US He g e mo ny in Wo rld Po litic s 49 W H AT D OES H I STORY TEACH US ABOUT H EGEM ON Y? G ive n the lo g ic o f b a la nc e o f p o we r, he g e mo ny is a ra the r unusua l c o nd itio n in inte rna tio na l a ffa irs. This is fo r a ve ry simp le re a so n: in the a b se nc e o f wo rld g o ve rnme nt, e ve ry sta te must e nsure its o wn se c urity a nd , in e xtre me c irc umsta nc e s, its o wn surviva l. Thus, sta te s a re a c ute ly a wa re o f p o we rd istrib utio n in the inte rna tio na l p o litic a l syste m, a nd wo uld no t no rma lly a llo w a sing le sta te to b e c o me so p o we rful a s to p o se a mo rta l thre a t to o the r sta te s. The b a la nc e o f p o we r lo g ic o f inte rna tio na l p o litic s, a s o utline d a b o ve , is a mp ly sup p o rte d b y histo ry. By c o nve ntio n, we re g a rd 1648 a s the ye a r in whic h the so ve re ig n te rrito ria l sta te e me rg e d a s the p rinc ip a l a c to r in wo rld p o litic s. In the o ve r thre e a nd a ha lf c e nturie s sinc e the n, the re ha ve b e e n o nly two p re vio us o c c a sio ns whe n a sing le sta te suc c e e d e d in g a ining p re p o nd e ra nc e in the syste m to a simila r d e g re e a s the US p re d o mina te s the syste m to d a y. Fra nc e fro m 1660 to 1713 in the c o nte xt o f Euro p e a n c o ntine nta l p o litic s in the first insta nc e o f he g e mo ny, Brita in with its g lo b a l ma ritime e mp ire fro m 1860 to 1910 is the se c o nd . Histo ry a lso te lls us tha t a ltho ug h a t its he ig ht he g e mo ny se e ms fo rmid a b le , it d o e s no t la st fo re ve r. To the c o ntra ry, b a la nc e o f p o we r p o litic s o ve r time re d uc e s the re la tive p o we r o f the he g e mo n. In 1660, Fra nc e und e r Lo uis XIV wa s unc ha lle ng e d ; b y 1713, Eng la nd , Ha b sb urg Austria a nd Russia we re c o nte sting Fre nc h p o we r. In 1860, the hig h no o n o f the Vic to ria n p e rio d , Pa x Brita nnic a lo o ke d se c ure fo re ve r. By 1910, it wa s c le a r tha t G e rma ny, Ja p a n a nd the US ha d e me rg e d a s c o nte nd e rs to British p o we r. Thus, twe nty ye a rs fro m no w, a no the r g re a t p o we r, o r ma y b e a c o a litio n o f g re a t p o we rs c o uld we ll e me rg e just a s US c a p a b ilitie s a re d e c lining in re la tive te rms. Ba se d o n a n a rtic le b y C hristo p he r La yne , “ The Unip o la r Illusio n: Why Ne w G re a t Po we rs Will Rise ” 1. Whic h a m o ng the fo llo w ing sta te m e nts a b o ut he g e m o ny is Exercises inc o rre c t? a . The wo rd imp lie s the le a d e rship o rp re d o mina nc e o f o ne Sta te . b . It w a s use d to d e no te the p re d o m ina nc e o f Athe ns in the a nc ie nt G re e c e . c . Th e c o u n try h a v in g h e g e m o n ic p o sitio n w ill p o sse ss unc ha lle ng e d milita ry p o we r. d . He g e m o nic p o sitio n is fixe d . O nc e a he g e m o n, a lw a ys a he g e mo n. 2. Whic h a m o ng the fo llo w ing sta te m e nts is w ro ng a b o ut the c o nte mp o ra ry wo rld o rd e r? a . The re is a n a b se nc e o f wo rld g o ve rnme nt, whic h c o uld re g ula te the Sta te ’ s b e ha vio ur. b . The US is the p re d o mina nt p la ye r in wo rld a ffa irs. c . Sta te s a re using fo rc e a g a inst o ne a no the r. d . Sta te s, whic h vio la te inte rna tio na l la w, a re se ve re ly p unishe d b y the UN.
5 0 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s Exercises 3. Whic h a m o ng the fo llo wing sta te m e nts is wro ng with re g a rd to ‘ O p e ra tio n Ira q i Fre e d o m’ ? a . Mo re tha n fo rty c o untrie s jo ine d in the US-le d c o a litio n o f the willing to inva d e Ira q . b . The re a so n g ive n fo r inva d ing Ira q w a s to p re ve nt it fro m d e ve lo p ing we a p o ns o f ma ss d e struc tio n. c . The a c tio n wa s ta ke n with the p rio r a p p ro va l o f the UN. d . The US-le d c o a litio n d id no t fa c e ma jo r re sista nc e fro m Ira q i fo rc e s 4. G ive a n e xa mp le e a c h o f the thre e kind s o f he g e mo ny tha t a re d e a lt with in the c ha p te r. Do no t c ite e xa mp le s tha t a re in the c ha p te r. 5. Me ntio n thre e wa ys in whic h US d o mina nc e sinc e the C o ld Wa r is d iffe re nt fro m its p o sitio n a s a sup e rp o we r d uring the C o ld Wa r. 6. Ma tc h the fo llo wing : i. O p e ra tio n Infinite Re a c h ii. O p e ra tio n End uring Fre e d o m iii. O p e ra tio n De se rt Sto rm iv. O p e ra tio n Ira q i Fre e d o m a . Wa r a g a inst Al-Q a e d a a nd Ta lib a n b . C o a litio n o f the willing c . Missile a tta c k in Sud a n d . First G ulf Wa r 7. Wha t a re the c o nstra ints o n Ame ric a n he g e mo ny to d a y? Whic h o ne o f the se d o yo u e xp e c t to g e t mo re imp o rta nt in the future ? 8. Re a d the thre e e xtra c ts in the c ha p te r fro m the Lo k Sa b ha d e b a te o n the Ind o -US d e a l. De ve lo p a ny o ne o f the se into a full sp e e c h d e fe nd ing a c e rta in p o sitio n o n Ind o -US re la tio ns. 9. “ If b ig a nd re so urc e ful sta te s c a nno t re sist the US he g e mo ny, it is unre a listic to e xp e c t muc h sma lle r a nd we a ke r no n-sta te a c to rs to o ffe ra ny re sista nc e .” Exa mine this p ro p o sitio n a nd g ive yo uro p inio n.
C ha p te r 4 Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po we r O VERVIEW The tw o im a g e s he re re p re se nt tw o p ha se s o f the histo ry o f C hina . The re d p o ste r – “ The So c ia list Ro a d is the Bro a d e st o f After the end of the bipolar All” – re p re se nts the id e o lo g y tha t g uid e d C hina d uring its structure of world politics in the e a rly p ha se a fte r the Re vo lutio n. The p ho to g ra p h b e lo w is early 1990s, it became clear that tha t o f the c ity o f Sha ng ha i, the sym b o l o f C hina ’ s ne w alternative centres of political and e c o no m ic p o we r. economic power could limit America’s dominance. Thus, in Europe, the European Union (EU) and, in Asia, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), have emerged as forces to reckon with. While evolving regional solutions to their historical enmities and weaknesses, both the EU and the ASEAN have developed alternative institutions and conventions that build a more peaceful and cooperative regional order and have transformed the countries in the region into prosperous economies. The economic rise of China has made a dramatic impact on world politics. In this chapter, we take a look at some of these emerging alternative centres of power and assess their possible role in the future.
52 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s EURO PEA N UNIO N (OEEC) was established in 1948 to channel aid to the west As the Second World War came to European states. It became a an end, many of Europe’s leaders forum where the western grappled with the ‘Question of European states began to Europe’. Should Europe be cooperate on trade and allowed to revert to its old rivalries economic issues. The Council of or be reconstructed on principles Europe, established in 1949, and institutions that would was another step forward in contribute to a positive conception political cooperation. The of international relations? The process of economic integration Second World War shattered many of European capitalist countries of the assumptions and structures proceeded step by step (see on which the European states had Timeline of European Integration) based their relations. In 1945, the leading to the formation of the European states confronted the European Economic Community ruin of their economies and the in 1957. This process acquired destruction of the assumptions a political dimension with the and structures on which Europe creation of the European had been founded. Parliament. The collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast European integration after track and resulted in the 1945 was aided by the Cold War. establishment of the European America extended massive Union in 1992. The foundation financial help for reviving was thus laid for a common Europe’s economy under what foreign and security policy, was called the ‘Marshall Plan’. cooperation on justice and The US also created a new home affairs, and the creation collective security structure of a single currency. under NATO. Under the Marshall Plan, the Organisation for The European Union has European Economic Cooperation evolved over time from an economic union to an The Euro p e a n Unio n Fla g increasingly political one. The EU has started to act more as a The c irc le o f g o ld sta rs sta nd s fo r so lid a rity a nd ha rmo ny b e twe e n nation state. While the attempts the p e o p le s o f Euro p e . It ha s twe lve sta rs, a s the numb e r twe lve is to have a Constitution for the EU tra d itio na lly the symb o l o f p e rfe c tio n, c o mp le te ne ss a nd unity. have failed, it has its own flag, anthem, founding date, and So urc e : http ://e uro p a .e u/a b c /symb o ls/e mb le m/ind e x_e n.htm currency. It also has some form of a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations. The European Union has tried to expand areas of cooperation while acquiring new
Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po w e r 53 EURO PEAN UNIO N MAP Older Members New Members Sweden Finland Denmark Estonia Netherlands Latvia Lithuania Ireland United Poland Kingdom Belgium Germany Czech Luxembourg Republic Slovakia Austria France Hungary Italy Slovenia Portugal Spain Malta Greece Cyprus members, especially from the more than $12 trillion in 2005, O h, no w I kno w w ha t a erstwhile Soviet bloc. The process slightly larger than that of the Sc he ng e n visa m e a ns! has not proved easy, for people United States. Its currency, the Und e r the Sc he ng e n in many countries are not very euro, can pose a threat to the a g re e m e nt, yo u ha ve to enthusiastic in giving the EU dominance of the US dollar. Its g e t a visa fro m just o ne powers that were exercised by the share of world trade is three times o f the EU c o untrie s a nd government of their country. larger than that of the United tha t a llo w s yo u e ntry in There are also reservations about States allowing it to be more m o st o f the o the r including some new countries assertive in trade disputes with Euro p e a n Unio n within the EU. the US and China. Its economic c o untrie s. power gives it influence over its The EU has economic, political closest neighbours as well as in and diplomatic, and military Asia and Africa. It also functions as influence. The EU is the world’s an important bloc in international biggest economy with a GDP of
54 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s TI MELI N E OF EUROPEAN France, hold permanent seats on I N TEGRATI ON the UN Security Council. The EU includes several non-permanent 1 9 5 1 A p ril: Six w e st Euro p e a n c o untrie s, Fra nc e , We st members of the UNSC. This has G e rm a ny, Ita ly, Be lg ium , the Ne the rla nd s a nd Luxe m b o urg enabled the EU to influence some sig n the Tre a ty o f Pa ris e sta b lishing the Euro p e a n C o a l a nd US policies such as the current US Ste e l C o m m unity (EC SC ). position on Iran’s nuclear programme. Its use of diplomacy, 1957 Ma rc h 25: The se six c o untrie s sig n the Tre a tie s o f Ro m e economic investments, and e sta b lishing the Euro p e a n Ec o no m ic C o m m unity (EEC ) a nd negotiations rather than coercion the Euro p e a n Ato m ic Ene rg y C o m m unity (Eura to m ). and military force has been effective as in the case of its 1973 Ja nua ry: De nm a rk, Ire la nd a nd the Unite d King d o m dialogue with China on human jo in the Euro p e a n C o m m unity (EC ). rights and environmental degradation. 1979 June : First d ire c t e le c tio ns to the Euro p e a n Pa rlia m e nt Militarily, the EU’s combined 1981 Ja nua ry: G re e c e jo ins the EC . armed forces are the second largest in the world. Its total 1 9 8 5 June : The Sc he ng e n Ag re e m e nt a b o lishe s b o rd e r spending on defence is second c o ntro ls a m o ng the EC m e m b e rs. after the US. Two EU member states, Britain and France, also 1986 Ja nua ry: Sp a in a nd Po rtug a l jo in the EC . have nuclear arsenals of approximately 550 nuclear 1990 O c to b e r: Unific a tio n o f G e rm a ny. warheads. It is also the world’s second most important source of 1 9 9 2 Fe b rua ry 7 : The Tre a ty o f Ma a stric ht w a s sig ne d space and communications e sta b lishing the Euro p e a n Unio n (EU). technology. 1993 Ja nua ry: The sing le m a rke t w a s c re a te d . As a supranational organi- sation, the EU is able to intervene 1995 Ja nua ry: Austria , Finla nd a nd Sw e d e n jo in the EU. in economic, political and social areas. But in many areas its 2002 Ja nua ry: Euro , the ne w c urre nc y, w a s intro d uc e d in member states have their own the 12 EU m e m b e rs. foreign relations and defence policies that are often at odds 2004 Ma y: Te n ne w m e m b e rs, C yp rus, the C ze c h Re p ub lic , with each other. Thus, Britain’s Esto nia , Hung a ry, La tvia , Lithua nia , Ma lta , Po la nd , Slo va kia Prime Minister Tony Blair was a nd Slo ve nia jo in the EU. America’s partner in the Iraq invasion, and many of the EU’s 2007 Ja nua ry: Bulg a ria a nd Ro m a nia jo in the EU. newer members made up the US- Slo ve nia a d o p ts the Euro . led ‘coalition of the willing’ whereas Germany and France economic organisations such as opposed American policy. There the World Trade Organisation is also a deep-seated ‘Euro- (WTO). skepticism’ in some parts The EU also has political and diplomatic influence. Two members of the EU, Britain and
Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po w e r 55 © Are s, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . The c a rto o n a p p e a re d in 2003 whe n the Euro p e a n Unio n’ s initia tive to d ra ft a c o mmo n Co nstitutio n fa ile d . Why d o e s the c a rto o nist use the ima g e o f the ship Tita nic to re p re se nt EU? of Europe about the EU’s region of Asia? Before and during Im a g ine w ha t w o uld integrationist agenda. Thus, for the Second World War, this region ha p p e n if the y ha ve example, Britain’s former prime of Asia suffered the economic and a Euro p e a n Unio n minister, Margaret Thatcher, political consequences of fo o tb a ll te a m ! kept the UK out of the European repeated colonialisms, both Market. Denmark and Sweden European and Japanese. At the have resisted the Maastricht end of the war, it confronted Treaty and the adoption of the problems of nation-building, the euro, the common European ravages of poverty and economic currency. This limits the ability backwardness and the pressure of the EU to act in matters of to align with one great power or foreign relations and defence. another during the Cold War. This was a recipe for conflict, which A SSO C IA TIO N O F SO UTH the countries of Southeast Asia could ill afford. Efforts at Asian EA ST A SIA N NA TIO NS and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and the (A SEA N) Non-Aligned Movement, were ineffective in establishing the Take a look at the political map of conventions for informal the world. Which countries would cooperation and interaction. you say fall in the southeastern Hence, the Southeast Asian
56 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s MAP O F EAST AND SO UTH EAST ASIA cultural development’. A secondary objective was to promote regional “ C o urte sy o f the Unive rsity o f Te xa s Lib ra rie s, The Unive rsity o f Te xa s peace and stability based on the a t Austin” rule of law and the principles of the United Nations Charter. Over the Who a re nations sought an alternative by years, Brunei Darussalam, the establishing the Association for Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar me mb e rs South East Asian Nations (Burma) and Cambodia joined o f the (ASEAN). ASEAN taking its strength to ten. ASEAN Re g io na l ASEAN was established in Unlike the EU there is little Fo rum 1967 by five countries of this desire in ASEAN for supranational (ARF)? region — Indonesia, Malaysia, the structures and institutions. ASEAN Philippines, Singapore and countries have celebrated what has Thailand — by signing the become known as the ‘ASEAN Bangkok Declaration. The Way’, a form of interaction that is objectives of ASEAN were primarily informal, non-confrontationist and to accelerate economic growth and cooperative. The respect for national through that ‘social progress and sovereignty is critical to the functioning of ASEAN. With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN broadened its objectives beyond the economic and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path of the EU by agreeing to establish an ASEAN Community comprising three pillars, namely, the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. The ASEAN Fla g In the ASEAN lo g o , the te n sta lks o f p a d d y (ric e ) re p re se nt the te n So uthe a st Asia n c o untrie s b o und to g e the r in frie nd ship a nd so lid a rity. The c irc le symb o lise s the unity o f ASEAN. So urc e : www.a se a nse c .o rg
Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po w e r organisation. Its Vision 2020 has 57 defined an outward-looking role The ASEAN security for ASEAN in the international Isn’ t Ind ia a p a rt o f community was based on the community. This builds on the So uthe a st Asia ? The conviction that outstanding existing ASEAN policy to no rth-e a ste rn sta te s territorial disputes should not encourage negotiation over a re so c lo se to the escalate into armed confrontation. conflicts in the region. Thus, ASEAN c o untrie s. By 2003, ASEAN had several ASEAN has mediated the end of agreements in place by which the Cambodian conflict, the East member states promised to uphold Timor crisis, and meets annually peace, neutrality, cooperation, to discuss East Asian cooperation. non-interference, and respect for national differences and sovereign The current economic strength rights. The ASEAN Regional of ASEAN, especially its economic Forum (ARF), which was relevance as a trading and established in 1994, is the investment partner to the growing organisation that carries out Asian economies such as India coordination of security and and China, makes this an foreign policy. attractive proposition. During the Cold War years Indian foreign ASEAN was and still remains policy did not pay adequate principally an economic attention to ASEAN. But in recent association. While the ASEAN years, India has tried to make region as a whole is a much amends. It signed FTAs with two smaller economy compared to the ASEAN members, Singapore and US, the EU, and Japan, its economy is growing much faster Ke sha v, The Hind u than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in Ind ia ’ s ‘ Lo o k Ea st’ Po lic y sinc e 1991 ha s le d to g re a te r e c o no mic the region and beyond. The inte ra c tio n with the Ea st Asia n na tio ns (ASEAN, C hina , Ja p a n a nd objectives of the ASEAN Economic So uth Ko re a ). Community are to create a common market and production base within ASEAN states and to aid social and economic development in the region. The Economic Community would also like to improve the existing ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic disputes. ASEAN has focused on creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional
58 Thailand. It is trying to sign an C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s FTA with ASEAN itself. ASEAN’s Why d id ASEAN strength, however, lies in its affairs. The strength of its suc c e e d w he re policies of interaction and economy, together with other SAARC d id no t? Is this consultation with member states, factors such as population, land b e c a use the y d o no t with dialogue partners, and with mass, resources, regional location ha ve o ne d o m ina nt other non-regional organisations. and political influence, adds to its c o untry in tha t It is the only regional association power in significant ways. re g io n? in Asia that provides a political forum where Asian countries and After the inception of the the major powers can discuss People’s Republic of China in 1949, political and security concerns. following the communist revolution under the leadership of Mao, its Lo c a te the economy was based on the Soviet ASEAN model. The economically backward m e m b e rs o n communist China chose to sever the m a p . Find its links with the capitalist world. the lo c a tio n o f It had little choice but to fall back the ASEAN on its own resources and, for a Se c re ta ria t. brief period, on Soviet aid and advice. The model was to create a THE RISE O F THE C HINESE state-owned heavy industries sector from the capital EC O NO MY accumulated from agriculture. As it was short of foreign exchange Let us now turn to the third major that it needed in order to buy alternative centre of power and technology and goods on the our immediate neighbour, China. world market, China decided to The cartoon on the following page substitute imports by domestic sums up the current mood all over goods. the world about the rise of China as an economic power. China’s This model allowed China to economic success since 1978 has use its resources to establish the been linked to its rise as a great foundations of an industrial power. China has been the fastest economy on a scale that did not growing economy since the exist before. Employment and reforms first began there. It is social welfare was assured to all projected to overtake the US as the citizens, and China moved ahead world’s largest economy by 2040. of most developing countries in Its economic integration into the educating its citizens and ensuring region makes it the driver of East better health for them. The Asian growth, thereby giving it economy also grew at a respectable enormous influence in regional rate of 5-6 per cent. But an annual growth of 2-3 per cent in population meant that economic growth was insufficient to meet the needs of a growing population. Agricultural production was not sufficient to
Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po w e r 59 generate a surplus for industry. In © De ng C o y Mie l, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . Chapter 2, we discussed the crisis of the state controlled economy in The G re a t Wa ll a nd Dra g o n a re two symb o ls mo st c o mmo nly the USSR. A similar crisis was to a sso c ia te d with C hina . This c a rto o n use s b o th the se to d e p ic t face China too: its industrial C hina ’ s e c o no mic rise . Who d o yo u think is the little ma n in this production was not growing fast c a rto o n? C a n he sto p the d ra g o n? enough, international trade was minimal and per capita income was Privatisation of agriculture led to A to ta l o f 6 SEZs in very low. a remarkable rise in agricultural C hina a nd m o re production and rural incomes. tha n 200 a p p ro ve d The Chinese leadership took High personal savings in the rural SEZs in Ind ia ! Is this major policy decisions in the economy lead to an exponential g o o d fo r Ind ia ? 1970s. China ended its political growth in rural industry. The and economic isolation with the Chinese economy, including both establishment of relations with industry and agriculture, grew at the United States in 1972. a faster rate. The new trading laws Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the and the creation of Special ‘four modernisations’(agriculture, Economic Zones led to a industry, science and technology phenomenal rise in foreign trade. and military) in 1973. By 1978, China has become the most the then leader Deng Xiaoping important destination for foreign announced the ‘open door’ policy direct investment (FDI) anywhere and economic reforms in China. in the world. It has large foreign The policy was to generate higher exchange reserves that now allow productivity by investments of it to make big investment in other capital and technology from countries. China’s accession to the abroad. China followed its own path in introducing a market economy. The Chinese did not go for ‘shock therapy’ but opened their economy step by step. The privatisation of agriculture in 1982 was followed by the privatisation of industry in 1998. Trade barriers were eliminated only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs) where foreign investors could set up enterprises. In China, the state played and continues to play a central role in setting up a market economy. The new economic policies helped the Chinese economy to break from stagnation.
