The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital

1 By this we mean the capitalist who produces, whether in the domain of agriculture, or in that of industry or mining—in contradistinction to the merchant, banker, mere landed proprietor, etc., who do not produce. 2 From here on, vol. II ch. 5 (German ed.) CHAPTER EIGHT 1 “Rotation” is a term employed by Marx to describe the entire movement of capital from the moment of its outlay for means of production, labour power, etc., till the moment when it is recuperated after sale of the finished commodity. (Translator’s note.) 2 It will already have been observed by the reader that we substitute the word “manufacturers” for the more complicated expression “capitalist who produces.” To the class of manufacturers, in this sense of the word, therefore, landed proprietors &c., in so far as they produce, belong. 3 Note by Friedrich Engels: “How true this prophecy concerning the fate of the commercial proletariat—written in 1865—has proved to be, is clearly shown by the example of the hundreds of German clerks, who, well up in all branches of commercial work and knowing 3 or 4 languages, today (1894) in the City of London vainly offer their services for 25 shillings a week—a wage far less than that of a skilled machine-operator.”—A lacuna of 2 pages in the manuscript left by Marx indicates that he intended discussing this subject further. CHAPTER TEN 1 In modern English history, the commercial class properly so called and the trading towns are also politically reactionary, and allied with the landed and financial aristocracies against industrial capital. Compare, for instance, the political role of Liverpool with that of Manchester and Birmingham. English commercial capital and the English financial aristocracy have only recognised the complete supremacy of industrial capital since the repeal of the corn laws, etc. 2 “The inhabitants of the trading towns imported from richer countries more highly finished manufactured goods and expensive articles of luxury, and thus flattered the vanity of the large landowners, who greedily bought

these things and paid for them in the shape of large quantities of raw produce from their estates. Thus, at that time, the trade of a large part of Europe consisted in exchanging the raw produce of one country for the manufactured goods of industrially more advanced countries. As soon as this taste had become general, and caused a large demand, the merchants began, with a view to saving costs, to introduce similar manufactures into their own countries.” (Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, III, ch. 3.) CHAPTER TEN 3 How greatly predominant, in the development in Holland, and apart from other circumstances, the basis was which had been formed previously in the shape of fishery, manufacture, and agriculture—this fact was already pointed out by writers in the 18th century.—Contrary to the views formerly current, and according to which the extent and importance of Asiatic, ancient, and Middle Age trade were underestimated, it has become the fashion to greatly overestimate them. The best cure for this notion is to consider the English exports and imports at the beginning of the 18th century, and to compare them with those at the present time. And yet the former were incomparably larger than any of those of any older trading people. CHAPTER ELEVEN 1 The word “undertaker” is the exact translation of the German word “Unternehmer” and of the French “entrepreneur.” It was, to our knowledge, first introduced in this sense into the English vocabulary by Marshall in his Principles of Economics. The undertaker is the owner of an undertaking, who runs it at his own risk. Whether he himself possess the necessary working capital, or whether he has borrowed it from a financier (or money capitalist), is indifferent.—Translator’s Note. 2 In April 1861 the Civil War between the Northern and the Southern States broke out, caused by the question of slavery, which the Southern States wished to maintain. 3 EDITOR’S NOTE—It is worthy of remark that the founder of the Conservative Party in Prussia, Friedrich Julius Stahl (1802–1861),

