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The Outsourcer - The Story of India's IT Revolution

Published by Vector's Podcast, 2023-06-19 18:01:19

Description: A history of how India became a major player in the global technology industry, mapping technological, economic, and political transformations.

The rise of the Indian information technology industry is a remarkable economic success story. Software and services exports from India amounted to less than $100 million in 1990, and today come close to $100 billion. But, as Dinesh Sharma explains in The Outsourcer, Indian IT's success has a long prehistory; it did not begin with software support, or with American firms' eager recruitment of cheap and plentiful programming labor, or with India's economic liberalization of the 1990s. The foundations of India's IT revolution were laid long ago, even before the country's independence from British rule in 1947, as leading Indian scientists established research institutes that became centers for the development of computer science and technology.

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["230\u2001Notes 21.\u2002 Gupta, interview with the author. 22.\u2002 Jain and Raghuram, \u201cManagement of Large IT Projects.\u201d 23.\u2002Ibid. 24.\u2002\u201cReport of the Committee on Computerisation in Banks\u201d (Bombay: Reserve Bank of India, 1989), 18\u201322. 25.\u2002 \u201cProfessional Contributions and Publications of Prof. P. V. S. Rao (head, speech and digital systems group, TIFR),\u201d 1980, D-2004-01366, TIFR Archives. 26.\u2002 Mayank Chaya, Sam Pitroda: A Biography (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1992), 50. 27.\u2002 Ibid., 54. 28.\u2002M. V. Pitke, \u201cC-DOT DSS: A New Family of Digital Switching Systems,\u201d in TENCON\u201989, Fourth IEEE Region 10 International Conference (New York: IEEE, 1989), 727\u2013730. 29.\u2002Sam Pitroda, \u201cDevelopment, Democracy, and the Village Telephone,\u201d Harvard Business Review 71, no. 6 (1993): 66\u201368. 30.\u2002B. Bowonder, \u201cDevelopment of Digital Switching Systems Technology: An Analysis of C-DOT,\u201d Electronics Information & Planning 18, no. 5 (February 1991): 223\u2013239. 31.\u2002 Rajiv Gandhi: Selected Speeches and Writings (Science and Technology) (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1987), 258\u2013260. 32.\u2002Ibid. 33.\u2002 Rajiv Gandhi, 174\u2013175. 34.\u2002Aiyar, Rajiv Gandhi\u2019s India. Vol. 2: Economics, 90. 5\u2003 Discovering a New Continent 1.\u2002 HCL cofounder Arjun Malhotra, interview with the author, Noida, May 2006. 2.\u2002 DCMDP founder Dr Vinay Bharat Ram, interview with the author, May 2006. 3.\u2002 Ramchandra Guha, India after Gandhi (New Delhi: Picador, 2007), 434\u2013435. 4.\u2002Fairchild Oral History Panel, \u201cThe Legacy of Fairchild,\u201d Computer History Museum, 2007, catalog no. 102658284. 5.\u2002 T. N. Ninan, \u201cElectronics: Fast Forward,\u201d India Today, September 15, 1983, 106\u2013 109.","Notes\u2001231 6.\u2002 Leslie Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip: Robert Noyce and the Invention of Silicon Valley (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 132. 7.\u2002M. J. Zarabi, \u201cElectronic Calculator Industry in India: An Analysis,\u201d Electronics Information & Planning 4, no. 1 (October 1976): 33\u201341. 8.\u2002 HCL cofounder Ajai Chowdhry, interview with the author, Noida, January 2007. 9.\u2002\u201cThe Making of a Giant,\u201d DataQuest, March 11, 2002, accessed December 15, 2007, http:\/\/www.dqindia.com\/dataquest\/news\/154138\/the-making-giant. 10.\u2002 Order for Micro 2200, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, HCL. 11.\u2002 Chowdhry, interview with the author. 12.\u2002 Malhotra, interview with the author. 13.\u2002Former design engineer at DCM DP N. C. Maheshwari, interview with the author, New Delhi, May 2006. 14.\u2002 J. M. Grieco, \u201cBetween Dependency and Autonomy: India\u2019s Experience with the International Computer Industry,\u201d in United Nations Library on Transnational Corpo- rations: Governments and Transnational Corporations, ed. John H. Dunning (London: Routledge, 1993), 110\u2013136, 115. 15.\u2002 Ibid., 127. 16.\u2002 Ibid., 129. 17.\u2002Former engineer at IBM and DCM DP Joe Cleetus, e-mail interview with the author, April 4, 2007. 18.\u2002 \u201cHCL Launches a Full-fledged Microprocessor-based Machine,\u201d Economic Times (May 20, 1978). 19.\u2002 Former HCL President S. Raman, interview with the author, New Delhi, Febru- ary 2007. 20.\u2002 Chowdhry, interview with the author. 21.\u2002 Owen W. Linzmayer, Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World\u2019s Most Colorful Company (San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2004), 13\u201314. 22.\u2002Om Vikas, \u201cIndigenous Development of Computer Systems, Peripherals and Communication Facilities,\u201d Electronics Information and Planning 5, no. 11 (August 1978): 773\u2013842, 820. 23.\u2002 Malhotra, interview with the author. 24.\u2002 \u201cDCM Data Products Slips to Second Place,\u201d Economic Times, June 21, 1980, HCL Archives. 25.\u2002 Malhotra, interview with the author.","232\u2001Notes 26.\u2002 Chowdhry, interview with the author. 27.\u2002 Gary W Loveman and Jamie O\u2019Connell, \u201cHCL America\u201d (Cambridge, MA: Har- vard Business School, 1995), 9\u201310. 28.\u2002 Ibid., 4. 29.\u2002 Former professor at the Indian Institute of Science N. J. Rao, interview with the author, Bangalore, July 7, 2007. 30.\u2002 Steve Hamm, Bangalore Tiger (New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 2006), 36. 31.\u2002 Dr. Sridhar Mitta, interview with the author, Bangalore, March 2006. 32.\u2002Ibid. 33.\u2002 K. Ramachandran, K. P. Devarajan, and Sougata Ray, \u201cCorporate Entrepreneur- ship: How?,\u201d Vikalpa 31, no. 1 (January\u2013March 2006): 85\u201397. 34.