© Mike La ne , C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . 60 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s © Are s, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . C hina the n a nd no w WTO in 2001 has been a further step in its opening to the outside C hine se b ic yc le world. The country plans to deepen Like the o p e ning ima g e s fo r this c ha p te r, the first c a rto o n its integration into the world c o mme nts o n the c ha ng e in C hina ’ s o rie nta tio n. The se c o nd economy and shape the future c a rto o n use s the symb o l o f the b ic yc le — C hina is the la rg e st use r world economic order. o f b ic yc le s in the wo rld — to c o mme nt o n a d ua lity in to d a y’ s C hina . Wha t is this d ua lity? C a n we c a ll this a c o ntra d ic tio n? While the Chinese economy has improved dramatically, not everyone in China has received the benefits of the reforms. Unemployment has risen in China with nearly 100 million people looking for jobs. Female employment and conditions of work are as bad as in Europe of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Environmental degradation and corruption have increased besides a rise in economic inequality between rural and urban residents and coastal and inland provinces. However, regionally and globally, China has become an economic power to reckon with. The integration of China’s economy and the inter-dependencies that this has created has enabled China to have considerable influence with its trade partners. Hence, its outstanding issues with Japan, the US, ASEAN, and Russia have been tempered by economic considerations. It hopes to resolve its differences with Taiwan, which it regards as a renegade province, by integrating it closely into its economy. Fears of China’s rise have also been mitigated by its contributions to the stability of the ASEAN economies after the 1997 financial crisis. Its more outward looking investment and aid
Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po w e r 61 policies in Latin America and military conflict over a border Africa are increasingly projecting dispute between the two countries it as a global player on the side of marred that hope. Soon after developing economies. independence, both states were involved in differences arising from INDIA – C HINA RELA TIO NS the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 and the final settlement of India and China were great the Sino-Indian border. China and powers in Asia before the advent India were involved in a border of Western imperialism. China conflict in 1962 over competing had considerable influence and territorial claims principally in control on the periphery of its Arunachal Pradesh and in the borders based on its unique Aksai Chin region of Ladakh. tributary system. At different times in China’s long history of The conflict of 1962, in which dynastic rule, Mongolia, Korea, India suffered military reverses, parts of Indo-China, and Tibet had long-term implications for accepted China’s authority. India–China relations. Diplomatic Various kingdoms and empires relations between the two in India also extended their countries were downgraded until influence beyond their borders. 1976. Thereafter, relations In both cases this influence was between the two countries began political, economic and cultural. to improve slowly. After the change However, the regions where India in China’s political leadership and China exercised influence from the mid to late 1970s, rarely ever overlapped. Thus, China’s policy became more there was limited political and pragmatic and less ideological. So cultural interaction between the it was prepared to put off the two. The result was that neither settlement of contentious issues country was very familiar with while improving relations with the other. In the twentieth India. A series of talks to resolve century, when both nations the border issue were also initiated confronted each other, they had in 1981. some difficulty evolving a foreign policy to deal with each other. Since the end of the Cold War, there have been significant After India regained its changes in India– independence from Britain, and China relations. China expelled the foreign powers, Their relations now The C hine se there was hope that both would have a strategic as Pre sid e nt Hu Jinta o come together to shape the future well as an economic w a s in Ind ia d uring of the developing world and of dimension. Both view No ve m b e r 2006. Asia particularly. For a brief while, themselves as rising Find o ut a b o ut the the slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini bhai- powers in global a g re e m e nts sig ne d bhai’ was popular. However, politics, and both d uring his visit. would like to play a
62 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s STEPS positive perspective on relations with China has emerged. Bilateral Divid e the c la ssro o m into thre e g ro up s. trade between India and China has Assig n e a c h g ro up o ne o rg a nisa tio n to w o rk o n increased from $338 million in 1992 to more than $18 billion in a fa c t file o n the EU, ASEAN a nd SAARC . 2006. More recently, both countries have agreed to cooperate Stud e nts ha v e to p re p a re a fa c t file tha t with each other in areas that could otherwise create conflict between c o n ta in s in fo rm a tio n o n th e o b je c tiv e s, the two, such as bidding for energy fu n c tio n s a n d re c e n t a c tiv itie s o f th e se deals abroad. At the global level, o rg a nisa tio ns. Pic ture s o f the c o nfe re nc e s / India and China have adopted sum m it m e e ting s c a n b e c o lle c te d . similar policies in international economic institutions like the Ea c h g ro up is to p re se nt its fa c t file b e fo re the World Trade Organisation. c la ss. India’s nuclear tests in 1998, sometimes justified on the Id e a s fo r the Te a c he r grounds of a threat from China, did not stop greater interaction. The te a c he r is to fo c us o n the func tio ns o f the se o rg a nisa tio ns. It is true that China was seen as Dra w the a tte ntio n o f stud e nts to the a c hie ve m e nts o f re g io na l contributing to the build up of Pakistan’s nuclear programme. o rg a nisa tio ns. China’s military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar were Link the ro le o f re g io na l e c o no m ic o rg a nisa tio ns to the o ve r viewed as hostile to Indian interests in South Asia. However, a ll d e ve lo p m e nt o f the m e m b e r c o untrie s. none of these issues is likely to lead to conflict between the two. Se nsitise stud e nts to the g ro w ing im p o rta nc e o f re g io na l One sign of this is that the talks to resolve the boundary question have e c o no m ic o rg a nisa tio ns a s a n a lte rna tive a p p ro a c h to the continued without interruption and p e a c e a nd se c urity o f the w o rld . military-to-military cooperation is increasing. Indian and Chinese So m e p e o p le sa y major role in the Asian economy leaders and officials visit Beijing C hine se p ro d uc ts a re and politics. and New Delhi with greater g o ing to flo o d o ur frequency, and both sides are m a rke t? But w he re Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in now becoming more familiar a re the y? December 1988 provided the with each other. Increasing impetus for an improvement in transportation and communication India–China relations. Since then links, common economic interests both governments have taken and global concerns should help measures to contain conflict and establish a more positive and maintain ‘peace and tranquility’ on sound relationship between the the border. They have also signed two most populous countries of agreements on cultural exchanges the world. and cooperation in science and technology, and opened four border posts for trade. With India– China trade growing at 30 per cent per year since 1999, a more
Alte rna tive C e ntre s o f Po w e r 63 JA PA N ASIMO , The Wo rld ’ s Mo st Ad va nc e d Huma no id Ro b o t Yo u m ig ht ha ve he a rd a b o ut fa m o us Ja p a ne se b ra nd s suc h a s So ny, C re d it: Pa na so nic , C a no n, Suzuki, Ho nd a , To yo ta , Ma zd a . The y ha ve a http ://wo rld .ho nd a .c o m/ne ws/ re p uta tio n fo r m a king hig h-te c hno lo g y p ro d uc ts. Ja p a n ha s ve ry fe w 2005/c 051213_13.html na tura l re so urc e s a nd im p o rts m o st o f the its ra w m a te ria ls. Eve n the n it p ro g re sse d ra p id ly a fte r the e nd o f the Se c o nd Wo rld Wa r. It is the se c o nd la rg e st e c o no m y in the w o rld . It is the o nly Asia n m e m b e ro f the G -8. It is the te nth m o st p o p ulo us na tio n in the w o rld . Ja p a n is the o nly na tio n tha t suffe re d the d e struc tio n c a use d b y nuc le a r b o m b s. It is the se c o nd la rg e st c o ntrib uto r to the re g ula r b ud g e t o f the UN, c o ntrib uting a lm o st 20 p e r c e nt o f the to ta l. Ja p a n ha s a se c urity a llia nc e w ith the US sinc e 1951. As p e r Artic le 9 o f the Ja p a ne se C o nstitutio n, “ the Ja p a ne se p e o p le fo re ve r re no unc e w a r a s a so ve re ig n rig ht o f the na tio n a nd the thre a t o r use o f fo rc e a s m e a ns o f se ttling inte rna tio na l d isp ute s.” Altho ug h Ja p a n’ s m ilita ry e xp e nd iture is o nly o ne p e r c e nt o f its G DP, it is the fo urth la rg e st in the w o rld . Ke e p ing a ll this in m ind , d o yo u think Ja p a n c a n e ffe c tive ly func tio n a s a n a lte rna tive c e ntre o f p o w e r? Also find o ut a b o ut the a g re e m e nts sig ne d d uring the visit o f the Ind ia n Prim e Ministe r Ma nm o ha n Sing h to Ja p a n d uring De c e m b e r 2006. 1. Arra ng e the fo llo w ing in c hro no lo g ic a l o rd e r. Exercises a . C hina ’ s a c c e ssio n to WTO b . Esta b lishm e nt o f the EEC c . Esta b lishm e nt o f the EU d . Birth o f ARF 2. The ‘ ASEAN Wa y’ a . Re fle c ts the life style o f ASEAN m e m b e rs b . A fo rm o f inte ra c tio n a m o ng ASEAN m e m b e rs tha t is info rm a l a nd c o o p e ra tive c . The d e fe nc e p o lic y fo llo w e d b y the ASEAN m e m b e rs d . The ro a d tha t c o nne c ts a ll the ASEAN m e m b e rs 3. Who a m o ng the fo llo w ing a d o p te d a n ‘ o p e n d o o r’ p o lic y? a . C hina b . EU c . Ja p a n d . USA 4. Fill in the b la nks: a . The b o rd e r c o nflic t b e tw e e n C hina a nd Ind ia in 1962 w a s p rinc ip a lly o ve r ______________ a nd __________________ re g io n. b . ARF w a s e sta b lishe d in the ye a r ______________________ . c . C hina e nte re d into b ila te ra l re la tio ns w ith __________ (a m a jo r c o untry) in 1972.
Exercises6 4 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s d . ____________ Pla n influe nc e d the e sta b lishm e nt o f the O rg a nisa tio n fo r Euro p e a n Ec o no m ic C o o p e ra tio n in 1948. e . ___________ is the o rg a nisa tio n o f ASEAN tha t d e a ls with se c urity. 5. Wha t a re the o b je c tive s o f e sta b lishing re g io na l o rg a nisa tio ns? 6. Ho w d o e s g e o g ra p hic a l p ro xim ity influe nc e the fo rm a tio n o f re g io na l o rg a nisa tio ns? 7. Wha t a re the c o m p o ne nts o f the ASEAN Visio n 2020? 8. Na m e the p illa rs a nd the o b je c tive s o f the ASEAN C o m m unity. 9. In w ha t w a ys d o e s the p re se nt C hine se e c o no m y d iffe rs fro m its c o mma nd e c o no my? 10. Ho w d id the Euro p e a n c o untrie s re so lve the ir p o st-Se c o nd Wo rld Wa r p ro b le m ? Brie fly o utline the a tte m p ts tha t le d to the fo rm a tio n o f the Euro p e a n Unio n. 11. Wha t m a ke s the Euro p e a n Unio n a hig hly influe ntia l re g io na l o rg a nisa tio n? 12. The e m e rg ing e c o no m ie s o f C hina a nd Ind ia ha ve g re a t p o te ntia l to c ha lle ng e the unip o la r w o rld . Do yo u a g re e w ith the sta te m e nt? Sub sta ntia te yo ur a rg um e nts. 13. The Pe a c e a nd p ro sp e rity o f c o untrie s la y in the e sta b lishm e nt a nd stre ng the ning o f re g io na l e c o no m ic o rg a nisa tio ns. Justify this sta te m e nt. 14. Id e ntify the c o nte ntio us issue s b e twe e n C hina a nd Ind ia . Ho w c o uld the se b e re so lve d fo r g re a te r c o o p e ra tio n? G ive yo ur sug g e stio ns.
C ha p te r 5 C o nte mp o ra ry So uth Asia O VERVIEW So urc e : Sub ha s Ra i’ s a d a p ta tio n o f ‘ Lib e rty Le a d ing the Pe o p le ’ , p a inte d b y Eug e ne De la c ro ix in 1830. C o urte sy o f Let us shift our gaze from the larger Him a l So utha sia n, (Ja nua ry 2007) The So utha sia Trust, Ne p a l global developments in the post-Cold War era to developments in our own region, South Asia. When India and Pakistan joined the club of nuclear powers, this region suddenly became the focus of global attention. The focus was, of course, on the various kinds of conflict in this region: there are pending border and water sharing disputes between the states of the region. Besides, there are conflicts arising out of insurgency, ethnic strife and resource sharing. This makes the region very turbulent. At the same time, many people in South Asia recognise the fact that this region can develop and prosper if the states of the region cooperate with each other. In this chapter, we try to understand the nature of conflict and cooperation among different countries of the region. Since much of this is rooted in or conditioned by the domestic politics of these countries, we first introduce the region and the domestic politics of some of the big countries in the region.
66 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s WHAT IS SO UTH A SIA? The various countries in South Asia do not have the same kind of Id e ntify so m e We are all familiar with the political systems. Despite many fe a ture s gripping tension during an India- problems and limitations, Sri c o m m o n to a ll Pakistan cricket match. We have Lanka and India have successfully the So uth Asia n also seen the goodwill and operated a democratic system c o untrie s b ut hospitality shown to visiting since their independence from the d iffe re nt fro m Indian and Pakistani fans by their British. You will study more about c o untrie s in hosts when they come to watch a the evolution of democracy in We st Asia o r cricket match. This is symbolic of India in the textbook that deals So uthe a st Asia . the larger pattern of South Asian with politics in India since affairs. Ours is a region where independence. It is, of course, rivalry and goodwill, hope and possible to point out many despair, mutual suspicion and limitations of India’s democracy; trust coexist. but we have to remember the fact that India has remained a Is the re a fixe d Let us begin by asking an democracy throughout its d e finitio n o f the se elementary question: what is South existence as an independent re g io ns? Who Asia? The expression ‘South Asia’ country. The same is true of Sri d e c id e s tha t? usually includes the following Lanka. countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan Pakistan and Bangladesh have and Sri Lanka. The mighty experienced both civilian and Himalayas in the north and the vast military rulers, with Bangladesh Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and remaining a democracy in the the Bay of Bengal in the south, west post-Cold War period. Pakistan and east respectively provide a began the post-Cold War period natural insularity to the region, with successive democratic which is largely responsible for the governments under Benazir linguistic, social and cultural Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif distinctiveness of the sub- respectively. But it suffered a continent. The boundaries of the military coup in 1999 and has region are not as clear in the east been run by a military regime and the west, as they are in the since then. Till 2006, Nepal was a north and the south. Afghanistan constitutional monarchy with the and Myanmar are often included danger of the king taking over in discussions of the region as a executive powers. In 2006 a whole. China is an important player successful popular uprising led to but is not considered to be a part the restoration of democracy and of the region. In this chapter, we reduced the king to a nominal shall use South Asia to mean the position. From the experience of seven countries mentioned above. Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say Thus defined, South Asia stands for that democracy is becoming an diversity in every sense and yet accepted norm in the entire region constitutes one geo-political space. of South Asia.
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia 67 Similar changes are taking place in the two Bo th the se g ra p hs a re b a se d o n inte rvie ws with smallest countries of the region. Bhutan is still mo re tha n 19,000 o rd ina ry c itize ns in the five a monarchy but the king has initiated plans for c o untrie s o f So uth Asia . So urc e : SDSA Te a m, Sta te o f its transition to multi-party democracy. The De mo c ra c y in So uth Asia , Ne w De lhi: O xfo rd Maldives, the other island nation, was a Unive rsity Pre ss, 2007 Sultanate till 1968 when it was transformed into a republic with a presidential form of government. In June 2005, the parliament of the Maldives voted unanimously to introduce a multi-party system. The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) dominates the political affairs of the island. Democracy strengthened in the Maldives after the 2005 elections when some opposition parties were legalised. Despite the mixed record of the democratic experience, the people in all these countries share the aspiration for democracy. A recent survey of the attitudes of the people in the five big countries of the region showed that there is widespread support for democracy in all these countries. Ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and belonging to different religions, view the idea of democracy positively and support the institutions of representative democracy. They prefer democracy over any other form of democracy and think that democracy is suitable for their country. These are significant findings, for it was earlier believed that democracy could flourish and find support only in prosperous countries of the world.