expressed exactly the same idea in regard to the modern proletariat. If he has to rely on himself the proletarian will go to the wall; therefore has Providence in its wisdom appointed masters for him, to whom he ought, for reasons of gratitude and in his own interest to submit completely; the master has a right to claim remuneration for his labour of government. Die gegenwärtigen Parteien in Staat und Kirche (The present parties in State and Church. Written in 1850.) 20th lecture. 4 “In a case known to me, a bankrupt manufacturer became, after the crisis in 1868, wage labourer of his own former labourers. After the bankruptcy, the factory was taken over by a cooperative association of the latter, who appointed the ex-proprietor as manager.” (Note by Friedrich Engels.) 5 The City, or the Physiology of Business in London, 1845, p 82. CHAPTER TWELVE 1 “The necessity of employing everywhere the local coinage in commercial transactions, in which a settlement by means of coin was indispensable, arose from the great divergency of the coinages of the numerous princes and towns authorised to coin money, in respect of their standard of value. In order to effect cash payments, the merchants, when travelling to foreign markets, provided themselves with pure, uncoined silver and also with gold. In the same way, on starting on their return journey, they changed the local money paid over to them into uncoined silver or gold. The exchange of uncoined precious metal for local coinage, and vice versa, was thus a widespread and lucrative form of business.” (Hüllmann, Städtewesen des Mittelaliers, Bonn 1826–29, vol. I, p. 437.) 2 Coquelin, Le credit et les banques dans l’industrie, in Revue des Deux Mondes, 1842. 3 From here on vol. III, part 2, ch 29, German ed. CHAPTER THIRTEEN 1 Cf. notably vol II, ch. 18 21, 7 9, 13 17; vol III, part 1, ch. 15; vol. III, part 2 ch. 30; in addition to which, observations are scattered throughout all three volumes.

2 Extracted from vol. II, ch. 20, German ed. 3 We break off here—conformably with what we said in the introductory note to this chapter—Marx’s exposition of the subject, and we would refer the reader to the essay entitled The Essence of Marx’s Theory of Crises, published as a supplement to the present volume.—EDITOR’S NOTE.

THE LIFE AND TIMES OF KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS 1815 8 June In its Ninth Act, the Congress of Vienna creates the German Confederation consisting of the 1818 5 May Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and 1820 28 November thirty-two other Germanic states 1835 October 1836 Karl Marx is born in Trier, Province of the Lower Rhine, Prussia, to a lawyer, Heinrich Marx, and October his wife, Henriette 1838 1839 12 May Friedrich Engels is born in Barmen, Prussia to wealthy manufacturer, Friedrich Engels Sr., and 1840 7 February his wife, Elisabeth Marx enrolls in the University of Bonn to study law Marx becomes engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, the daughter of a liberal family in the Prussian nobility Marx transfers to the University of Berlin to study law Engels is sent to Bremen by his father to work in a commercial bank A republican rebellion in Paris takes control of the city hall, the National Assembly, and the Palace of Justice but lacking support, only holds them for a few hours Karl Schapper, along with others, form the

1841 German Workers Education Society in London to function as the public face of the radical League 1842 1 January of the Just 15 October Engels joins an artillery unit of the Prussian November Army and is deployed to Berlin 1843 Marx completes his doctoral thesis on the Phil- 17 March osophy of Nature and submits it to the faculty at the University of Jena where he is awarded a PhD October 1844 In Cologne, The Rheinische Zeitung is launched with an editorial committee that supports the 28 August Prussian government in Berlin, and though it 1845 3 February modifies its position through the year, it losses readership Engels begins to pen anonymous articles in Rheinische Zeitung Karl Marx is appointed to the editorial board of the Rheinische Zeitung Engels is sent to Manchester to clerk in a family- owned business there While in Manchester Engels meets Mary Burns, his companion for the next twenty years, and she shows him the squalid living conditions of workers in that part of England Though Marx’s stewardship has more than tripled the circulation of the Rheinische Zeitung, the government’s response to his writing is so threatening that he resigns so the paper might continue to publish Marx and his wife, Jenny, move to Paris Marx begins to write for Vorwärts! (Forward!) the paper of the utopian League of the Just Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels meet for the first time at the Café de la Régence in Paris Marx is expelled from Paris, and he moves to Brussels with his wife and family