\u2002 \u201cProduct Engineering Solutions,\u201d accessed May 6, 2007, www.wipro.com. 35.\u2002 Dipa Jaywant, \u201cComputers: Filling the Vacuum,\u201d India Today, May 1\u201315, 1979, 76. 36.\u2002R. Rastogi, \u201cElectronics Production and Export Profile: 1991,\u201d Electronics Infor- mation and Planning 19, no. 9 (June 1992): 490\u2013508. 6\u2003 Software Dreams Take Flight 1.\u2002 A. K. Bahn, \u201cSoftware Manufacture: Its Feasibility and Possible Problems,\u201d in Elec- tronics: Proceedings of National Conference on Electronics, March 24\u201328, 1970 (Bombay: Electronics Commission, 1971), 399\u2013401, 400. 2.\u2002 Edward B. Roberts and Charles E. Easley, Entrepreneurial Impact: The Role of MIT- An Updated Report (Netherlands: now Publishers, 2011), 20. 3.\u2002 PCS founder Narendra K. Patni, interview with the author, Mumbai, November 2006. 4.\u2002Ibid. 5.\u2002Ibid. 6.\u2002Suzanne Rivard and Benoit A. Aubert, eds., Information Technology Outsourcing, Volume 8 of Advances in Management Information Systems Series (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2008), 310. 7.\u2002 Elizabeth U. Harding, \u201cAfter IBM\u2019s Exit an Industry Arose,\u201d Software Magazine 9, no 14 (November 15, 1989): 48\u201354. 8.\u2002 \u201cMurthy, Patni aur Woe,\u201d Economic Times (October 4, 2002).","Notes\u2001233 9.\u2002Infosys founder N. R. Narayana Murthy, interview with the author, Bangalore, April 2007. 10.\u2002 \u201cMurthy to Patni, with Love,\u201d Economic Times (October 18, 2002). 11.\u2002Hari C. Polavarapu, \u201cInfosys in a Controversial CAMP,\u201d Dataquest, January 1989, 40. 12.\u2002 \u201cValues First: Interview with N. R. Narayana Murthy,\u201d Seminar, no. 485 (January 2000): 82\u201386. 13.\u2002 Jitendra V. Singh, \u201cInfosys Technologies: Case Study\u201d (Philadelphia: The Whar- ton School: University of Pennsylvania), 4. 14.\u2002 A Report on the Evolution of IT Industry in India (New Delhi: Manufacturers Asso- ciation for Information Technology, 1992), 91. 15.\u2002 Chidanand Rajghatta, \u201cSome Facts and a Little Masala,\u201d Times of India (Decem- ber 14, 2003). 16.\u2002 Infosys cofounder Nandan Nilekani, interview with the author, Bangalore, July 2007. 17.\u2002Ibid. 18.\u2002Lalit S. Kanodia, founder of TCS and Datamatics, interview with the author, Mumbai, February 2007. 19.\u2002 S. Ramadorai, The TCS Story and Beyond (New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2011), 27. 20.\u2002Former TCS President Yash Pal Sahani, interview with the author, Mumbai, March 2007. 21.\u2002Former TCS Vice Chairman F. C. Kohli, interview with the author, Mumbai, November 2006. 22.\u2002Ramadorai, The TCS Story and Beyond, 40. 23.\u2002 Joseph M. Grieco, Between Dependence and Autonomy: India\u2019s Experience with the International Computer Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 85. 24.\u2002Robert E. Kennedy, \u201cTata Consultancy Services: High Technology in a Low- Income Country\u201d (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School, 2000), 17. 25.\u2002 Richard Heeks, India\u2019s Software Industry: State Policy, Liberalization and Industrial Development (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1996), 88. 26.\u2002 \u201cIndia\u2019s Software Patriarch Still A Pace-setter,\u201d The Business Times, November 5, 2001, 21.","234\u2001Notes 27.\u2002In 1986, Tata Burroughs became Tata Unisys when Sperry and Burroughs merged to form Unisys. After Unisys pulled out of the joint venture in 1996, the company was renamed Tata Infotech and finally merged with TCS in July 2005. 28.\u2002 Softek founder Diwakar Nigam, interview with the author, New Delhi, Decem- ber 2006. 29.\u2002Softek was sold to the Dalmia group in 1990, and in 1992, Nigam founded another software product company, Newgen Software, focused in the niche segment of business process management. 30.\u2002 Mastek founder Ashank Desai, interview with the author, Mumbai, November 2006. 31.\u2002 Future Software founder K. V. Ramani, interview with the author, January 2007. 32.\u2002 Flextronics International Limited bought 55 percent of shares of HSS for $226 million in 2004, besides Ramani\u2019s stake in HSS as well as the entire stock of Future Software. Flextronics then integrated HSS, Future, and three other software firms it had bought in India into one company called Flextronics Software Systems. After two years, Flextronics sold off 85 percent of this entity to Kohlberg Kravis Roberts for $900 million. The new entity was called Aricent. 33.\u2002 Srivastava, interview with the author. 34.\u2002NIIT cofounder Rajendra S. Pawar, interview with the author, New Delhi and Gurgaon, February 2007. 35.\u2002 Kohli, interview with the author. 36.\u2002 Patni, interview with the author. 37.\u2002 K. R. Trilokekar, email interview with the author, November 2006. 38.\u2002 Nagy Hanna, Exploiting Information Technology for Development: A Case Study of India (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1994), 32. 39.\u2002 Ibid., 31. 7\u2003 The Transition to Offshore 1.\u2002 \u201cBuilding on Brainware,\u201d India Today, May 31, 1994, 115\u201312, 115. 2.\u2002 Both media reports are quoted in Francis Assisi, \u201cGovernment to Promote Soft- ware through Series of Conferences,\u201d India West, October 9, 1987, 17. 3.\u2002Richard Heeks, India\u2019s Software Industry: State Policy, Liberalization and Industrial Development (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1996), 245. 4.\u2002 \u201cCitibank to Set up Unit at SEEPZ,\u201d Dataquest, August 1985, 32.","Notes\u2001235 5.\u2002 A Report on the Evolution of IT Industry in India (New Delhi: Manufacturers Associa- tion for Information Technology, 1992), 75\u201379. 6.\u2002 \u201cCOSL\u2014The 1989 Ace Performer at SEEPZ,\u201d Dataquest, June 1989, 27. 7.