68 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s TI MELI N E OF SOUTH ASI A In that sense the South Asian SI N CE 1 9 4 7 experience of democracy has expanded the global imagination of 1947: Ind ia a nd Pa kista n e m e rg e a s ind e p e nd e nt na tio ns democracy. a fte r the e nd o f British rule 1948: Sri La nka (the n C e ylo n) g a ins ind e p e nd e nc e ; Ind o - Let us look at the experience Pa k c o nflic t o ve r Ka shm ir of democracy in each of the four 1954- 55: Pa kista n jo ins the C o ld Wa r milita ry b lo c s, SEATO big countries of the region other a nd C ENTO than India. 1960 Se p te m b e r: Ind ia a nd Pa kista n sig n the Ind us Wa te rs Tre a ty THE MILITARY AND 1962: Bo rd e r c o nflic t b e twe e n Ind ia a nd C hina 1965: Ind o -Pa k Wa r; UN Ind ia -Pa kista n O b se rva tio n Missio n DEMO C RAC Y IN PAKISTAN 1966: Ind ia a nd Pa kista n sig n the Ta shke nt Ag re e m e nt; Six-p o int p ro p o sa l o f She ikh Mujib -ur Ra hma n fo r g re a te r After Pakistan framed its first a uto no my to Ea st Pa kista n constitution, General Ayub Khan 1971 Ma rc h: Pro c la m a tio n o f Ind e p e nd e nc e b y le a d e rs o f took over the administration of Ba ng la d e sh the country and soon got himself Aug ust : Ind o -So vie t Tre a ty o f Frie nd ship sig ne d fo r 20 ye a rs elected. He had to give up office De c e m b e r : Ind o -Pa k Wa r, Lib e ra tio n o f Ba ng la d e sh when there was popular 1972 July: Ind ia a nd Pa kista n sig n the Shim la Ag re e m e nt dissatisfaction against his rule. 1974 Ma y: Ind ia c o nd uc ts nuc le a r te st This gave way to a military 1 9 7 6 : Pa kista n a nd Ba ng la d e sh e sta b lish d ip lo m a tic takeover once again under re la tio ns General Yahya Khan. During 1 9 8 5 De c e m b e r: So uth Asia n le a d e rs sig n the SAARC Yahya’s military rule, Pakistan C ha rte r a t the first summit in Dha ka faced the Bangladesh crisis, and 1987: Ind o -Sri La nka Ac c o rd ; Ind ia n Pe a c e Ke e p ing Fo rc e after a war with India in 1971, (IPKF) o p e ra tio n in Sri La nka (1987-90) East Pakistan broke away to 1988: Ind ia se nd s tro o p s to the Ma ld ive s to fo il a c o up emerge as an independent country a tte mp t b y me rc e na rie s called Bangladesh. After this, an Ind ia a nd Pa kista n sig n the a g re e m e nt no t to a tta c k elected government under the nuc le a r insta lla tio ns a nd fa c ilitie s o f e a c h o the r leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 1988- 91: De m o c ra c y re sto ra tio n in Pa kista n, Ba ng la d e sh came to power in Pakistan from a nd Ne p a l 1971 to 1977. The Bhutto 1996 De c e m b e r: Ind ia a nd Ba ng la d e sh sig n the Fa ra kka government was removed by Tre a ty fo r sha ring o f the G a ng a Wa te rs General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977. 1998 Ma y: Ind ia a nd Pa kista n c o nd uc t nuc le a r te sts General Zia faced a pro-democracy De c e mbe r: India and SriLanka sign the Fre e Trade Agre e me nt(FTA) movement from 1982 onwards and 1999 Fe b rua ry: Ind ia n PM Va jp a ye e und e rta ke s b us jo urne y and an elected democratic to La ho re to sig n a Pe a c e De c la ra tio n government was established once June - July: Ka rg il c o nflic t b e twe e n Ind ia a nd Pa kista n again in 1988 under the leadership 2001 July: Va jp a ye e - Musha rra f Ag ra Sum m it unsuc c e ssful of Benazir Bhutto. In the period 2004 Ja nua ry: SAFTA sig ne d a t the 12th SAARC Sum m it in that followed, Pakistani politics Isla m a b a d centred around the competition between her party, the Pakistan
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia 69 People’s Party, and the Muslim Sure nd ra , The Hind u League. This phase of elective democracy lasted till 1999 when This c a rto o n c o mme nts o n the d ua l ro le o f Pa kista n’ s rule r Pe rve z the army stepped in again and Musha rra f a s the Pre sid e nt o f the c o untry a nd a s the a rmy G e ne ra l. General Pervez Musharraf removed Re a d the e q ua tio ns c a re fully a nd write d o wn the me ssa g e o f this Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. In c a rto o n. 2001, General Musharraf got himself elected as the President. countries have encouraged the Pakistan continues to be ruled by military’s authoritarian rule in the the army, though the army rulers past, for their own reasons. Given have held some elections to give their fear of the threat of what they their rule a democratic image. call ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and the apprehension that Pakistan’s Several factors have nuclear arsenal might fall into the contributed to Pakistan’s failure hands of these terrorist groups, in building a stable democracy. the military regime in Pakistan The social dominance of the has been seen as the protector of military, clergy, and landowning Western interests in West Asia and aristocracy has led to the frequent South Asia. overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military DEMOCRACY IN BANGLADESH If G e rma ny c a n b e government. Pakistan’s conflict re unite d , why c a n’ t with India has made the pro- Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan the p e o p le o f Ind ia military groups more powerful. from 1947 to 1971. It consisted a nd Pa kista n a t le a st These groups have often said that of the partitioned areas of Bengal tra ve l m o re e a sily to political parties and democracy in and Assam from British India. The e a c h o the r’ s Pakistan are flawed, that people of this region resented the c o untry? Pakistan’s security would be domination of western Pakistan harmed by selfish-minded parties and the imposition of the Urdu and chaotic democracy, and that language. Soon after the partition, the army’s stay in power is, therefore, justified. While democracy has not been fully successful in Pakistan, there has been a strong pro-democracy sentiment in the country. Pakistan has a courageous and relatively free press and a strong human rights movement. The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance. The United States and other Western
70 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s they began protests against the to convene the assembly. Sheikh unfair treatment meted out to the Mujib was arrested. Under the Bengali culture and language. They military rule of General Yahya also demanded fair representation Khan, the Pakistani army tried to in administration and a fair share suppress the mass movement of in political power. Sheikh Mujib- the Bengali people. Thousands ur Rahman led the popular were killed by the Pakistan army. struggle against West Pakistani This led to a large scale migration domination. He demanded into India, creating a huge refugee autonomy for the eastern region. problem for India. The government In the 1970 elections in the then of India supported the demand of Pakistan, the Awami League led the people of East Pakistan for by Sheikh Mujib won all the seats their independence and helped in East Pakistan and secured a them financially and militarily. majority in the proposed This resulted in a war between constituent assembly for the India and Pakistan in December whole of Pakistan. But the 1971 that ended in the surrender government dominated by the of the Pakistani forces in East West Pakistani leadership refused Pakistan and the formation of A mural in Dhaka Unive rsity to re me mb e r No o r Ho ssain who was kille d b y the po lic e during pro -de mo c rac y pro te sts ag ainst Ge ne ral Ershad in 1987. Painte d o n his b ac k: “Le t De mo c rac y b e Fre e d” . Pho to c re dit: Shahidul Alam/Drik
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia 71 Bangladesh as an independent common people of Nepal have Le t’ s kno w mo re country. wanted a more open and a b o ut responsive system of government. Ba ng la d e sh’ s Bangladesh drafted its But the king, with the help of the G ra me e n Ba nk. constitution declaring faith in army, retained full control over the C a n we ma ke secularism, democracy and government and restricted the use o f the id e a socialism. However, in 1975 Sheikh expansion of democracy in Nepal. to re d uc e Mujib got the constitution amended to shift from the p o ve rty in parliamentary to presidential form of government. He also abolished The king accepted the demand Ind ia ? all parties except his own, the for a new democratic constitution Awami League. This led to conflicts in 1990, in the wake of a strong and tensions. In a dramatic and pro-democracy movement. tragic development, he was However, democratic governments assassinated in a military uprising had a short and troubled career. in August 1975. The new military During the nineties, the Maoists ruler, Ziaur Rahman, formed his of Nepal were successful in own Bangladesh National Party spreading their influence in many and won elections in 1979. He was parts of Nepal. They believed in assassinated and another military armed insurrection against the takeover followed under the monarch and the ruling elite. This leadership of Lt Gen H. M. Ershad. led to a violent conflict between The people of Bangladesh soon rose the Maoist guerrillas and the in support of the demand for armed forces of the king. For democracy. Students were in the some time, there was a triangular forefront. Ershad was forced to conflict among the monarchist allow political activity on a limited forces, the democrats and the scale. He was later elected as Maoists. In 2002, the king President for five years. Mass public abolished the parliament and protests made Ershad step down dismissed the government, thus in 1990. Elections were held in ending even the limited 1991. Since then representative democracy that existed in Nepal. democracy based on multi-party elections has been working in In April 2006, there were Bangladesh. massive, country wide, pro- democracy protests. The struggling MO NARC HY A ND pro-democracy forces achieved their first major victory when the king was DEMO C RAC Y IN NEPAL forced to restore the House of Representatives that had been Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in the dissolved in April 2002. The largely past and then a constitutional non-violent movement was led by monarchy in the modern period the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the for many years. Throughout this Maoists and social activists. period, political parties and the Nepal’s transition to democracy is not complete. At the moment, Nepal is undergoing a
72 unique moment in its history C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s because it is moving towards the Ne p a l so und s re a lly formation of a constituent since its independence in 1948. e xc iting . I wish I wa s assembly that will write the But it faced a serious challenge, in Ne p a l! constitution for Nepal. Some not from the military or monarchy sections in Nepal still think that a but rather from ethnic conflict nominal monarchy is necessary leading to the demand for for Nepal to retain its link with the secession by one of the regions. past. The Maoist groups have agreed to suspend armed struggle. After its independence, politics They want the constitution to in Sri Lanka (it was then known include the radical programmes of as Ceylon) was dominated by social and economic restructuring. forces that represented the interest All the parties in the SPA may not of the majority Sinhala agree with this programme. The community. They were hostile to a Maoists and some other political large number of Tamils who had groups are also deeply suspicious migrated from India to Sri Lanka of the Indian government and its and settled there. This migration role in the future of Nepal. continued even after independence. The Sinhala nationalists thought ETHNIC C O NFLIC T AND that Sri Lanka should not give ‘concessions’ to the Tamils because DEMO C RAC Y IN SRI LANKA Sri Lanka belongs to the Sinhala people only. The neglect of Tamil We have already seen that Sri concerns led to militant Tamil Lanka has retained democracy nationalism. From 1983 onwards, the militant organisation, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam De mo c ra c y a c tivist, Durg a Tha p a , p a rtic ip a ting in a p ro -d e mo c ra c y ra lly in Ka thma nd u in 1990. The se c o nd p ic ture sho ws the sa me p e rso n in 2006, this time c e le b ra ting the suc c e ss o f the se c o nd d e mo c ra c y mo ve me nt. Pho to c re d it: Min Ba jra c ha rya
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia 73 (LTTE) has been fighting an armed Ke sha v, The Hind u struggle with the army of Sri Lanka The c a rto o n d e p ic ts the d ile mma o f the Sri La nka n le a d e rship in and demanding ‘Tamil Eelam’ or a trying to b a la nc e Sinha la ha rd line rs o r the Lio n a nd Ta mil milita nts separate country for the Tamils of o r the Tig e r while ne g o tia ting p e a c e . Sri Lanka. The LTTE controls the northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. In spite of the ongoing conflict, Sri Lanka has registered The Sri Lankan problem considerable economic growth involves people of Indian origin, and recorded high levels of human and there is considerable pressure development. Sri Lanka was one from the Tamil people in India to of the first developing countries to the effect that the Indian successfully control the rate of government should protect the growth of population, the first interests of the Tamils in Sri country in the region to liberalise Lanka. The government of India the economy, and it has had the has from time to time tried to highest per capita gross domestic negotiate with the Sri Lankan product (GDP) for many years government on the Tamil question. right through the civil war. Despite But in 1987, the government of the ravages of internal conflict, it India for the first time got directly has maintained a democratic involved in the Sri Lankan Tamil political system. question. India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to INDIA- PAKISTAN C O NFLIC TS stabilise relations between the Sri Lankan government and the Let us now move from domestic Tamils. Eventually, the Indian politics and take a look at some Army got into a fight with the of the areas of conflict in the inter- LTTE. The presence of Indian national relations in this region. troops was also not liked much The post-Cold War era has not by the Sri Lankans. They saw this meant the end of conflicts and as an attempt by India to interfere in the internal affairs of Sri Lanka. In 1989, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) pulled out of Sri Lanka without attaining its objective. The Sri Lankan crisis continues to be violent. However, international actors, particularly the Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland have been trying to bring the warring groups back to negotiations. The future of the island hinges on the outcome of these talks.
74 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s Ke sha v, The Hind u Kashmir and the Indian province of A vie w o f the c urre nt p ha se o f the Ind o -Pa k ne g o tia tio ns. Jammu and Kashmir divided by the Line of Control. In 1971, India won Disc ussio n o n Ka shm ir tensions in this region. We have a decisive war against Pakistan but so und s like a p ro p e rty already noted the conflicts around the Kashmir issue remained d isp ute b e twe e n the internal democracy or ethnic unsettled. rule rs o f Ind ia a nd differences. But there are also Pa kista n! Wha t d o the some very crucial conflicts of an India’s conflict with Pakistan is Ka shm iris fe e l a b o ut it? international nature. Given the also over strategic issues like the position of India in this region, control of the Siachen glacier and most of these conflicts involve over acquisition of arms. The arms India. race between the two countries assumed a new character with The most salient and over- both states acquiring nuclear whelming of these conflicts is, of weapons and missiles to deliver course, the one between India and such arms against each other in Pakistan. Soon after the partition, the 1990s. In 1998, India the two countries got embroiled in conducted nuclear explosion in a conflict over the fate of Kashmir. Pokaran. Pakistan responded The Pakistani government claimed within a few days by carrying out that Kashmir belonged to it. Wars nuclear tests in the Chagai Hills. between India and Pakistan in Since then India and Pakistan 1947-48 and 1965 failed to settle seem to have built a military the matter. The 1947-48 war relationship in which the resulted in the division of the possibility of a direct and full-scale province into Pakistan-occupied war has declined. But both the governments continue to be suspicious of each other. The Indian government has blamed the Pakistan government for using a strategy of low-key violence by helping the Kashmiri militants with arms, training, money and protection to carry out terrorist strikes against India. The Indian government also believes that Pakistan had aided the pro- Khalistani militants with arms and ammunitions during the period 1985-1995. Its spy agency, Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), is alleged to be involved in various anti-India campaigns in India’s northeast, operating secretly through Bangladesh and Nepal.