April Engels joins Marx in Brussels May July Engels’s Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in 1846 England (The Conditions of the Working Class in 1847 20 January England) is published by Otto Wigand, Leipzig June Engels accompanies Marx on his first trip to England where they meet with leaders of the Summer socialist Chartist movement Fall November Marx & Engels begin writing for Deutsche 1848 14 January Brüsseler Zeitung while also forming the 22 January Communist Corresponding Committee 23 January February Karl Schapper of the London based, League of the Just, writes to Marx proposing a merger with the Brussels-based Communist Corresponding Committee Engels attends the London meeting of the League of the Just who, at his suggestion, change the name of the organization to the Communist League which Marx and Engels then join Friedrich Engels arrives in Paris from London Political gatherings being banned, Engels began to attend “banquets” which had become the place to discuss and organize political activities The Second Congress of the Communist League opens in London Parisian authorities ban a banquet that was planned to bring together divergent political factions opposed to the monarchy Riots break out in Paris as the re-scheduled banquet is banned for a second time, as Friedrich Engels looks on French Prime Minister Guizot resigns, and over fifty citizens are shot by troops defending government offices The Communist Manifesto is published in German by the London-based Worker’s

26 February Education Association without crediting Marx & 4 March Engels as authors 13 March 15 March The liberal opposition in France forms a 18 March provisional Second French Republic and calls for elections to the Assembly on 23 April 10 May 18 May Marx is expelled from Belgium and returns to 1 June Cologne with his family 23 June In Vienna demonstrations in the streets force the 26 June resignation of the First State Chancellor of the Austrian Empire, Prince Klemens von Metternich In Buda and Pest, riots break out on learning of Prince Metternich’s resignation The First Italian War of Independence begins with five days of fighting that drives Austrian forces from the city In Stockholm, March Unrest, a two-day rising in support of political reform is quelled with over fifteen casualties Serfdom in Hungary is abolished in response to the demonstrations in Buda and Pest Marx and Engels travel from Cologne to Baden and the Palatinate In Frankfurt, the newly elected National Assembly begins meeting to develop a modern constitution for a united Germany Having returned to Cologne, Marx & Engels become editors of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung: Organ der Demokratie and continue to critique the Prussian and Austrian governments which were succeeding in a counter-revolutionary campaign In Paris, the two-day June Days Uprising over the closing of the National Workshops begins French forces, numbering over 100,00, and under the command of General Louis-Eugène

4 November Cavaignac suppress the uprising resulting in over 1849 2 March 1,500 killed and 15,000 deported to Algeria 3 May France ratifies a new constitution that establishes 19 May the Second French Republic 13 June 25 July Marx refuses to turn over a Neue Rheinische August Zeitung writer to Prussian authorities at his home 10 November 1850 January In Dresden, six days of rebellion in favor of a constitutional monarchy end in failure June The Prussian government shuts down the Neue 1851 Rheinische Zeitung, and Marx leaves for London while Engels leave Cologne for Bavaria 2 December Engels, now in the Bavarian ruled Palatinate, joins the Willich Corps, an armed militia, with the aim of throwing the Prussians out of that region The Willich Corps, is defeated by the Prussians, and Engels leaves for Switzerland where he begins to write about his recent experiences Having been banned from most Northern European countries, Marx and his family take refuge in London Engels arrives in London Marx starts a monthly German-language magazine, Neue Rheinische Zeitung: Politsch- ökonomische Revue; edited in London, but printed in, and distributed from Hamburg Helen Macfarlane’s English translation of the Communist Manifesto, with the authorship of Marx & Engels credited for the first time, begins serialization in the Chartist magazine The Red Republican Engels, now in Manchester, is visited by his father, and is, at the risk of being cut-off from his family, convinced to take a position in the firm of Ermen & Engels in which his father is a partner France’s president, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte,