\u2002 In 2000, CITIL was renamed i-flex, dropping the Citi prefix as its flagship prod- uct, Flexcube, had become a widely accepted banking product globally. Oracle acquired Citi Venture\u2019s 41 percent stake for $650 million. In August 2006, Oracle increased its ownership to 55.1 percent from 52.5 percent by paying another $125 million. The parent company, COSL, which had continued to serve the needs of Citibank and its subsidiaries, too was sold to the Chennai-based software firm Polaris in 2002. 8.\u2002 Founder of GDA Prabhu Goel, interview with the author, Meerut, January 2007. 9.\u2002 Sharad Marathe, interview with the author, New Delhi, January 2, 2007. 10.\u2002 Josh Martin, \u201cIndia\u2019s Search for New Technology,\u201d Multinational Monitor 4, no. 9 (September 1983), accessed August 9, 2014, http:\/\/www.multinationalmonitor.org\/ hyper\/issues\/1983\/09\/martin.htm. 11.\u2002Ibid. 12.\u2002 N. Seshagiri, \u201cInformation Plus Communication in NIEO,\u201d Yojana 24, nos. 1\u20132 (January 26, 1980): 79\u201382. 13.\u2002Ibid. 14.\u2002 Consultant\u2019s Report on Project RINSCA (Paris: UNESCO, 1981), 42. 15.\u2002 The Role of Transnational Corporations in Transborder Data Flows: Report of the Sec- retariat (Geneva\/New Delhi: United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations, 1984). 16.\u2002\u201cTerms and Conditions for Establishment of Technology Parks for Software Export through Dedicated Satellite Earth Station\u201d (New Delhi: Department of Elec- tronics, June 1985). 17.\u2002Eric N. Berg, \u201cBig Layoff at Texas Instruments,\u201d New York Times, December 8, 1984. 18.\u2002David E. Sanger, \u201cTexas Instruments\u2019 Net Slides,\u201d New York Times, April 19, 1985; and David E. Sanger, \u201cTexas Instruments,\u201d New York Times, October 26, 1985. 19.\u2002 Former DoE Secretary M. G. K. Menon, interview with the author, New Delhi, April 2007. 20.\u2002 Former Managing Director of TI India Srini Rajam, interview with the author, Bangalore, March 2007.","236\u2001Notes 21.\u2002 Khan Adbul Latif, \u201cTI Exports First Lot of Software Through Satellite,\u201d Dataquest, August 1987, 49. 22.\u2002 S. S. Oberoi, \u201cSoftware India\u20141987 (Indo-US Conference),\u201d Electronics-Informa- tion & Planning 15 (March 1988): 414\u2013418, 417. 23.\u2002 \u201cTechnology Parks to Boost Software Exports,\u201d Dataquest, June 1989, 23. 24.\u2002 Srivastava, interview with the author. 25.\u2002S. S. Oberoi, \u201cIndian Software Scenario,\u201d Electronics Information & Planning 18 (August 1991): 603\u2013606. 26.\u2002 N. Vittal, \u201cMy Years with the Department of Electronics,\u201d Electronics Information and Planning 21 (August 1993): 547\u2013553, 549. 27.\u2002 Pronab Sen, \u201cSoftware Exports from India: A Systemic Analysis,\u201d Electronics Infor- mation & Planning, October 1994, 55\u201366, 62. 28.\u2002 Mark Halper, \u201cDeere\u2019s Faraway IS Solution,\u201d Computerworld, February 15, 1993, 76. 29.\u2002 Alok Tiwari, \u201cSoftware Exports: No Easy Way,\u201d India Today, October 15, 1991, 109\u2013111. 30.\u2002 Sen, \u201cSoftware Exports from India,\u201d 58. 31.\u2002 Ibid., 62. 32.\u2002 Deepti Ahmad Kharod, \u201cSilicon Valley: Logging on to India\u2019s Potential,\u201d India Today, June 30, 1991, 80\u201383. 33.\u2002\u201cIndian Software & Services: Export Potential & Strategies\u201d (Washington, DC\/ New Delhi: World Bank, 1992), 33\u201334. 34.\u2002 Nagy Hanna, Exploiting Information Technology for Development: A Case Study of India (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1994), 246. 35.\u2002Dewang Mehta, \u201cNasscom\u2019s Success Reflects Buoyant Industry,\u201d Business and Political Observer, December 22, 1992. 36.\u2002Watts S. Humphrey, \u201cThree Process Perspectives: Organizations, Teams, and People,\u201d Annals of Software Engineering 14, nos. 1\u20134 (December 2002): 39\u201372. 37.\u2002 Raghav S. Nandyal, Constellations of CMMI (New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2011), 102. 38.\u2002 Michael A. Cusumano, The Business of Software: What Every Manager, Programmer, and Entrepreneur Must Know to Thrive and Survive in Good Times and Bad (New York: Free Press, 2004), 187.","Notes\u2001237 39.\u2002 Otis Port, \u201cWill Bugs Eat Up the US Lead in Software?,\u201d Business Week, Decem- ber 6, 1999, 118. 40.\u2002 Former programmer at Mafatlal Consultancy Services Sharad Godbole, interview with the author, Mumbai, June 2006. 41.\u2002 \u201cAnnual Report 1999\u201d (Bangalore: Infosys, 1999), 10. 42.\u2002 \u201cSatyam Expects 50 PC Growth,\u201d Indian Express, June 12, 1999. 43.\u2002 Ashok Kumar, \u201cTCS Factory to Avert Millennium Crisis,\u201d Indian Express, Febru- ary 23, 1998. 44.\u2002 Indian IT Software and Service Directory (New Delhi: National Association for Soft- ware and Service Companies, 1999), 18. 45.\u2002 Kumar, \u201cTCS Factory to Avert Millennium Crisis.\u201d 46.\u2002 Strategic Review (New Delhi: National Association for Software and Service Com- panies, 1999): 32. 47.\u2002 Vittal, \u201cMy Years with the Department of Electronics,\u201d 550. 8\u2003 Turning Geography into History 1.\u2002 The data on IT revenues and employment generation is released by the industry body, NASSCOM, and generally accepted by government agencies. Hardware and domestic sales figures are also included in IT-ITeS revenue data of NASSCOM. The Planning Commission estimates put the size of IT-ITeS exports at $69 billion for 2011\u20132012 ($39.2 IT services, $16.5 BPO, and $13.3 software products and engineer- ing). See \u201cReport of the Working Group on Information Technology Sector Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012\u201317)\u201d (New Delhi: Planning Commission, 2012), 165. 2.\u2002Hormuz P. Mama, \u201cNet-Enabled Services\u2014The New El Dorado,\u201d Indian Express, December 7, 1999, accessed August 11, 2014. http:\/\/expressindia.indianexpress. com\/fe\/daily\/19991207\/fed07039.html. 3.