceded by each or every. Unless the antecedents are preceded by each or every Each cup and saucer was carefully dried and put back in its place. With compound antecedents joined by or or nor,the pronoun Match the closer antecedent if antecedents are joined by or or nor matches the antecedent nearest to it. Neither Lucy nor Felipa brought her toothbrush to the campout. If one antecedent is singular and Awkward Neither the hens nor the rooster liked its new pen. another plural, put the plural ante- Revised Neither the rooster nor the hens like their new pen. cedent nearest to the pronoun. Doing so will make the sentence Awkward Neither Mario nor Melissa got back to her work after the earthquake. sound more natural. If the anteced- Revised After the earthquake, both Mario and Melissa left work for the day. ents differ in gender or person, it\u2019s often best to rewrite the sentence. 462 P R O N O U N S www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Agreement with Collective Nouns 33i Collective Nouns couple herd A collective noun refers to a audience corps jury group of people, things, or animals. band crowd litter When used as an antecedent, a col- bunch faculty number lective noun can take either a sin- choir family pride gular or a plural pronoun.When class flock public the emphasis is on the group as a club group team unit, use a singular pronoun.When committee it is on the individuals within the group, use a plural pronoun. Example 12 Using pronouns with collective nouns Emphasis on group as a unit\u2014singular pronoun: The committee brought its proposal to the larger assembly. Emphasis on individuals within group\u2014plural pronoun: The committee found that their competing loyalties and ideologies kept them from working together effectively. Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns and Generic Nouns 33j Most indefinite pronouns are singular Indefinite pronouns (such as Everyone has his or her favorite food. anybody, each, none, someone) refer to Each of the ballerinas bowed after she completed her solo. nonspecific persons or things. (For Each sumo wrestler bowed to his competitor at the start of the match. a list of indefinite pronouns, see section 30b.) Most indefinite pro- But both, few, many, and several are always plural nouns are singular in formal writ- Both strategies have their own merits. ten English. Few thought that the president\u2019s proposal served their best interest. Many thought they could have solved the problem better. However, the indefinite pro- Several felt that their ideas had been overlooked. nouns both, few, many, and several are always plural. And some vary depending on meaning Most of the runway was impassable, its surface covered in several inches of ice. The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, and some can be singular When the flights were canceled, most of the passengers found themselves or plural, depending on their stranded in the airport overnight. meaning in a particular sentence. AGREEMENT WITH INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 463 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 33j Generic nouns (such as dancer, Nouns used generically can be singular or plural, and pronouns lawyer, refugee, student) refer to types match them or categories of persons or things and behave much the same way as Singular A person needs a goal if he or she wants to accomplish something indefinite pronouns. A singular ge- neric noun requires a singular pro- meaningful. noun. A plural generic noun re- quires a plural pronoun. Plural People need goals if they want to accomplish something meaningful. Treating singular generic nouns Incorrect A person depends on their wits. as plural is a common mistake. Revised A person depends on his or her wits. People depend on their wits. See section 29a on revising pro- nouns to eliminate gender bias. 33k Using Inclusive Language with Pronouns Three strategies for avoiding Example 13 Revising for inclusiveness sexist use of the pronoun he are to use he or she, rewrite the sentence Original A zookeeper observes several precautions when he feeds the as plural, and rewrite the sentence lions. entirely to omit the pronoun. Revised Zookeepers observe several precautions when they feed the For more on this topic, includ- lions. ing detailed strategies for rewriting sentences, see section 29a. 33l Understanding Pronoun Reference The reader must be able to eas- Example 14 Problems of pronoun reference ily identify which person, place, or thing a pronoun refers to. Two possible antecedents: Charlotte brought Anne to the seashore to recuperate, but there she died. Unclear pronoun reference usu- [Who died? Anne or Charlotte?] ally results from there being Distant antecedent: \u25a0 more than one possible The different theories drew many questions from people that had evidence antecedent, to support them. [Who or what had evidence to support them? The theo- ries or the people?] \u25a0 an antecedent that is too far away, or Vague antecedent: In this week\u2019s episode, the doctors tell Shereen her illness is terminal, \u25a0 an antecedent that is implied, which upsets her family. [Is the family upset because Shereen\u2019s illness is vague, or missing. terminal or because the doctors tell her?] Revise unclear pronoun reference by repeating the noun or rewriting the sentence. 