1852 21 December dissolves the National Assembly 1854 12 November President Louis-Napoléon wins a referendum 1856 21 November allowing him to serve another ten years 1860 2 December March Marx begins writing articles for the pro-abolition 1863 30 March New York Daily Tribune 1864 18 October 1867 24 October Seven members of the Communist League are 1869 7 January convicted of fomenting the 1848 rebellion in 1870 28 September Prussia at the Cologne Communist Trial 19 July President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte sponsors a resolution to create the Third French Empire President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, as Napoléon III, becomes Emperor of the French Empire The Crimean War begins pitting the United Kingdom, The Third French Empire, and the Ottoman Empire against Russia The Treaty of Paris is signed ending the Crimean War French and British troops enter Beijing’s Forbidden City The Chinese sign the Convention of Peking ending the Second Opium War Engels companion, Mary Burns, dies and Engels moves in with her sister, Lydia Marx & Engels are instrumental in founding the radical International Worker’s Association in London Marx & Engels’s Das Kapital: Erster Band. Buch I: Der Produktionsprocess des Kapitals is published by Verlag Otto Meissner, Hamburg Engels retires as a partner in Ermen and Engels Engels and his companion Lydia (Lizzie) Burns move to London Otto von Bismarck’s Ems Dispatch causes France

1871 2 September to declare War on Prussia, initiating the Franco- 4 September Prussian War 1873 26 February 1878 28 January Having suffered nine successive defeats, Emperor 1883 18 March Napoléon III abdicates 1884 10 May The Third French Republic is declared, and a 21 May Government of National Defense is established 30 May 16 September The Treaty of Versailles is signed, ending most Franco-Prussian hostilities 1 May 11 September The Siege of Paris ends with the city falling to 14 March Prussian forces The radical socialist Paris Commune forms and begins to govern Paris while the Third Republic rules the rest of France from the city of Tours. Karl Marx later refers to this an example of “the dictatorship of the proletariat.” The Treaty of Frankfurt ratifies the Treaty of Versailles and sets the boundary line between France and Germany Government troops begin to take back parts of Paris from the Commune The Paris Commune falls, and troops of the Third Republic restore order Prussian troops leave France after agreement is reached on the amount of French indemnity payments Engels’s Herrn Eugen Dührings Umwälzung der Wissenschaft (Herr Eugen Dühring’s Revolution in Science) is published in Leipzig The Exposition Universelle opens in Paris “Lizzie” Burns and Friedrich Engels are married shortly before her death Karl Marx dies Engels’s Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats (The Origin of

1 May the Family, Private Property and the State) is 1887 published in Zürich 1889 6 May In the U.S., the Federated Organization of Trades and Labor Unions announce its support for an eight-hour workday Engels’s The Conditions of the Working Class in England (in 1844) is first published by John W. Lovell, New York with a new preface by the author The Exposition Universelle opens in Paris showcasing the newly built Eiffel Tower and the recently opened Moulin Rouge 1891 1 May French troops fire on workers demonstrating for 28 November an eight-hour workday, killing nine, and wounding over twenty-five 1893 1 May The International Brotherhood of Electrical 1894 Workers is founded in St. Louis, Missouri 1895 5 August The World’s Fair opens in Chicago Engels completes Das Kapital Buch II: Der Cirkulationsprocess des Kapitals and has it published by Verlag Otto Meissner, Hamburg Engels completes Das Kapital Buch III: Der Prozess der kapitalistischen Produktion, and it is also published by Verlag Otto Meissner, Hamburg Friedrich Engels dies in London

FURTHER READING CLAEYS, GREGORY. Marx and Marxism. New York: Nation Books, 2018 ENGELS, FRIEDRICH. The Condition of the Working Class in England. Edited by David McLellen, Oxford: Oxford Classics, 2009 GABRIEL, MARY. Love and Capital. Boston: Little Brown, 2011 MARX, KARL. The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. New York: Prometheus Books, 1988 ZINN, HOWARD. A People’s History of the United States. New York: Harper Perennial, 2015 ———. Marx in Soho. Brooklyn: South End Press, 1999 Left Voice, for contemporary commentary and analysis from a Marxist perspective.

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