\u2002 Former General Manager of World Network Services Roy Marshall, personal com- munication with the author, June 2007. 4.\u2002Seetha, The Backroom Brigade: How a Few Intrepid Entrepreneurs Brought the World to India (New Delhi: Penguin Portfolio, 2006): 26 5.\u2002 \u201cBack Office Processing Case Studies in IT Enabled Services\u201d in The ET Knowledge Series (New Delhi: ET Intelligence Group, 2002), 93. 6.\u2002 Michael F. Corbett, The Outsourcing Revolution: Why It Makes Sense and How to Do It Right (Chicago: Dearborn Trade Publishing, 2004), 42. 7.\u2002 \u201cBack Office Processing Case Studies,\u201d 93.","238\u2001Notes 8.\u2002 Robert Watts, \u201cIndian Takeaway,\u201d Telegraph, December 16, 2003, accessed August 11, 2014, http:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/finance\/2871146\/Indian-takeaway.html. 9.\u2002Ravi Aron, \u201cThe Little Start-Up That Could: A Conversation with Raman Roy, Father of Indian BPO,\u201d Knowledge@Wharton, June 4, 2003, accessed August 11, 2014, http:\/\/knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu\/article\/the-little-start-up-that-could-a-conver- sation-with-raman-roy-father-of-indian-bpo\/. 10.\u2002Ibid. 11.\u2002Ibid. 12.\u2002Seetha, The Backroom Brigade, 34. 13.\u2002 Jack Welch and John Byrne, Jack: Straight from the Gut (New York: Warner Books, 2001), 314. 14.\u2002 \u201cGenpact Reports Results for 2013 Full Year,\u201d company press release, February 6, 2014. 15.\u2002 Prasada Reddy, The Globalization of Corporate R & D: Implications for Innovation Systems in Host Countries (London: Routledge, 2000), 111. 16.\u2002 Ibid., 117. 17.\u2002 Ibid., 108. 18.\u2002 \u201cIBM to Establish Solutions Research Center in India,\u201d company press release, July 22, 1997. 19.\u2002 Welch and Byrne, Jack: Straight from the Gut, 308\u2013309. 20.\u2002 \u201cThe New Face of Global R&D and Innovation: Deciphering the Indian Advan- tage\u201d (Gurgaon, India: Evalueserve, 2004), 21. 21.\u2002 \u201cFDI in the R&D Sector: Study for the Pattern 1998\u20132003\u201d (New Delhi: Technol- ogy Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council, 2006), 14\u201323. 22.\u2002 N. Mrinalini, Pradosh Nath, and G. D. Sandhya, \u201cForeign Direct Investment in R&D in India,\u201d Current Science 105, no. 6 (2013): 767\u2013773, 770. 23.\u2002 New Face of Global R&D and Innovation, 22. 24.\u2002 Rakesh Basant and Sunil Mani, \u201cForeign R&D Centres in India: An Analysis of Their Size, Structure and Implications\u201d (Ahmedabad, India: Indian Institute of Man- agement, 2012), 55. 25.\u2002\u201cCisco Systems Makes Major Strategic Investments in India,\u201d company press release, October 19, 2005. 26.\u2002 Basant and Mani, \u201cForeign R&D Centres in India,\u201d 19\u201322. 27.\u2002 \u201cGlobal Reach from India,\u201d Bechtel Briefs, December 1998.","Notes\u2001239 28.\u2002\u201cWipro Reaffirms Position as World\u2019s Top Third Party R&D Service Provider,\u201d company press release, May 18, 2011. 29.\u2002Mukesh Dialani, \u201cR&D\/Product Engineering Services\u2014How Is HCL Technolo- gies Thinking Out of the Box and Providing Value to Technology Product Custom- ers?\u201d (Framingham, MA: IDC, 2012). 30.\u2002\u201cDemand for Engineering Services Outsourcing Is Increasing, Particularly for Offshore Vendors\u201d (Hampton, NH: Technology Business Research Inc., 2012). 31.\u2002\u201cMastering Engineering Service Outsourcing in the Automotive Industry\u201d (Munich: Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, 2010). 32.\u2002 Manjeet Kripalani, \u201cIndia: The GE and McKinsey Club,\u201d Business Week Online, February 23, 2006, http:\/\/archive.today\/D0fxz. 33.\u2002 Evalueserve CEO Marc Vollenweider, interview with the author, June 2007. 34.\u2002 Evalueserve cofounder Alok Aggarwal, interview with the author, June 2007. 35.\u2002Ibid. 36.\u2002 Evalueserve COO Ashish Gupta, interview with the author, February 2007. 37.\u2002 \u201cThe Future of Knowledge Process Outsourcing\u2014Make or Buy in KPO\u201d (Gurg- aon, India: Evalueserve, 2007). 38.\u2002Ibid. 39.\u2002Most of the examples given in the following paragraphs in this section have been drawn from \u201cGlobal Integration through Knowledge Process Outsourcing,\u201d a report prepared by PricewaterhouseCoopers and the Confederation of Indian Indus- try, 2005. 40.\u2002\u201cGlobal Integration through Knowledge Process Outsourcing\u201d (New Delhi: PricewaterhouseCoopers and CII, 2005). 41.\u2002Ravi Datar and Sujoy Chohan, \u201cBusiness Process Outsourcing in India: A Fact Book\u201d (New Delhi: Gartner Research, 2002). 42.\u2002 Strategic Review 2005: The IT Industry in India (New Delhi: NASSCOM, 2005), 167. 43.\u2002 Gupta, interview with the author. 44.\u2002Shelly Singh, \u201cAt Mysore, We Are Running a US Law Firm,\u201d Economic Times, June 13, 2007. 45.\u2002 \u201cFDI in the R&D Sector\u201d, 2006. 46.\u2002 \u201cGlobalization of Engineering Services,\u201d 2006. 47.\u2002Based on the author\u2019s discussions with officials of HCL Technologies, Noida, June12, 2007.","240\u2001Notes 9\u2003Conclusions 1.\u2002 Rahul Mukherjee, \u201cIndia\u2019s Aborted Liberalization\u20141966,\u201d Pacific Affairs 73, no. 8 (Fall 2000): 375\u2013392. 2.\u2002Aradhana Aggarwal, \u201cExport Processing Zones in India: Analysis of the Export Performance,\u201d working paper, Indian Council for Research on International Eco- nomic Relations, New Delhi, November 2004. 3.\u2002Atul Kohli, \u201cPolitics of Economic Growth in India: 1980\u20132005, Part I: 1980s,\u201d Economic and Political Weekly 41, April 1, 2006, 1251\u20131259. 4.\u2002 Harsimran Singh, \u201cIT Cos. Can Earn More Only By Employing More Hands,\u201d Eco- nomic Times, July 31, 2007. 5.\u2002 Remarks by Ambassador Nirupama Rao at the Asia Society, July 26, 2012, accessed July 30, 2012, http:\/\/www.indianembassy.org. 6.\u2002 \u201cReport of the Working Group on Engineering Education\u201d (New Delhi: National Knowledge Commission, 2008), 4. 