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia unhappy with Bangladesh’s 75 The government of Pakistan, in denial of illegal immigration to Why is it tha t e ve ry turn, blames the Indian o ne o f o ur government and its security India, its support for anti-Indian ne ig hb o urs ha s a agencies for fomenting trouble in p ro b le m w ith Ind ia ? the provinces of Sindh and Islamic fundamentalist groups, Is the re so m e thing Balochistan. wro ng with o ur Bangladesh’s refusal to allow fo re ig n p o lic y? O r is India and Pakistan also have it just o ur size ? had problems over the sharing of Indian troops to move through its river waters. Until 1960, they were locked in a fierce argument over territory to northeastern India, the use of the rivers of the Indus basin. Eventually, in 1960, with and its decision not to export the help of the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus natural gas to India or allow Waters Treaty which has survived to this day in spite of various Myanmar to do so through military conflicts in which the two countries have been involved. Bangladeshi territory. There are still some minor differences about the interpretation Bangladeshi governments have felt of the Indus Waters Treaty and the use of the river waters. The two that the Indian government countries are not in agreement over the demarcation line in Sir behaves like a regional bully over Creek in the Rann of Kutch. The dispute seems minor, but there is the sharing of river waters, an underlying worry that how the dispute is settled may have an encouraging rebellion in the impact on the control of sea resources in the area adjoining Sir Chittagong Hill Tracts, trying to Creek. India and Pakistan are holding negotiations on all these extract its natural gas and being issues. unfair in trade. The two countries INDIA AND ITS O THER have not succeeded in resolving NEIG HBO URS their boundary dispute. The governments of India and Bangladesh have had differences Despite their differences, India over several issues including the and Bangladesh do cooperate on sharing of the Ganga and many issues. Economic relations Brahmaputra river waters. The have improved considerably in the Indian government has been last ten years. Bangladesh is a part of India’s Look East policy that wants to link up with Southeast Asia via Myanmar. On disaster management and environmental issues, the two states have cooperated regularly. Efforts are on to broaden the areas of cooperation further by identifying common threats and being more sensitive to each other’s needs. Nepal and India enjoy a very special relationship that has very few parallels in the world. A treaty between the two countries allows the citizens of the two countries to travel to and work in the other country without visas and
76 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s STEPS passports. Despite this special relationship, the governments of the Divid e the c la ssro o m into se ve n g ro up s (a s m a ny two countries have had trade- related disputes in the past. The a s the num b e r o f c o untrie s). The num b e r o f Indian government has often stud e nts in e a c h g ro up m a y va ry, re fle c ting the expressed displeasure at the warm size o f the c o untrie s o f So uth Asia . relationship between Nepal and China and at the Nepal Na me e a c h g ro up a fte r a c o untry a nd ha nd o ve r government’s inaction against anti- Indian elements. Indian security a b rie f c o untry p ro file to re sp e c tive g ro up s. Be sid e s agencies see the Maoist movement the b a sic info rm a tio n, inc lud e a sho rt no te o n the in Nepal as a growing security c o nte ntio us issue s/ d isp ute s a mo ng the So uth Asia n threat, given the rise of Naxalite c o untrie s. The issue s c o uld b e tho se d isc usse d in groups in various Indian states this c ha p te r o r a n issue o f re le va nc e b ut no t from Bihar in the north to Andhra d isc usse d in the c ha p te r. Pradesh in the south. Many leaders and citizens in Nepal think that the Allo w stud e nts to se le c t a n issue o f the ir c ho ic e . Indian government interferes in its internal affairs, has designs on its The d isp ute c o uld b e b ila te ra l o r m ultila te ra l (the river waters and hydro-electricity, issu e c o u ld b e re la te d to In d ia , g iv e n th e and prevents Nepal, a landlocked g e o g ra p hic p e c ulia rity o f the re g io n). country, from getting easier access to the sea through Indian territory. Assig n e a c h g ro up to find o ut wha t initia tive s the Nevertheless, Indo-Nepal relations are fairly stable and peaceful. g o ve rnme nts invo lve d ha ve ta ke n a nd the re a so ns Despite differences, trade, scientific fo r the ir fa ilure s in re so lving the d isp ute s. cooperation, common natural resources, electricity generation Stud e nts sho uld a ssume the ro le o f re p re se nting and interlocking water management grids hold the two the ir re sp e c tive c o untrie s a nd sha re the ir find ing s. countries together. There is a hope that the consolidation of democracy Ide a s fo r the Te a c he r in Nepal will lead to improvements in the ties between the two Pa ir up the c o untrie s sha ring the c o m m o n issue / d isp ute . It countries. c o uld b e two g ro up s in the c a se o f a b ila te ra l issue o r m o re in The difficulties in the c a se o f a m ultila te ra l issue (e xa m p le s o f b ila te ra l issue s inc lud e relationship between the the Ja m m u a nd Ka shm ir d isp ute b e twe e n Ind ia a nd Pa kista n, governments of India and Sri Lanka the m ig ra nt p ro b le m b e tw e e n Ind ia a nd Ba ng la d e sh; are mostly over ethnic conflict in m ultila te ra l issue s inc lud e the c re a tio n o f a fre e tra d e zo ne o r the island nation. Indian leaders ta c kling te rro rism ). and citizens find it impossible to remain neutral when Tamils are G ro up s sho uld ne g o tia te o n the p ro p o sa ls a nd c o unte r- politically unhappy and are being killed. After the military p ro p o sa ls within a tim e lim it. The te a c he r is to ta ke no te o f the intervention in 1987, the Indian o utc o me o f the ne g o tia tio ns. The fo c us sho uld b e o n the a re a s o f a g re e m e nt a nd d isa g re e m e nt. Link the o utc o m e o f the ne g o tia tio ns w ith the p re va iling situa tio n a m o ng the c o untrie s o f So uth Asia . Ta lk a b o ut the d iffic ultie s invo lve d in ne g o tia ting o n a p o litic a l issue b a se d o n the o b se rva tio n m a d e . C o nc lud e b y d isc ussing the im p o rta nc e o f a c c o m m o d a ting e a c h o the r’ s inte re st fo r the sa ke o f p e a c e ful c o e xiste nc e .
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia the region. The smaller countries 77 fear that India wants to be a government now prefers a policy of regionally-dominant power. If the c ha p te r, o n US disengagement vis-à-vis Sri Lanka’s wa s c a lle d ‘ US internal troubles. India signed a free Not all conflicts in South Asia He g e m o ny’ why is trade agreement with Sri Lanka, are between India and its this c ha p te r no t which strengthened relations neighbours. Nepal and Bhutan, as c a lle d ‘ Ind ia n between two countries. India’s help well as Bangladesh and Myanmar, He g e m o ny’ ? in post-tsunami reconstruction in have had disagreements in the past Sri Lanka has also brought the two over the migration of ethnic countries closer. Nepalese into Bhutan and the Rohingyas into Myanmar, India enjoys a very special respectively. Bangladesh and Nepal relationship with Bhutan too and have had some differences over the does not have any major conflict future of the Himalayan river with the Bhutanese government. waters. The major conflicts and The efforts made by the Bhutanese differences, though, are between monarch to weed out the guerrillas India and the others, partly and militants from northeastern because of the geography of the India that operate in his country region, in which India is located have been helpful to India. India is centrally and is therefore the only involved in big hydroelectric country that borders the others. projects in Bhutan and remains the Himalayan kingdom’s biggest Sure nd ra , The Hind u source of development aid. India’s ties with the Maldives remain warm Wha t d o e s this c a rto o n te ll yo u a b o ut the ro le o f Ind ia a nd and cordial. In November 1988, Pa kista n in the p ro c e ss o f re g io na l c o o p e ra tio n in So uth Asia ? when some Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka attacked the Maldives, the Indian air force and navy reacted quickly to the Maldives’ request to help stop the invasion. India has also contributed towards the island’s economic development, tourism and fisheries. You may have noticed that India has various problems with its smaller neighbours in the region. Given its size and power, they are bound to be suspicious of India’s intentions. The Indian government, on the other hand, often feels exploited by its neighbours. It does not like the political instability in these countries, fearing it can help outside powers to gain influence in
78 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s Ke sha v, The Hind u PEAC E AND C O O PERATIO N Pa kista n Trib une Do the states of South Asia cooperate with each The two c a rto o ns, o ne fro m Ind ia a nd the o the r other? Or do they only keep fighting with each fro m Pa kista n, inte rp re t the ro le o f two ke y other? In spite of the many conflicts, the states p la ye rs who a re a lso inte re ste d in the re g io n. Do of South Asia recognise the importance of yo u no tic e a ny c o mmo na lity b e twe e n the ir cooperation and friendly relationship, among p e rsp e c tive s? themselves. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional Eve ry a sso c ia tio n initiative by the South Asian states to evolve se e ms to ha ve cooperation through multilateral means. It e me rg e d fo r tra d e ! began in 1985. Unfortunately, due to persisting Is tra d e mo re political differences, SAARC has not had much im p o rta nt tha n success. SAARC members signed the South p e o p le -to -p e o p le Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) agreement which re la tio ns? promised the formation of a free trade zone for the whole of South Asia. A new chapter of peace and cooperation might evolve in South Asia if all the countries in the region allow free trade across the borders. This is the spirit behind the idea of SAFTA. The Agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006. SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs by 20 percent by 2007. But some of our neighbours fear that SAFTA is a way for India to ‘invade’ their markets and to influence their societies and politics through commercial ventures and a commercial presence in their countries. India thinks that there are real economic benefits for all from SAFTA and that a region that trades more freely will be able to cooperate better on political issues. Some in India think that SAFTA is not worth the trouble since India already has bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Although India-Pakistan relations seem to be a story of endemic conflict and violence, there have been a series of efforts to manage tensions and build peace. The two countries have agreed to undertake confidence building measures to reduce the risk of war. Social activists and prominent personalities have collaborated to create an atmosphere of friendship among the people of both countries. Leaders have met at summits to understand each other better and to find solutions
C o nte m p o ra ry So uth Asia 79 to the major problems between the American involvement in South two neighbours. A number of bus Asia has rapidly increased after the routes have been opened up Cold War. The US has had good between the two countries. Trade relations with both India and between the two parts of Punjab Pakistan since the end of the Cold has increased substantially in the War and increasingly works as a last five years. Visas have been moderator in India-Pakistan more easily given. relations. Economic reforms and liberal economic policies in both No region exists in a vacuum. countries have greatly increased It is influenced by outside powers the depth of American participation and events no matter how much in the region. The large South Asian it may try to insulate itself from diasporas in the US and the huge non-regional powers. China and size of the population and markets the United States remain key of the region also give America an players in South Asian politics. added stake in the future of Sino-Indian relations have regional security and peace. improved significantly in the last ten years, but China’s strategic However, whether South Asia partnership with Pakistan will continue to be known as a remains a major irritant. The conflict prone zone or will evolve into demands of development and a regional bloc with some common globalisation have brought the cultural features and trade interests two Asian giants closer, and their will depend more on the people and economic ties have multiplied the governments of the region than rapidly since 1991. any other outside power. 1. Id e ntify the c o untry: Exercises a . The strug g le a mo ng p ro -mo na rc hy, p ro -d e mo c ra c y g ro up s a nd e xtre m ists c re a te d a n a tm o sp he re o f p o litic a l insta b ility: b . A la nd lo c ke d c o untry with m ulti-p a rty c o m p e titio n: c . The first c o untry to lib e ra lise its e c o no m y in the So uth Asia n re g io n: d . In the c o nflic t b e twe e n the milita ry a nd p ro -d e mo c ra c y g ro up s, the m ilita ry ha s p re va ile d o ve r d e m o c ra c y: e . C e ntra lly lo c a te d a nd sha re s b o rd e rs with m o st o f the So uth Asia n c o untrie s: f. Ea rlie r the isla nd ha d the Sulta n a s the he a d o f sta te . No w, it’ s a re p ub lic : g . Sm a ll sa ving s a nd c re d it c o o p e ra tive s in the rura l a re a s ha ve he lp e d in re d uc ing p o ve rty: h. A la nd lo c ke d c o untry with a mo na rc hy:
Exercises80 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s 2. Whic h a m o ng the fo llo wing sta te m e nts a b o ut So uth Asia is wro ng ? a) All the c o untrie s in So uth Asia a re d e m o c ra tic . b) Ba ng la d e sh a nd Ind ia ha ve sig ne d a n a g re e me nt o n rive r-wa te r sha ring . c ) SAFTA wa s sig ne d a t the 12th SAARC Sum m it in Isla m a b a d . d ) The US a nd C hina p la y a n influe ntia l ro le in So uth Asia n p o litic s. 3. Wha t a re so m e o f the c o m m o na litie s a nd d iffe re nc e s b e tw e e n Ba ng la d e sh a nd Pa kista n in the ir d e m o c ra tic e xp e rie nc e s? 4. List thre e c ha lle ng e s to d e m o c ra c y in Ne p a l. 5. Na m e the p rinc ip a l p la ye rs in the e thnic c o nflic t in Sri La nka . Ho w d o yo u a sse ss the p ro sp e c ts o f the re so lutio n o f this c o nflic t? 6. Me ntio n so me o f the re c e nt a g re e me nts b e twe e n Ind ia a nd Pa kista n. C a n we b e sure tha t the two c o untrie s a re we ll o n the ir wa y to a frie nd ly re la tio nship ? 7. Me ntio n two a re a s e a c h o f c o o p e ra tio n a nd d isa g re e me nt b e twe e n Ind ia a nd Ba ng la d e sh? 8. Ho w a re the e xte rna l p o we rs influe nc ing b ila te ra l re la tio ns in So uth Asia ? Ta ke a ny o ne e xa m p le to illustra te yo ur p o int. 9. Write a sho rt no te o n the ro le a nd the lim ita tio ns o f SAARC a s a fo rum fo r fa c ilita ting e c o no m ic c o o p e ra tio n a m o ng the So uth Asia n c o untrie s. 10. Ind ia ’ s ne ig hb o urs o fte n think tha t the Ind ia n g o ve rnm e nt trie s to d o mina te a nd inte rfe re in the d o me stic a ffa irs o f the sma lle rc o untrie s o f the re g io n. Is this a c o rre c t im p re ssio n?