464 P R O N O U N S www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Reference to More Than One Possible Antecedent 33m Each pronoun can refer to only a single antecedent Make sure that the pronoun clearly refers to one antecedent Confusing ?? and only one. Frank told Morris that he didn\u2019t care. [Who didn\u2019t care? Frank or Morris?] Revised Frank told Morris that Morris didn\u2019t care. Frank told Morris,\u201cYou don\u2019t care.\u201d Reference to a Distant Antecedent 33n An antecedent must not be too far away If antecedent and pronoun are Confusing After his work as a rapper with NWA, Dr. Dre was able to produce too far apart, the reference is likely to be unclear. recordings with Snoop Dogg. He was able finally to break free of the violent lyrics that had accurately described the frightening real- ity of his youth. He brought a lighter and more soulful sound to Dre\u2019s heavy beats. Revised After his work as a rapper with NWA, Dr. Dre was able to pro- duce recordings with Snoop Dogg, and, with Snoop, he was able finally to break free of the violent lyrics that had accurately de- scribed the frightening reality of his youth. Snoop brought a lighter and more soulful sound to Dre\u2019s heavy beats. The words who, which, and that need to follow directly after the To avoid confusion, it\u2019s generally antecedent necessary to place the pronouns who, which, and that directly after Confusing Warren fed the cat some milk that followed him home. [The milk the word to which they refer. followed Warren home?] Revised Warren fed some milk to the cat that followed him home. Confusing The athlete won the pole vault who also won the high jump. [The Revised pole vault won the high jump?] The athlete who won the pole vault also won the high jump. R E F E R E N C E TO A D I S TA N T A N T E C E D E N T 465 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 33o Antecedent Implied, Vague, or Missing In many cases, pronoun refer- Possessives can\u2019t be antecedents unless the pronoun is also ence is unclear because the ante- possessive cedent is implied, vague, or missing. ANT ? PRONOUN Do not use possessives as im- Confusing Smith\u2019s appointment to the federal bench brought him to national plied antecedents.Technically, the possessive form of a noun cannot attention. [Smith\u2019s cannot function as the antecedent to him\u2014you serve as an antecedent, unless both pronoun and antecedent are in the Revised couldn\u2019t write brought Smith\u2019s to national attention.] possessive case. But of course a Smith\u2019s appointment to the federal bench brought his judicial re- noun in the subjective case can cord and his personal history to national attention. [Both Smith\u2019s function as the antecedent to a pos- sessive pronoun. and his are in the possessive case: brought Smith\u2019s judicial record and Smith\u2019s personal history.] or Smith came to national attention when he was appointed to the federal bench. [Both Smith and he are in the subjective case: when Smith was appointed.] Avoid using the pronouns it, this, Example 15 Making broad references specific that, and which to make broad refer- ences to an entire idea, phrase, Confusing I told Grover that I had voted for Smith, which shocked statement, sentence, or paragraph. Sanders to no end. [Is Sanders shocked that you voted for To ensure clarity, make sure that Smith or shocked that you told Grover about it?] each pronoun has a clear and spe- cific antecedent. Revised Sanders was shocked when he learned I\u2019d voted for Smith. or Do not use it, they, or you as an indefinite pronoun. Only indefinite Sanders was shocked when he learned I\u2019d been brave enough to pronouns\u2014such as anybody, all, tell Grover how I\u2019d voted. both, each, everybody, nobody, neither, none, somebody, something\u2014can be Example 16 Revising uses of it, they, or you as indefinite pronouns used without antecedents. Although in informal speech the pronouns it, Weak In the news it says that more and more bike messengers are now they, and you are commonly left entering the world of bike racing. [Use of the phrase in the news it dangling, with no antecedent to be says indicates a weak argument without proper citation. found, in writing this misuse is Grammatically, the news cannot function as the antecedent to it confusing and ungrammatical; it of- when it is the object of the preposition in.] ten makes sentences weak and wordy.The misuse can also reveal a Revised A recent NewYorkTimes article describes how more and more bike poorly supported argument. messengers are entering the world of bike racing (Corder A5). 