7.\u2002P. Balaram, \u201cIndian Institutes of Technology,\u201d Current Science 84, no. 5 (March 10, 2003): 613\u2013614. 8.\u2002 Sugata Srinivasaraju, \u201cCoaching Factories Are Dumbing Down the IITs,\u201d Outlook (April 30, 2007), accessed August 11, 2014, http:\/\/www.outlookindia.com\/article\/ Coaching-Factories-Are-Dumbing-Down-The-IITs\/234521. 9.\u2002\u201cLess than 15% of Technology Engineers Can Apply Their Computer Program- ming Skills,\u201d company press release (Gurgaon, India: Aspiring Minds, November 2013). 10.\u2002\u201cThe English Gap Measured: English Learning Levels Engineers Graduates Report,\u201d company press release (Gurgaon, India: Aspiring Minds, July 2012). \u2002","Index 3CI International, 160 liberalization and, 186 68010 chip, 122 market issues and, 129, 185\u2013188, 191 68030 chip, 122 offshoring and, 171 8086 chip, 120 rivalries of, 187 Singapore, 171 ABN Amro, 199 software and, 149 Acer, 173 Swissair, 186\u2013187 Acquisitions, 39, 146, 184, 190\u2013191, Tyroclean, 187 Akabarallys, 112 202, 214 Alcatel, 96 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Algebra, 28 ALGOL programming language, 143 109 All Purpose Electronic Computer Acton, Forman S., 31 Advanced Information Systems (AIS), (APEC), 13 ALOHA Network, 161 178 American Airlines, 149 Advanced Research Projects Agency Net- American Express, 188\u2013191, 206 American Film Institute, 133 work (ARPANET), 35, 89 American Mathematical Society, 133 Agarwal, Sanjeev, 190 American Society for Engineering Edu- Aggarwal, Alok, 199\u2013200 Ahmedabad Electricity Company, 58 cation (ASEE), 30 Ahmedabad Textile Industry Research Anderson Consulting, 200 Anti-Computerization year, 85 Association, 57 Apollo Computer Corporation, 122 Aiken, Howard H., 12 Apple-2 computer, 117 Air India, 9, 57, 162 Argonne National laboratory, 26 Airline Financial Support Services (AFS), Ariane Passenger PayLoad Experiment 186\u2013188 (APPLE), 89 Airlines, 5, 208 Army Statistical Organization, 12 Arora, Ashok, 135 American Airlines, 149 Arora, Subhash, 111 British Airways (BA), 187\u2013188, 204 computer age and, 78\u201379, 81, 93\u201394 IBM and, 58, 61, 69, 149 Indian Airlines, 58, 78, 81, 93, 129","242\u2001Index Arthur D. Little (ADL), 133 Avalon Consulting, 200 Asian Games, 82\u201383, 89 AVL, 192 Aspiring Minds Computer Adaptive Test Bahn, A. K., 131 (AMCAT), 216 Bain and Company, 200 Associated Cement Companies (ACC), Banaras Hindu University, 9 BANCS 2000, 139\u2013140 134\u2013135 Bangalore University, 135 Astra AB, 192 Bangladesh, 34, 46, 79, 89 Astra Biochemicals Private Limited, 192 Banks, 210, 215 Astra Research Centre India (ARCI), 192 AstraZeneca India Private Limited, 192 ATMs and, 77 AT&T Bell Labs, 122, 166, 171, 174 biometrics and, 77 Atari, 166 computer age and, 77\u201379, 91, 93\u201395, A. T. Kearney, 200\u2013201 Atomic energy, 212 208, 212 early computers and, 11, 28, 34 atomic bomb and, 18 Export Import Bank, 177 Board of Research in Atomic Energy Flexcube and, 158, 214, 235n7 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act and, 19 computer age and, 84, 100, 102 (FERA) and, 64 CSIR and, 18\u201319 IBM and, 58, 61, 64 early computers and, 21\u201323, 27\u201328, 38 ICICI, 190 imports and, 43\u201344 Indian Banks Association and, 94\u201395, Nehru and, 7 state involvement and, 39\u201346, 49, 51, 139 Infosys and, 139 53 mainframe computers and, 94, 158 TIFR and, 21, 27\u201328, 38 market issues and, 107, 128\u2013129, 185\u2013 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 19 Atomic Energy Committee, 18 191, 199, 202\u2013203, 206 Atomic Energy Establishment (AEE), 19, MicroBanker and, 158 National Financial Switch and, 77 27, 40, 43\u201345, 102 nationalization of, 79 Atomic Energy Research Establishment, offshoring and, 158\u2013159, 166, 168, 40 173\u2013176, 179 Australia, 196 Reserve Bank of India (RBI), 11, 64, 94 Austrian STET, 187 software and, 139\u2013140, 142\u2013143, 145, Automatic electronic switch (AES), 96 Automatic Relay Computer, 13 147\u2013148, 154, 158, 214 Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs), 77 State Bank of India, 58 Automation state involvement and, 42, 47\u201348, 51 TCS and, 142 Committee on Automation and, 64 BASF, 115 electronic design automation (EDA), BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic 159 Instruction Code), 116\u2013117, 120, labor and, 42, 47\u201348, 61, 64, 94, 125, 147 Bechtel Corporation, 196 139, 145, 158\u2013159, 197, 209 socialism fears and, 47, 209","Index\u2001243 Bell Canada, 171 Tata Trust and, 18 Bell Telephone Laboratories, 95\u201396, 192 UNIVAC and, 25 Bendix G-15 drum computer, 31 U.S. Agency for International Develop- Berkclay, 122 Bernal, John Desmond, 13 ment and, 26 Berner, Robert, 178 von Neumann and, 20, 36 Berners-Lee, C. M., 13 Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, 27 Bhabha, Homi J. Bhabha-Heitler Cascade Theory, 17 Bhagvantam, S., 41 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), 40, 43, and, 19 60, 117, 210 background of, 17\u201318 Bhatnagar, Shanti Swarup, 8\u201310, 13, 18, Bohr and, 14f, 18 CDC and, 38 101 computer age and, 101 BHCA (busy hour call attempt) condi- death of, 27, 42\u201343 Department of Atomic Energy and, 19 tions, 97 early computers and, 3, 7\u201310, 14f, Biometrics, 77 Birkbeck College, 13 17\u201327, 36, 38, 101 Blackett, P. M. S., 9\u201310 early technical capabilities and, 36 BMW, 197 Electronics Committee and, 40\u201343, 46, Boada, Serge, 125 Board of Research in Atomic Energy, 19 51, 73 Board of Scientific and Industrial Re- Electronics Division and, 40 IBM and, 24\u201325 search (BSIR), 9 Indian self-reliance and, 41, 46 Body shopping integrated circuits and, 38 Mahalanobis and, 22, 24\u201325, 36, 38 labor and, 5, 87, 137, 140, 150, 154\u2013 Menon and, 46 155, 168, 171, 176, 180 National Defence Council and, 40 Nehru and, 3, 9\u201310, 