C ha p te r 6 Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns O VERVIEW This is the Unite d Na tio ns’ lo g o . The e mb le m ha s a wo rld ma p with o live b ra nc he s a ro und it, sig nifying wo rld p e a c e . In this chapter we shall discuss C re dit : www.un.o rg the role of international organisations after the collapse of the Soviet Union. We shall examine how, in this emerging world, there were calls for the restructuring of international organisations to cope with various new challenges including the rise of US power. The potential reform of the United Nations Security Council is an interesting case of the reform process and its difficulties. We then turn to India’s involvement in the UN and its view of Security Council reforms. The chapter closes by asking if the UN can play any role in dealing with a world dominated by one superpower. In this chapter we also look at some other trans- national organisations that are playing a crucial role.
82 WHY INTERNATIO NAL C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s Tha t’ s w ha t the y sa y O RG ANISATIO NS? “Talking shop? Yes, there are a b o ut the a lot of speeches and meetings at p a rlia m e nt to o — Read the two cartoons on this the U.N., especially during the a ta lking sho p . Do e s page. Both the cartoons comment annual sessions of the General it me a n tha t we on the ineffectiveness of the Assembly. But as Churchill put it, ne e d ta lking sho p s? United Nations Organisation, jaw-jaw is better than war-war. usually referred to as the UN, in Isn’t it better to have one place the Lebanon crisis in 2006. Both where all… countries in the world the cartoons represent the kind of can get together, bore each other opinions that we often hear about sometimes with their words rather the UN. than bore holes into each other on the battlefield?” — Shashi Tharoor, On the other hand, we also the former UN Under-Secretary- find that the UN is generally General for Communications and regarded as the most important Public Information. international organisation in today’s world. In the eyes of many These two quotes suggest people all over the world, it is something important. International indispensable and represents the organisations are not the answer great hope of humanity for peace to everything, but they are and progress. Why do we then important. International organi- need organisations like the UN? sations help with matters of war Let us hear two insiders: and peace. They also help countries cooperate to make “The United Nations was not better living conditions for us all. created to take humanity to heaven, but to save it from hell.” Countries have conflicts and — Dag Hammarskjold, the UN’s differences with each other. That second Secretary-General. does not necessarily mean they must go to war to deal with their © Ha rry Ha rriso n, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . © Pe ta r Pisme stro vic , C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . During June 2006, Isra e l a tta c ke d Le b a no n, sa ying tha t it wa s ne c e ssa ry to c o ntro l the milita nt g ro up c a lle d He zb o lla h. La rg e numb e rs o f c ivilia ns we re kille d a nd ma ny p ub lic b uilding s a nd e ve n re side ntia l a re a s c a me unde r Isra e li b o mb a rdme nt. The UN p a sse d a re so lutio n o n this o nly in Aug ust a nd the Isra e l a rmy withdre w fro m the re g io n o nly in Oc to b e r. Bo th the se c a rto o ns c o mme nt o n the ro le o f the UN a nd its Se c re ta ry-G e ne ra l in this e p iso de .
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 83 antagonisms. They can, instead, IMF IMF discuss contentious issues and find peaceful solutions; indeed, The Inte rna tio na l Mo ne ta ry Fund even though this is rarely noticed, (IMF) is a n inte rna tio na l o rg a n- most conflicts and differences are isa tio n th a t o v e rse e s th o se resolved without going to war. The fina nc ia l institutio ns a nd re g ula - role of an international tio ns tha t a c t a t the inte rna tio na l organisation can be important in le ve l. The IMF ha s 184 me mb e rs c o untrie s, b ut this context. An international the y d o no t e njo y a n e q ua l sa y. The to p te n organisation is not a super-state c o untrie s ha ve 55 p e r c e nt o f the vo te s. The y with authority over its members. a re the G -8 me mb e rs (the US, Ja p a n, G e rma ny, It is created by and responds to Fra nc e , the UK, Ita ly, C a na d a a nd Russia ), Sa ud i states. It comes into being when Ara b ia a nd C hina . The US a lo ne ha s 17.4 p e r states agree to its creation. Once c e nt vo ting rig hts. created, it can help member states resolve their problems peacefully. Unfortunately, recognising the need for cooperation and actually International organisations cooperating are two different are helpful in another way. things. Nations can recognise the Nations can usually see that there need to cooperate but cannot are some things they must do always agree on how best to do so, together. There are issues that are how to share the costs of so challenging that they can only cooperating, how to make sure be dealt with when everyone that the benefits of cooperating are works together. Disease is an justly divided, and how to ensure example. Some diseases can only that others do not break their end be eradicated if everyone in the of the bargain and cheat on an world cooperates in inoculating or agreement. An international vaccinating their populations. Or organisation can help produce take global warming and information and ideas about how its effects. As atmospheric to cooperate. It can provide temperatures rise because of the mechanisms, rules and a spread of certain chemicals called bureaucracy, to help members have chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), there more confidence that costs will be is a danger that sea levels will also shared properly, that the benefits rise, thereby submerging many coastal areas of the world Ma ke a list o f issue s o r including huge cities. Of course, p ro b le ms (o the r tha n the each country can try to find its o ne s me ntio ne d in the own solution to the effects of te xt) tha t c a nno t b e global warming. But in the end a ha nd le d b y a ny o ne more effective approach is to stop c o untry a nd re q uire a n the warming itself. This requires inte rna tio na l o rg a nisa tio n. at least all of the major industrial powers to cooperate.
84 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s FOUN DI N G OF THE UN I TED N ATI ON S government? We shall try to answer this question at the end 1941Aug ust: Sig ning o f the Atla ntic C ha rte rb y the USPre sid e nt of the chapter. Fra nklin D. Ro o se ve lt a nd British PM Winsto n S. C hurc hill EVO LUTIO N O F THE UN 1942 Ja nua ry: 26 Allie d na tio ns fig hting a g a inst the Axis Po we rs me e t in Wa shing to n, D.C ., to sup p o rt the Atla ntic The First World War encouraged C ha rte r a nd sig n the ‘ De c la ra tio n b y Unite d Na tio ns’ the world to invest in an international organisation to deal 1943 De c e m b e r: Te hra n C o nfe re nc e De c la ra tio n o f the with conflict. Many believed that Thre e Po we rs (US, Brita in a nd So vie t Unio n) such an organisation would help the world to avoid war. As a result, 1 9 4 5 Fe b rua ry : Ya lta C o nfe re nc e o f the ‘ Big Thre e ’ the League of Nations was born. (Ro o se ve lt, C hurc hilla nd Sta lin) d e c id e s to o rg a nise a Unite d However, despite its initial Na tio ns c o nfe re nc e o n the p ro p o se d wo rld o rg a nisa tio n success, it could not prevent the Second World War (1939-45). April- Ma y: The 2-m o nth lo ng Unite d Na tio ns C o nfe re nc e o n Many more people died and were Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio n a t Sa n Fra nc isc o wounded in this war than ever before. 1945 June 26: Sig ning o f the UN C ha rte r b y 50 na tio ns (Po la nd sig ne d o n O c to b e r 15; so the UN ha s 51 o rig ina l The UN was founded as a fo und ing m e m b e rs) successor to the League of Nations. It was established in 1945 O c to b e r 24: the UN wa s fo und e d (he nc e O c to b e r 24 is 1945 immediately after the c e le b ra te d a s UN Da y) The US O ffic e o f Wa r Info rma tio n 1945 O c to b e r 30: Ind ia jo ins the UN c re a te d the a b o ve p o ste r during the Se c o nd Wo rld Wa r a s p e r the will be fairly divided, and that once De c la ra tio n b y Unite d Na tio ns o f 1942. a member joins an agreement it The p o ste r fe a ture s the fla g s o f a ll will honour the terms and na tio ns tha t we re p a rt o f the Allie d conditions of the agreement. Fo rc e s. It re fle c ts the b e llig e re nt o rig ins o f the UN. With the end of the Cold War, we can see that the UN may have a slightly different role. As the United States and its allies emerged victorious, there was concern amongst many governments and peoples that the Western countries led by the US would be so powerful that there would be no check against their wishes and desires. Can the UN serve to promote dialogue and discussion with the US in particular, and could it limit the power of the American
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 85 Ada p te d fro m http ://www.ne wint.o rg /issue 375/p ic s/un-ma p -b ig .g if
86 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s Se a rc h fo r a t Second World War. The 2007. He is the first Asian to hold le a st o ne ne ws organisation was set up through the post since 1971. ite m a b o ut the the signing of the United Nations a c tivitie s o f Charter by 51 states. It tried to The UN consists of many e a c h o f the achieve what the League could not different structures and agencies. UN a g e nc ie s between the two world wars. The War and peace and differences me ntio ne d o n UN’s objective is to prevent between member states are this p a g e . international conflict and to discussed in the General facilitate cooperation among Assembly as well as the Security C o ld Wa r o r no states. It was founded with the Council. Social and economic C o ld Wa r, o ne hope that it would act to stop the issues are dealt with by many re fo rm is ne e d e d conflicts between states escalating agencies including the World a b o ve a ll. O nly into war and, if war broke out, to Health Organisation (WHO), the d e mo c ra tic le a d e rs limit the extent of hostilities. United Nations Development sho uld b e a llo we d Furthermore, since conflicts often Programme (UNDP), the United to re p re se nt the ir arose from the lack of social and Nations Human Rights Commision c o untrie s in the UN. economic development, the UN (UNHRC), the United Nations High Ho w c a n the y a llo w was intended to bring countries Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), d ic ta to rs to sp e a k in together to improve the prospects the United Nations Children’s Fund the na me o f the of social and economic (UNICEF), and the United Nations p e o p le o f the ir development all over the world. Educational, Scientific, and c o untry? Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), By 2006, the UN had 192 among others. member states. These includeed almost all independent states. In REFO RM O F THE UN AFTER the UN General Assembly, all members have one vote each. In THE C O LD WAR the UN Security Council, there are five permanent members. These Reform and improvement are are: the United States, Russia, the fundamental to any organisation United Kingdom, France and to serve the needs of a changing China. These states were selected environment. The UN is no as permanent members as they exception. In recent years, there were the most powerful have been demands for reform of immediately after the Second the world body. However, there is World War and because they little clarity and consensus on the constituted the victors in the War. nature of reform. The UN’s most visible public Two basic kinds of reforms figure, and the representative face the UN: reform of the head, is the Secretary-General. organisation’s structures and The present Secretary-General is processes; and a review of the Ban Ki-Moon from South Korea. issues that fall within the He is the eighth Secretary-General jurisdiction of the organisation. of the UN. He took over as the Almost everyone is agreed that Secretary-General on 1 January both aspects of reform are