466 P R O N O U N S www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 33o Example 17 Addressing the reader as you However, in all but the most formal writing, the pronoun you To make meringues, you will need good weather. Dampness defeats them can legitimately be used in direct utterly. addresses to the reader. Example 18 Revising sentences in which it is used in multiple ways Do not use it in multiple ways in one sentence.The pronoun it can Confusing It was not surprising that when the thunder cracked it perform many functions.To avoid Revised made us jump right out of our beds last night when it rained confusion, use it in only one way in so heavily. a given sentence. The thunder cracked so loudly last night it made us jump right out of our beds. Using who, which, and that 33p Example 19 Using who, which, and that Use who for people and named animals and which or that for objects, In the Bonampak murals, the ruler is the man who is wearing jaguar skin unnamed animals, and abstract con- sandals. cepts. Occasionally, you may need to use whose for animals and things to The helmet that the queen is handing to him is made from the head of an avoid an awkward of which. actual jaguar. That is restrictive: it introduces The dogs that I saw performed magnificently. a clause, phrase, or word that tells Foxes, whose call is an eerie guttural bark, prey on small mammals. you something essential to defining the noun it modifies. The book that I returned is the one your records still show as missing. [The book that I returned, and no other, is the one still shown as missing.] Which is nonrestrictive: it intro- duces a clause, phrase, or word This book, which I just returned, was outstanding. [The book was out- providing information nonessential standing.The fact that I just returned the book is parenthetical.] to defining the noun it modifies. U S I N G WH O, W H I C H , A N D T H AT 467 www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.","Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 34 V E R B S A ll verbs except to be have five The Five Forms of Regular Verbs basic forms. Some forms can stand alone as the main verb of a The first three forms are called the principal parts. sentence, but others need the help of auxiliary verbs. See section 34b Plain (base) -s Form Present Past Past for information about auxiliary, or Form (used with he, Participle Tense Participle helping, verbs. walk she, and it in (-ing form) walked walked hope the present tense) walking hoped hoped The plain form, or base form, classify walks hoping classified classified of verbs is used to express actions, hopes classifying occurrences, or states of being in classifies the present tense. Example 1 Verb forms The -s form is created by add- The plain form can be used alone as a main verb: ing s or es to the plain form: swim\/ I want to shop for shoes today. swims, classify\/classifies. Use the -s You always tell me you love me after your dogs do something wrong. form with subjects that are singular nouns (child, Margaret); the pro- The -s form can be used alone as a main verb: nouns he, she, and it; and indefinite He always walks the same route, and then he eats lunch down at the diner. pronouns such as anybody. The -s Delivering the mail makes his arm hurt after an hour or so. ending on a verb indicates the present tense. The present participle form needs a form of to be to be a main verb: I am running for help. Present participle verbs in- We are hoping that your leg will heal before our ski vacation starts. dicate action happening now.The present participle is formed by The past-tense form can be used alone as a main verb: adding -ing to the plain form: My car died on the Los Angeles freeway. singing. He wrestled the big masked man called the Undertaker. The past-tense form The past participle form needs a form of to be or to have to be a main verb: indicates actions that happened I was fascinated and repelled by the Michael Jackson documentary. before now. Normally, you form We have operated the heavy machinery for a month. the past tense by adding -d or -ed Jillian and DeShawn had stopped by the time we arrived. to the plain form, but some verbs form the past tense irregularly ( section 34a). The past participle form is the same as the past form except in some irregular verbs ( section 34a). 468 V E R B S www.Ebook777.comCopyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and\/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it."]