18\u201319, 25, 40\u201341, offshoring and, 168, 171, 176, 180 software and, 137, 140, 150, 154\u2013155 43, 46, 101 Bohr, Niels, 14f, 18 nuclear programs and, 18\u201319, 27, 36, Bombay Dyeing, 58 Bombay (Mumbai), 5\u20136, 210 39 computer age and, 79\u201380, 82, 88\u201389, Oppenheimer and, 18 Rao and, 19 91, 96 recruitment efforts of, 19\u201320 early computers and, 14, 17, 19, 21f, research institutes and, 3, 8, 10, 17\u2013 24\u201327, 29\u201330, 33\u201334, 37 18, 23, 25, 51 IBM and, 55\u201358, 60\u201361, 67, 70 Sarabhai and, 43\u201344 market issues and, 108, 112, 187\u2013188, state involvement and, 18\u201319, 39\u201344, 191, 202 46, 51, 73, 101 offshoring and, 158, 161\u2013162, 166 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- software and, 134\u2013135, 137, 141\u2013143, search (TIFR) and, 17\u201318, 23 148 Tata Sons and, 38 state involvement and, 44 Bombay Stock Exchange, 162 Bombay University, 57","244\u2001Index Booth, Andrew Donald, 13 Mahalanobis and, 38 Bose, Soumyendra Mohan, 11 marketing of, 110\u2013112 Bose, Subhas Chandra, 8 Microcomp and, 111\u2013112 Boston Consulting Group, 200 MOS chips and, 109 Brain drain, 35 programmable, 51, 109 Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Sharp Electronics and, 106, 108 smuggling of, 109 Transport Undertaking, 58 Sony and, 107, 209 British Airways (BA), 187\u2013188, 204 state involvement and, 51 British Tabulating Company, 9 wooden housings and, 109 British Tabulating Machine (BTM), 13, Calculus, 134 Calico Hindoostan, 58 15 California Institute of Technology, 20, Brown, Gordon, 34 Burmah Shell, 57 30 Burroughs Canada, 18, 44, 55, 91, 94, 171, 180, 198 Canada-India Research Reactor (CIRUS), Department of Electronics (DoE) and, 74 44 Canadian National (CN), 91, 94 IBM and, 144, 145 Capability Maturity Model for Software McDonald and, 144 offshoring and, 159, 178 (CMM), 177\u2013178 software and, 143\u2013145, 150\u2013154 Captive units, 186, 191, 196\u2013203, 206 Sperry merger and, 234n27 Carnegie Institute of Technology, 30 Tata Burroughs Limited (TBL), 86, 91, Carnegie Mellon University, 33, 153, 144\u2013145, 150 177 TCS and, 143\u2013145, 152\u2013153 Cary, Frank T., 68 Unisys and, 150 Case Institute of Technology, 30 Busicom, 106 Cassettes, 114, 116\u2013117 Business process outsourcing (BPO), 75, Caterpillar, 196 Cavendish Laboratory, 17 186, 188, 190\u2013191, 199\u2013201, 205, CDC 160\u2013A computer, 26 237n1 CDC 3600 computer, 26\u201328, 36, 42, 45 BusyBee, 120 CeBit fair, 167 Buyouts, 184 Central planning, 10 Central processing units (CPUs), 44, 92 Cabinet Committee on Economics Af- Central Statistical Organisation, 16 fairs (CCEA), 163 Centre for Development of Advanced Cadence Design Systems, 159 Computing (C-DAC), 101 Calculators Centre for Development of Telematics applications for, 110 (C-DOT), 85, 95, 97\u201399, 101\u2013102 Busicom and, 106 Centre for Electronics Design and Tech- DCM and, 109, 111\u2013112 early use of, 9, 11\u201312, 20\u201321 nology (CEDT), 125, 210 four-function, 106\u2013109 Centre for Railway Information Systems import ceiling on, 109 large-scale integration (LSI) and, 106 (CRIS), 94","Index\u2001245 Centronics, 115 Colombo Plan, 13 Century Mills, 58 Columbia University, 23 Chandrasekharan, K., 36 Comisi\u00f3n Federal de Electricidad, 196 CHILL (CCITT High Level Language), 98 Commission of European Communities China (European Commission), 167, 183 labor supply of, 175 Committee on Automation, 64 market issues and, 190\u2013194, 198\u2013200, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 204 203\u2013204 Communism, 52, 64 Pakistan and, 46 Compagnie International pour Informa- SWOT rankings of, 175 tique (CII), 71 war with, 40\u201341 COMPASS, 27 Chowdhry, Ajai, 110\u2013111, 117, 122 Compilers, 37, 116, 120, 146\u2013147 Cirrus Logic, 174 Complementary metal oxide semicon- Cisco, 127, 173, 185, 195, 201 ductor (CMOS), 97 Citibank, 158\u2013159, 166, 168, 188, 190\u2013 Completely knocked down (CKD), 128, 147 191, 206 Comprehensive Apparel Manufacturer\u2019s Citicorp Information Technology In- Package (CAMP), 136\u2013138 Computer, Communications and In- dustries Limited (CITIL), 158\u2013159, strumentation, 87 235n7 Computer age Citicorp Overseas Software Limited airlines and, 78\u201379, 81, 93\u201394 (COSL), 158\u2013159, 235n7 atomic energy and, 84, 100, 102 Citicorp Venture Capital, 158 banks and, 77\u201379, 91, 93\u201395, 208, 212 Cleetus, Joe, 60 Bhabha and, 101 COBOL, 27, 95, 120, 147, 178\u2013180 biometrics and, 77 Coca-Cola, 160 body shopping and, 5, 87, 137, 140, Cognizant Technology Solutions, 180, 150, 154\u2013155, 168, 171, 176, 180 202 collaboration and, 87\u201388 Collaboration Computer Maintenance Corporation body shopping and, 5, 87, 137, 140, (CMC) and, 83\u201384, 86, 91\u201394 150, 154\u2013155, 168, 171, 176, 180 Deodhar and, 79\u201381, 83, 85, 97, 101 computer age and, 87\u201388 Department of Electronics (DoE) and, H1B visas and, 183 80\u201384, 87, 89, 97 IBM and, 68 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) market issues and, 106\u2013107, 116, 126, and, 92 128\u2013129, 196 digital telephony and, 95\u201399 new alliances and, 99\u2013103 Electronics Corporation of India Lim- offshoring and, 167 ited (ECIL) and, 102 regulation of, 41\u201342, 46, 48, 51, 68 entrepreneurs and, 79\u201381, 95\u201397 \u201cShort Visits of Scientists from equity issues and, 86\u201387 Abroad\u201d and, 13 exports and, 80\u201381, 86\u201388, 103 software and, 144, 152, 155 state involvement and, 41\u201342, 46, 48, 51, 68","246\u2001Index Computer age (cont.) \u201cComputer boys,\u201d 78, 81, 85, 88, 90 foreign exchange and, 87, 99 Computer Maintenance Corporation Gandhi and, 4 Hindustan Computers Limited (HCL) (CMC) and, 88 Burroughs and, 144 imports and, 81\u201388, 90\u201391, 94\u201395, computer age and, 83\u201384, 86, 91\u201394 100\u2013103 market issues and, 117 import substitution