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 87 necessary. What they cannot agree UN SECRETARI ES- GEN ERAL on is precisely what is to be done, how it is to be done, and when it is Tryg ve Lie (1946-1952) No rwa y; la wye r a nd to be done. fo re ig n m iniste r; w o rke d fo r c e a se fire b e tw e e n Ind ia a nd Pa kista n o n Ka shm ir; On the reform of structures c ritic ise d fo r his fa ilure to q uic kly e nd the and processes, the biggest Ko re a n wa r; So vie t Unio n o p p o se d se c o nd discussion has been on the te rm fo r him; re sig ne d fro m the p o st. functioning of the Security Council. Related to this has been Da g Ha m m a rskjö ld (1953-1961) Sw e d e n; the demand for an increase in the Ec o no mist a nd la wye r; wo rke d fo rre so lving UN Security Council’s permament th e Su e z C a n a l d isp u te a n d th e and non-permanent membership d e c o lo nisa tio n o f Afric a ; a w a rd e d No b e l so that the realities of Pe a c e Prize p o sthum o usly in 1961 fo r his contemporary world politics are e ffo rts to se ttle the C o ng o c risis; So vie t Unio n better reflected in the structure of a nd Fra nc e c ritic ise d his ro le in Afric a . the organisation. In particular, there are proposals to increase U Tha nt( 1961-1971) Burm a ( Mya nm a r) ; membership from Asia, Africa and te a c he ra nd d ip lo ma t; wo rke d fo rre so lving South America. Beyond this, the the C ub a n Missile C risis a nd e nd ing the US and other Western countries C o n g o c risis; e sta b lish e d th e UN want improvements in the UN’s Pe a c e ke e p ing Fo rc e in C yp rus; c ritic ise d budgetary procedures and its the US d uring the Vie tna m Wa r. administration. Kurt Wa ldhe im (1972-1981) Austria ; d ip lo ma t On the issues to be given greater a nd fo re ig n ministe r; ma d e e ffo rts to re so lve priority or to be brought within the the p ro b le m s o f Na m ib ia a nd Le b a no n; jurisdiciton of the UN, some o ve rsa w the re lie f o p e ra tio n in Ba ng la d e sh; countries and experts want the C hina b lo c ke d his b id fo r a third te rm. organisation to play a greater or more effective role in peace and Ja vie r Pe re z d e C ue lla r(1982-1991) Pe ru; security missions, while others la wye r a nd d ip lo ma t; wo rke d fo r p e a c e in want its role to be confined to C yp rus, A fg ha nista n a nd El Sa lv a d o r; development and humanitarian me d ia te d b e twe e n Brita in a nd Arg e ntina work (health, education, a fte r the Fa lkla nd s Wa r; ne g o tia te d fo r the environment, population control, ind e p e nd e nc e o f Na mib ia . human rights, gender and social justice). Bo utro s Bo utro s- G ha li(1992-1996) Eg yp t; d ip lo m a t, jurist, fo re ig n m iniste r; issue d a Let us look at both sets of re p o rt, An Ag e nda fo r Pe a c e ; c o nd uc te d reforms, with an emphasis on a suc c e ssful UN o p e ra tio n in Mo za mb iq ue ; reform of the structures and b la me d fo rthe UN fa ilure s in Bo snia , So ma lia processes. a nd Rwa nd a ; d ue to se rio us d isa g re e me nts, the US b lo c ke d a se c o nd te rm fo r him. The UN was established in 1945 immediately after the Ko fi A . A nna n ( 1997-2006) G ha na ; UN Second World War. The way it was o ffic ia l; c re a te d the G lo b a l Fund to fig ht AIDS, Tub e rc ulo sis a nd Ma la ria ; d e c la re d the US-le d inva sio n o f Ira q a s a n ille g a l a c t; e sta b lishe d the Pe a c e b uild ing C o mmissio n a nd the Hum a n Rig hts C o unc il in 2005; a wa rd e d the 2001 No b e l Pe a c e Prize Pho to C re d it: www.un.o rg
88 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s UN60: A Time fo rRe ne wa l C re dit: www.un.o rg terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, environmental organised and the way it degradation, epidemics). functioned reflected the realities of world politics after the Second In this situation, in 1989, as World War. After the Cold War, the Cold War was ending, the those realities are different. Here question facing the world was: is are some of the changes that have the UN doing enough? Is it occurred: equipped to do what is required? What should it be doing? And The Soviet Union has how? What reforms are necessary collapsed. to make it work better? For the past decade and a half, member The US is the strongest power. states have been trying to find satisfactory and practical answers The relationship between to these questions. Russia, the successor to the Soviet Union, and the US is REFO RM O F STRUC TURES A ND much more cooperative. PRO C ESSES China is fast emerging as a great power, and India also is While the case for reform has growing rapidly. widespread support, getting agreement on what to do is The economies of Asia are difficult. Let us examine the growing at an unprecedented debate over reform of the UN rate. Security Council. In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a Many new countries have resolution. The resolution joined the UN (as they became reflected three main complaints: independent from the Soviet Union or former communist The Security Council no longer states in eastern Europe). represents contemporary political realities. A whole new set of challenges confronts the world (genocide, Its decisions reflect only civil war, ethnic conflict, Western values and interests and are dominated by a few powers. It lacks equitable representation. In view of these growing demands for the restructuring of the UN, on 1 January 1997, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how the
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 89 UN should be reformed. How, for Wo rld Ba nk WO RLD BANK instance, should new Security Council members be chosen? The Wo rld Ba nk w a s c re a te d im m e d ia te ly a fte r the Se c o nd In the years since then, the Wo rld Wa r in 1945. Its a c tivitie s following are just some of the a re fo c use d o n the d e ve lo p ing criteria that have been proposed c o untrie s. It w o rks fo r hum a n for new permanent and non- d e ve lo p me nt (e d uc a tio n, he a lth), a g ric ulture permanent members of the a nd rura ld e ve lo p me nt (irrig a tio n, rura lse rvic e s), Security Council. A new member, e nviro nme nta l p ro te c tio n (p o llutio n re d uc tio n, it has been suggested, should be: e sta b lish in g a n d e n fo rc in g re g u la tio n s) , infra struc ture ( ro a d s, urb a n re g e ne ra tio n, A major economic power e le c tric ity) a nd g o ve rna nc e (a nti-c o rrup tio n, d e ve lo p me nt o f le g a l institutio ns). It p ro vid e s A major military power lo a ns a nd g ra nts to the me mb e r-c o untrie s. In this wa y, it e xe rc ise s e no rmo us influe nc e o n the A substantial contributor to e c o no mic p o lic ie s o f d e ve lo p ing c o untrie s. It is the UN budget o fte n c ritic ise d fo r se tting the e c o no m ic a g e nd a o f the p o o re r na tio ns, a tta c hing A big nation in terms of its string e nt c o nd itio ns to its lo a ns a nd fo rc ing fre e population ma rke t re fo rms. A nation that respects Clearly, each of these criteria democracy and human rights has some validity. Governments saw advantages in some criteria A country that would and disadvantages in others make the Council more depending on their interests and representative of the world’s aspirations. Even if they had no diversity in terms of desire to be members themselves, geography, economic systems, countries could see that the and culture criteria were problematic. How big an economic or military power did you have to be to qualify for Security Council membership? What level of budget contribution would enable a state to buy its way into the Council? Was a big population an asset or a liability for a country trying to play a bigger role in the world? If respect for democracy and human rights was the criteria, countries with excellent records would be in line to be members; but would they be effective as Council members?
90 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s STEPS members of the developing world? Divid e the c la ss into six g ro up s. Ea c h g ro up is to Even here, there are difficulties. The developing world consists of fo llo w o ne o f the six c rite ria (o r mo re if the re a re countries at many different levels m o re sug g e stio ns) liste d he re fo r p e rm a ne nt of development. What about me mb e rship o f the UN Se c urity C o unc il. culture? Should different cultures or ‘civilisations’ be given Ea c h g ro up is to m a ke its o w n list o f the representation in a more balanced way? How does one divide the p e rm a n e n t m e m b e rs b a se d o n its g iv e n world by civilisations or cultures c rite rio n ( e .g . th e g ro u p w o rkin g o n th e given that nations have so many ‘ p o p ula tio n’ c rite rio n will find o ut the whic h a re cultural streams within their five mo st p o p ulo us c o untrie s). borders? Ea c h g ro up c a n ma ke a p re se nta tio n o f the ir A related issue was to change the nature of membership re c o m m e nd e d list a nd re a so ns w hy the ir altogether. Some insisted, for c rite rio n sho uld b e a c c e p te d . instance, that the veto power of the five permanent members be Id e a s fo r the Te a c he r abolished. Many perceived the veto to be in conflict with the Allo w the stud e nts to o p t fo rthe g ro up who se c rite rio n the y concept of democracy and sovereign equality in the UN and the mse lve s fa vo ur. thought that the veto was no longer right or relevant. C o m p a re a ll the lists a nd se e ho w m a ny na m e s a re In the Security Council, there c o mmo n a nd ho w o fte n Ind ia fe a ture s. are five permanent members and ten non-permanent members. The Ke e p so me time fo r a n o p e n e nd e d d isc ussio n o n whic h Charter gave the permanent members a privileged position to c rite rio n sho uld b e a d o p te d . bring about stability in the world after the Second World War. The Furthermore, how was the main privileges of the five matter of representation to be permanent members are resolved? Did equitable permanency and the veto power. representation in geographical The non-permanent members terms mean that there should be serve for only two years at a time one seat each from Asia, Africa, and give way after that period to and Latin America and the newly elected members. A country Caribbean? Should the cannot be re-elected immediately representation, on the other hand, after completing a term of two be by regions or sub-regions years. The non-permanent (rather than continents)? Why members are elected in a manner should the issue of equitable so that they represent all representation be decided by continents of the world. geography? Why not by levels of economic development? Why not, in other words, give more seats to
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 91 Most importantly, the non- JURISDIC TIO N O F THE UN permanent members do not have the veto power. What is the veto The question of membership is a Tha t’ s ve ry unfa ir! It’ s power? In taking decisions, the serious one. In addition, though, a c tua lly the we a ke r Security Council proceeds by there are more substantial issues c o untrie s who ne e d voting. All members have one vote. before the world. As the UN a ve to , no t tho se However, the permanent members completed 60 years of its who a lre a d y ha ve so can vote in a negative manner so existence, the heads of all the muc h p o we r. that even if all other permanent member-states met in September and non-permanent members 2005 to celebrate the anniversary Wha t a re vote for a particular decision, any and review the situation. The the permanent member’s negative leaders in this meeting decided Mille nnium vote can stall the decision. This that the following steps should be De ve lo pme nt negative vote is the veto. taken to make the UN more G o a ls? relevant in the changing context. While there has been a move to abolish or modify the veto Creation of a Peacebuilding system, there is also a realisation Commission that the permanent members are unlikely to agree to such a reform. Acceptance of the responsibility Also, the world may not be ready of the international community for such a radical step even in case of failures of national though the Cold War is over. governments to protect their Without the veto, there is the own citizens from atrocities danger as in 1945 that the great powers would lose interest in the Establishment of a Human world body, that they would do Rights Council (operational what they pleased outside it, and since 19 June 2006) that without their support and involvement the body would be Agreements to achieve the ineffective. Millennium Development Goals Condemnation of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations Creation of a Democracy Fund An agreement to wind up the Trusteeship Council It is not hard to see that these are equally contentious issues for the UN. What should a Peacebuilding Commission do? There are any number of conflicts all over the world. Which ones should it intervene in? Is it possible or even desirable for it to intervene
92 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s © Pa t Ba g le y, C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . in each and every conflict? Similarly, what is the responsibility The huma nita ria n c risis in Da rfur, Suda n sinc e 2003 ha s of the international community in a ttra c te d e mp ty p ro mise s b y the Inte rna tio na l C o mmunity. dealing with atrocities? What are Ho w do yo u think the UN c a n inte rve ne in situa tio ns like this? human rights and who should Wo uld tha t re q uire a c ha ng e in its jurisdic tio n? determine the level of human rights violations and the course of action to be taken when they are violated? Given that so many countries are still part of the developing world, how realistic is it for the UN to achieve an ambitious set of goals such as those listed in the Millennium Development Goals? Can there be agreement on a definition of terrorism? How shall the UN use funds to promote democracy? And so on. MAP O F UN PEAC EKEEPING O PERATIO NS MISSIO NS A DMINISTERED BY THE DEPA RTMENT O F PEA C EKEEPING O PERA TIO NS Sie rra We ste rn Sud a n 2005- C yp rus 1964- Le b a no n 1978- Afg ha nista n* Le o ne * Sa ha ra 1991- Ko so vo 1999- 2002- 2006- G e o rg ia Isra e l a nd 1993- Syria 1974- Ind ia a nd Pa kista n 1949- Ha iti C ô te d 'Ivo ire Ethio p ia a nd 2004- 2004- Eritre a 2000- Lib e ria DR C o ng o Burund i Mid d le Ea st Timo r 2003- 1999- 2004- Ea st 1948- 2006- * p o litic a l o r p e a c e b uild ing missio n Ada p te d fro m http ://www.un.o rg /de p ts/dhl/ma p lib /fla g .html. Sho uld the UN inc re a se its p e a c e ke e p ing a c tivitie s? Pla c e a sta r o n the p a rts o f the wo rld whe re yo u wo uld like to se e the UN p e a c e ke e p ing fo rc e s.