and, 84, 100, 103 programming and, 92 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) state involvement and, 54, 70, 75, 83\u2013 and, 92, 96 innovation and, 81, 88, 96, 99, 102 84, 86, 91\u201394, 144, 146, 229n20 investment and, 88, 91, 98\u201399, 102 Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) and, Japan and, 79, 83, 90, 96, 99 joint ventures and, 88, 90 146 liberalization and, 81\u201388, 103 train reservations and, 91\u201394 licensing and, 82\u201384, 87, 99 Computer Maintenance Services (CMS), Mahalanobis and, 101 mainframe computers and, 86, 90, 94 70 minicomputers and, 84, 86 Computer Networks Experiment (COM- networking and, 88\u201390 new alliances and, 99\u2013103 NEX), 89 Pitroda and, 85, 96\u2013101 Computer Programming in FORTRAN 77 public good and, 77 Rajiv Gandhi and, 4, 78\u201385, 88, 90, (Rajaraman), 33 97, 99 Computer science, 3\u20134 research and development (R&D) and, 88, 91, 93, 96\u201397 early computers and, 31\u201335 satellite communications and, 86\u201387, growth in education of, 33 89 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs self-reliance and, 80 socialism and, 79, 81\u201383 and), 33\u201335, 92, 135, 146, 200 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- World Network Services (WNS) and, search (TIFR) and, 88, 96\u201397, 208 taxes and, 83 202 technology diffusion and, 85, 88, Computer Society of India, 32 99\u2013100 Congress Party, 51, 64, 67, 78\u201379, 84, telecoms and, 77\u201378, 82\u201383, 85\u201390, 95\u2013102 88, 173, 209 telephones and, 95\u201399, 102 Control Data Corporation (CDC) train reservation project and, 90\u201395 United States and, 78, 89\u201392, 95 early computers and, 26\u201328, 36\u201338 educational discounts and, 74 Computer-aided design (CAD), 28, 34, French nuclear development programs 162, 196 and, 71 Hong Kong and, 38 Indian Navy and, 28 International Computers Limited (ICL) and, 71 joint ventures and, 71, 152, 209 market issues and, 108 offshoring and, 160 state involvement and, 42, 45 supercomputers and, 36 Tata Group and, 209","Index\u2001247 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- Data General, 115, 134\u2013138, 152\u2013153, search (TIFR) and, 28, 38, 45, 74, 152 166 Tata Sons and, 38 Datamatics Technologies, 142, 166, 202 Controller of Capital Issues (CCI), 140, Data processing, 202 175 early computers and, 9, 12\u201313, 15, 25, Control Program for Microprocessors 28, 32\u201333, 37, 208 (CP\/M), 120 German Research Council and, 72 Convergys, 191 growth of, 4 Copyright, 137\u2013138, 183, 185, 204 HCL and, 118 Core stacks, 20 IBM and, 55\u201360, 63, 65, 68, 73, 108, Cosmic Radio, 79 Cosmic rays, 17\u201319, 57, 79 117\u2013118, 142, 152, 209 Council of Scientific and Industrial Re- ICL and, 142, 152 Indian Meteorological Department search (CSIR), 9, 13, 18\u201319, 100 Counting and Analytic Machines (IMD) and, 134 market issues and, 108, 117\u2013118, 127 (CAM), 15 MICO and, 138 C programming language, 98 personal computers (PCs) and, 131 Critical Information Systems Planning punched cards and, 55\u201357 Shaw Wallace and, 148 (CRISPAN), 151 software and, 131, 134, 138, 141\u2013142, Cummins Research and Technology 148, 152 India Limited, 196 state involvement and, 39, 45, 47\u201349, CustomerAsset, 190 Customs Act, 149 53 Cybernetics, 13 SuperSort and, 117 Tata Group and, 141\u2013142 Dabhol Power Project, 196 Unit Record Machines (URMs) and, 9, Dahl, Norman C., 30, 35 Daimler-Benz Research Center India, 47, 57\u201359, 63, 69, 118 Youth Congress and, 84 192 Dataquest (magazine), 121, 139 Daimler Chrysler, 196, 198 DCM 1101 computer, 110, 113\u2013114 Daksh, 75, 190 DCM Data Products (DCM DP), Dalal, Ardeshir, 29 Dalal, Jagdish, 135 209\u2013210 Dandekar, Vinayak Mahadev, 47 calculators and, 109, 111\u2013112 Data Basics Corporation (DBC), computer age and, 83, 88 market issues and, 105\u2013116, 119\u2013121, 136\u2013139 Data conversion 124\u2013125, 128, 146, 152 programming and, 109 market issues and, 196 software and, 116, 146, 152 offshoring and, 184 Systems Software Division and, 116 Patni and, 132\u2013136, 141, 153, 210 DCM Mills, 58 software and, 131\u2013136, 154, 210 Defence Research and Development Or- typesetting and, 132, 134 Data Conversion Inc. (DCI), 133 ganization (DRDO), 40, 100 Defense technology, 7, 208\u2013209","248\u2001Index Defense technology (cont.) Department of Scientific and Industrial early computers and, 28 Research (DSIR), 9 IBM and, 61, 69 ICIM and, 60 Department of Statistics, 13, 16, 24 imports and, 40\u201341, 43 Department of Telecommunications missiles and, 2 NIIT and, 151 (DoT), 86, 97, 162, 172 poor software and, 177 Desai, Ashank, 147\u2013148, 153 purchase scams and, 88 Desai, Manubhai, 79 radar switches and, 40 Desai, Morarji, 68 state involvement and, 40\u201346, 48, 50, Deshpande, Gururaj Desh, 174 53\u201354 Devaluation, 62\u201363 war with China and, 40 Devidayal, 112 Dham, Vinod, 174 De Gaulle, Charles, 68 Differential equations, 20, 28 Delhi Cloth Mills (DCM), 58 Digital Computer Laboratory (DCL), 25 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) calculators and, 109, 111\u2013112 market issues and, 105\u2013113 commercial terms of, 134 Vinay Bharat Ram and, 105\u2013110 computer age and, 92 Deloitte Consulting, 200 early computers and, 34, 44 Delphi, 192 Forrester and, 134 Deodhar, Prabhakar S., 79\u201381, 83, 85, market issues and, 115 offshoring and, 166 97, 101 software and, 134, 143, 152 Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Digital Globalsoft, 190 Digital logic subassemblies, 20 45\u201346, 53, 100 Digital Research Inc. (DRI), 120 Department of Defence Supplies Dinesh, K., 135 Diodes, 15, 20\u201321 (DoDS), 43, 54 Directorate General of Technology De- Department of Electronics (DoE) velopment (DGTD), 108 CMS and, 70 Distribution Management Application competitive bids and, 50 computer age and, 80\u201384, 87, 89, 97 Package (DMAP), 139 formation