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 93 INDIA AND THE UN REFORMS WTO WTO India has supported the The Wo rld Tra d e O rg a nisa tio n restructuring of the UN on several ( W TO ) is a n in te rn a tio n a l grounds. It believes that a o rg a nisa tio n whic h se ts the rule s strengthened and revitalised UN is fo rg lo b a l tra d e . This o rg a nisa tio n desirable in a changing world. w a s se t u p in 1 9 9 5 a s th e India also supports an enhanced suc c e sso r to the G e ne ra l Ag re e me nt o n Tra d e role for the UN in promoting a nd Ta riffs (G ATT) c re a te d a fte r the Se c o nd development and cooperation Wo rld Wa r. It ha s 150 me mb e rs. Alld e c isio ns a re among states. India believes that ta ke n una nimo usly b ut the ma jo r e c o no mic development should be central to p o w e rs suc h a s the US, EU a nd Ja p a n ha ve the UN’s agenda as it is a vital ma na g e d to use the WTO to fra me rule s o f tra d e precondition for the maintenance to a d va nc e the iro wn inte re sts. The d e ve lo p ing of international peace and security. c o untrie s o fte n c o m p la in o f no n-tra nsp a re nt p ro c e d ure s a nd b e ing p ushe d a ro und b y b ig One of India’s major concerns p o we rs. has been the composition of the Security Council, which has India supports an increase in Do we wa nt to remained largely static while the the number of both permanent o p p o se the b o ssism UN General Assembly member- and non-permanent members. Its o f the b ig five o r d o ship has expanded considerably. representatives have argued that we wa nt to jo in the m India considers that this has the activities of the Security a nd b e c o me harmed the representative Council have greatly expanded in a no the r b o ss? character of the Security Council. the past few years. The success of It also argues that an expanded the Security Council’s actions Council, with more representation, depends upon the political will enjoy greater support in the support of the international world community. community. Any plan for restructuring of the Security We should keep in mind that Council should, therefore, be the membership of the UN broad-based. For example, the Security Council was expanded Security Council should have from 11 to 15 in 1965. But, there more developing countries in it. was no change in the number of permanent members. Since then, Not surprisingly, India itself the size of the Council has also wishes to be a permanent remained stationary. The fact member in a restructured UN. remains that the overwhelming India is the second most populous majority of the UN General country in the world comprising Assembly members now are almost one-fifth of the world developing countries. Therefore, population. Moreover, India is also India argues that they should also the world’s largest democracy. have a role in shaping the India has participated in virtually decisions in the Security Council all of the initiatives of the UN. Its which affect them. role in the UN’s peacekeeping
94 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s IA EA IA EA think that its difficulties with Pakistan will make India The Inte rna tio na l Ato m ic Ene rg y ineffective as a permanent Ag e nc y (IAEA) wa s e sta b lishe d in member. Yet others feel that if 1 9 5 7 . It c a m e in to b e in g to India is included, then other im p le m e nt US Pre sid e nt Dw ig ht emerging powers will have to be Eise nho w e r’ s “ Ato m s fo r Pe a c e ” accommodated such as Brazil, p ro p o sa l. It se e ks to p ro mo te the p e a c e ful use o f Germany, Japan, perhaps even nuc le a r e ne rg y a nd to p re ve nt its use fo r milita ry South Africa, whom they oppose. p urp o se s. IAEA te a m s re g ula rly insp e c t nuc le a r There are those who feel that fa c ilitie s a ll o ve r the w o rld to e nsure tha t c ivilia n Africa and South America must be re a c to rs a re no t b e ing use d fo r milita ry p urp o se s. represented in any expansion of the permanent membership since Wha t ha p p e ns if the efforts is a long and substantial those are the only continents not UN invite s so me o ne one. The country’s economic to have representation in the to Ne w Yo rk b ut the emergence on the world stage is present structure. Given these US d o e s no t issue another factor that perhaps concerns, it may not be very easy visa ? justifies India’s claim to a for India or anyone else to become permanent seat in the Security a permanent member of the UN in Council. India has also made the near future. regular financial contributions to the UN and never faltered on its THE UN IN A UNIPO LAR payments. India is aware that permanent membership of the WO RLD Security Council also has symbolic importance. It signifies Among the concerns about the a country’s growing importance in reform and restructuring of the world affairs. This greater status UN has been the hope of some is an advantage to a country in countries that changes could help the conduct of its foreign policy: the UN cope better with a unipolar the reputation for being powerful word in which the US was the makes you more influential. most powerful country without any serious rivals. Can the UN Despite India’s wish to be a serve as a balance against US permanent veto-wielding member dominance? Can it help maintain of the UN, some countries a dialogue between the rest of the question its inclusion. world and the US and prevent Neighbouring Pakistan, with America from doing whatever it which India has troubled wants? relations, is not the only country that is reluctant to see India US power cannot be easily become a permanent veto member checked. First of all, with the of the Security Council. Some disappearance of the Soviet countries, for instance, are Union, the US stands as the only concerned about India’s nuclear superpower. Its military and weapons capabilities. Others economic power allow it to ignore
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns AMNESTY INTERNATIO NAL 95 the UN or any other international © Mike La ne , C a g le C a rto o ns Inc . organisation. A m ne sty Secondly, within the UN, the Inte rna tio na l influence of the US is considerable. As the single largest Amne sty Inte rna tio na l is a n NG O contributor to the UN, the US has th a t c a m p a ig n s fo r th e unmatched financial power. The p ro te c tio n o f hum a n rig hts a ll fact that the UN is physically o v e r th e w o rld . It p ro m o te s located within the US territory re sp e c t fo r a ll the huma n rig hts in the Unive rsa l gives Washington additional De c la ra tio n o f Hum a n Rig hts. It b e lie ve s tha t sources of influence. The US also huma n rig hts a re inte rd e p e nd e nt a nd ind ivisib le . has many nationals in the UN It p re p a re s a nd p ub lishe s re p o rts o n huma n rig hts. bureaucracy. In addition, with its G o ve rnme nts a re no t a lwa ys ha p p y with the se veto power the US can stop any re p o rts sinc e a m a jo r fo c us o f Am ne sty is the moves that it finds annoying or m isc o n d u c t o f g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s. damaging to its interests or the Ne ve rthe le ss, the se re p o rts p la y a n imp o rta nt ro le interests of its friends and allies. in re se a rc h a nd a d vo c a c y o n huma n rig hts. The power of the US and its veto within the organisation also ensure that Washington has a considerable degree of say in the choice of the Secretary General of the UN. The US can and does use this power to “split” the rest of the world and to reduce opposition to its policies. The UN is not therefore a great balance to the US. Nevertheless, in a unipolar world in which the US is dominant, the UN can and has served to bring the US and the rest of the world into discussions over various issues. US leaders, in spite of their frequent criticism of the UN, do see the organisation as serving a purpose in bringing together over 190 nations in dealing with conflict and social and economic development. As for the rest of the world, the UN provides an arena in which it is possible to modify US attitudes and policies. While the rest of the world is rarely
96 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s HUMAN RIG HTS WATC H Hum a n Rig hts Wa tc h The UN is an imperfect body, but without it the world would be Hum a n Rig hts Wa tc h is a no the r worse off. Given the growing inte rna tio na l NG O invo lve d in connections and links between re se a rc h a n d a d v o c a c y o n societies and issues—what we hum a n rig hts. It is the la rg e st often call ‘interdependence’—it is in te rn a tio n a l h u m a n rig h ts hard to imagine how more than o rg a nisa tio n in the US. It d ra ws the g lo b a l me d ia ’ s seven billion people would live a tte ntio n to hum a n rig hts a b use s. It he lp e d in together without an organisation b u ild in g in te rn a tio n a l c o a litio n s like th e such as the UN. Technology c a mp a ig ns to b a n la nd mine s, to sto p the use o f promises to increase planetary c hild so ld ie rs a nd to e sta b lish the Inte rna tio na l interdependence, and therefore C rimina l C o urt. the importance of the UN will only increase. Peoples and govern- united against Washington, and ments will have to find ways of while it is virtually impossible to supporting and using the UN and “balance” US power, the UN does other international organisations provide a space within which in ways that are consistent with arguments against specific US their own interests and the attitudes and policies are heard interests of the international and compromises and community more broadly. concessions can be shaped. Exercises 1. Ma rk c o rre c t o r wro ng a g a inst e a c h o f the fo llo wing sta te me nts b e lo w a b o ut the ve to p o we r. a . O nly the p e rma ne nt me mb e rs o f the Se c urity C o unc il p o sse ss the ve to p o we r. b . It’ s a kind o f ne g a tive p o we r. c . The Se c re ta ry-G e ne ra l use s this p o we r whe n no t sa tisfie d with a ny d e c isio n. d . O ne ve to c a n sta ll a Se c urity C o unc il re so lutio n. 2. Ma rk c o rre c t o r wro ng a g a inst e a c h o f the fo llo wing sta te me nts b e lo w tha t d e sc rib e the wa y the UN func tio ns. a . All se c urity a nd p e a c e re la te d issue s a re d e a lt w ith in the Se c urity C o unc il. b . Huma nita ria n p o lic ie s a re imp le me nte d b y the ma in o rg a ns a nd sp e c ia lise d a g e nc ie s sp re a d a c ro ss the g lo b e . c . Ha ving c o nse nsus a m o ng the five p e rm a ne nt m e m b e rs o n se c urity issue s is vita l fo r its imp le me nta tio n. d . The me mb e rs o f the G e ne ra l Asse mb ly a re a uto ma tic a lly the me mb e rs o f a llo the rp rinc ip a lo rg a ns a nd sp e c ia lise d a g e nc ie s o f the UN.
Inte rna tio na l O rg a nisa tio ns 97 3. Whic h a mo ng the fo llo wing wo uld g ive mo re we ig hta g e to Ind ia ’ s Exercises p ro p o sa l fo r p e rma ne nt me mb e rship in the Se c urity C o unc il? a . Nuc le a r c a p a b ility b . It ha s b e e n a me mb e r o f the UN sinc e its inc e p tio n c . It is lo c a te d in Asia d . Ind ia ’ s g ro wing e c o no mic p o we r a nd sta b le p o litic a l syste m 4. The UN a g e nc y c o nc e rne d with the sa fe ty a nd p e a c e ful use o f nuc le a r te c hno lo g y is: a . The UN C o mmitte e o n Disa rma me nt b . Inte rna tio na l Ato mic Ene rg y Ag e nc y c . UN Inte rna tio na l Sa fe g ua rd C o mmitte e d . No ne o f the a b o ve 5. WTO is se rv ing a s the suc c e sso r to w hic h o f the fo llo w ing o rg a nisa tio ns a . G e ne ra l Ag re e me nt o n Tra d e a nd Ta riffs b . G e ne ra l Arra ng e me nt o n Tra d e a nd Ta riffs c . Wo rld He a lth O rg a nisa tio n d . UN De ve lo p me nt Pro g ra mme 6. Fill in the b la nks. a . The p rime o b je c tive o f the UN is ___________________________ b . The hig he st func tio na ry o f the UN is c a lle d _________________ c . The UN Se c urity C o unc il ha s _____ p e rma ne nt a nd _____no n- p e rma ne nt me mb e rs. d . ______________________ is the p re se nt UN Se c re ta ry-G e ne ra l. 7. Ma tc h the p rinc ip a l o rg a ns a nd a g e nc ie s o f the UN w ith the ir func tio ns: 1. Ec o no mic a nd So c ia l C o unc il 2. Inte rna tio na l C o urt o f Justic e 3. Inte rna tio na l Ato mic Ene rg y Ag e nc y 4. Se c urity C o unc il 5. UN Hig h C o mmissio n fo r Re fug e e s 6. Wo rld Tra d e O rg a nisa tio n 7. Inte rna tio na l Mo ne ta ry Fund 8. G e ne ra lAsse mb ly 9. Wo rld He a lth O rg a nisa tio n 10. Se c re ta ria t
Exercises98 C o nte mp o ra ry Wo rld Po litic s a . O ve rse e s the g lo b a l fina nc ia l syste m b . Pre se rva tio n o f inte rna tio na l p e a c e a nd se c urity c . Lo o ks into the e c o no m ic a nd so c ia l w e lfa re o f the m e m b e r c o untrie s d . Sa fe ty a nd p e a c e ful use o f nuc le a r te c hno lo g y e . Re so lve s d isp ute s b e twe e n a nd a mo ng me mb e r c o untrie s f. Pro vid e s she lte r a nd me d ic a l he lp d uring e me rg e nc ie s g . De b a te s a nd d isc usse s g lo b a l issue s h. Ad ministra tio n a nd c o o rd ina tio n o f UN a ffa irs i. Pro vid ing g o o d he a lth fo r a ll j. Fa c ilita te s fre e tra d e a mo ng me mb e r c o untrie s 8. Wha t a re the func tio ns o f the Se c urity C o unc il? 9. As a c itize n o f Ind ia , ho w wo uld yo u sup p o rt Ind ia ’ s c a nd id a ture fo r the p e rm a ne nt m e m b e rship o f the Se c urity C o unc il? Justify yo ur p ro p o sa l. 10. C ritic a lly e va lua te the d iffic ultie s invo lve d in im p le m e nting the sug g e ste d re fo rms to re c o nstruc t the UN. 11. Tho ug h the UN ha s fa ile d in p re ve nting wa rs a nd re la te d m ise rie s, na tio ns p re fe r its c o ntinua tio n. Wha t ma ke s the UN a n ind isp e nsa b le o rg a nisa tio n? 12. ‘ Re fo rming the UN me a ns re struc turing o f the Se c urity C o unc il’ . Do yo u a g re e w ith this sta te m e nt? G ive a rg um e nts fo r o r a g a inst this p o sitio n.
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