of, 45\u201348 DOS (Disk Operating System), 116, 120, IBM and, 48\u201349, 54, 64\u201366, 69\u201370, 147 73\u201375, 144 Drivers, 20, 116, 123, 187 market issues and, 109, 117 Dr. Millennium Inc., 180 offshoring and, 166\u2013167, 169\u2013170, DSS580 switch, 96 Dubai International Airport, 196 172, 175\u2013176, 179, 183 Dunlop, 162 promotional efforts and, 53\u201354 Dunnell, David, 157 restricted imports and, 48\u201352 DuPont, 192, 193, 201 self-reliance and, 47 software and, 144 E10B switch, 96 state involvement and, 33, 45\u201351, Early computers 53\u201354, 209","Index\u2001249 atomic energy and, 21\u201323, 27\u201328, 38 vacuum tubes and, 20\u201321 banks and, 11, 28, 34 EC-1030 computer, 33 Bhabha and, 3, 7\u201310, 14f, 17\u201327, 36, Eckert, J. Presper, 12 Eclipse MV\/8000 computer, 137\u2013138 38, 101 Economies of scale, 52, 108 computer science and, 31\u201335 EDS, 191 Control Data Corporation (CDC) and, Education and Research Network 26\u201328, 36\u201338 (ERNET), 34, 54, 89 core stacks and, 20 Egypt, 204 Council of Scientific and Industrial Re- Electronic Arrays, 112 Electronic Computer Laboratory, 11 search (CSIR) and, 9, 13, 18\u201319, 100 Electronic data processing (EDP), 60, data processing and, 9, 12\u201313, 15, 25, 62, 118 28, 32\u201333, 37, 208 Electronic design automation (EDA), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 159 and, 34, 44 Electronics City, 140, 170 entrepreneurs and, 35 Electronics Commission (EC), 4, 33, Hollerith Electronic Computer (HEC) 45\u201346, 50\u201351, 66 and, 13\u201314 Electronics Committee imports and, 9\u201310, 26 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) Bhabha and, 40\u201343, 46, 51, 73 state involvement and, 39, 40\u201343, 46, and, 14, 27\u201335, 37\u201338 Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) and, 51, 63, 72\u201373 Electronics Corporation of India Lim- 11\u201313, 15\u201316, 23, 25, 208 innovation and, 37\u201338 ited (ECIL) International Computers and Tabula- computer age and, 102 Department of Electronics (DOE) and, tors Limited (ICT) and, 9, 13 investment and, 35, 38 209 joint ventures and, 10, 35 market issues and, 109, 112, 115, 117, logic design and, 21, 26 Mahalanobis and, 3, 8\u201317, 22\u201325, 36, 121, 124\u2013125 software and, 146\u2013147 38, 101 state involvement and, 44\u201346, 49, mainframe computers and, 32 national computer center and, 22\u201328 53\u201354, 71 programming and, 15\u201316, 23\u201324, 26\u2013 Wipro and, 210 Electronics (magazine), 157 27, 32\u201334, 37\u201338 Electronics Trade and Technology De- research and development (R&D) and, velopment Corporation (ET&T), 80f, 34 83, 101 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- Electronic switches, 82, 95\u201398 Emerson, 196 search (TIFR) and, 14, 17\u201329, 34, Empire Dyeing, 58 36\u201338 Empire Scientific Conference, 10 technical capabilities and, 35\u201338 Engineering services outsourcing (ESO), Technical Cooperation Mission (TCP) 186, 196\u2013198 and, 23\u201326 UNIVAC, 12, 23\u201326","250\u2001Index Entrepreneurs, 1, 5, 210, 217 entitlement and, 66 computer age and, 79\u201381, 95\u201397 growth and, 2, 209 (see also Growth) early computers and, 35 IBM and, 57\u201358, 60, 63\u201366, 69, 71, market issues and, 105, 111, 113f, 118, 190\u2013191, 206 75, 148 offshoring and, 159, 167\u2013168, 170, liberalization and, 145, 209 (see also 174, 182\u2013183 software and, 131, 137, 146\u2013147, 150, Liberalization) 153 market issues and, 121, 128, 137, 144\u2013 state involvement and, 44, 52 145, 148\u2013149, 151, 154\u2013155, 159\u2013 Equity 163, 166\u2013171, 175\u2013176, 180\u2013186, captive units and, 186, 191, 196\u2013203, 189, 194, 211\u2013212, 215\u2013216 206 offshoring and, 158\u2013171, 175\u2013176, computer age and, 86\u201387 179\u2013184 Controller of Capital Issues office and, physical infrastructure and, 211 140 software and, 4\u20135, 75, 86\u201387, 121, Fairchild Semiconductor and, 108 135\u2013137, 144\u2013155 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act state involvement and, 44, 47\u201348, 52 (FERA) and, 52, 64, 66\u201368, 73 Goldman Sachs and, 202 Fairchild Semiconductor, 38, 108, 209 IBM and, 64\u201369, 75 Far Eastern Computers Pte Ltd (FEC), India Brand Equity Fund and, 184 market issues and, 112, 188, 202 121\u2013122 Microcomp and, 112 Fermi, Enrico, 18 offshoring and, 170, 173\u2013176, Fernandes, George, 61\u201362, 67 184\u2013185 Ferranti Limited, 13 regulating foreign, 64, 86\u201387, 170, 173 Ferrari, 197 sweat, 174, 184 Finacle, 214 Warburg Pincus and, 188 Finn, T. Brian, 66\u201367 Fischer, Ronald A., 10 Ernst & Young, 200, 202 Five Year Plan, 16 Escorts Limited, 58 Flexcube, 158, 214, 235n7 Esso Standard Eastern Limited, 57 Flexowriter machines, 133 European Organization for Nuclear Re- Flextronics International Limited, search (CERN), 23 234n32 Everest Group, 200 Floppy disks, 115\u2013116, 120\u2013121 Excelan, 166 Flour Daniel, 196 Export Import Bank, 177 Ford Motors, 192, 196\u2013198 Export Oriented Unit (EOU), 163, 189 Foreign exchange Export processing zones (EPZs), 80, 137, bureaucracy and, 11, 24 158\u2013160, 163, 169, 181 computer age and, 87, 99 Exports early computers and, 11, 24 IBM and, 56, 64, 66, 68 brain drain and, 35 offshoring and, 167\u2013168, 173, 175\u2013176 computer age and, 80\u201381, 86\u201388, 103 Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and, 129 software and, 87, 135, 140, 144","Index\u2001251 state involvement and, 50\u201352 Nehru and, 102 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act New Computer Policy (NCP) and, 85, (FERA), 52, 64, 66\u201368, 73 160, 163 Foreign Trade Policy for 1985\u20131989, 163 offshoring and, 159\u2013160 Forrester, Jay W., 132, 134 Pitroda and, 97 FORTRAN, 26\u201327, 32\u201333, 37\u201338, 92, populist approach of, 51 princely states and, 79 116, 147 private sector and, 210\u2013211 Fortune (magazine), 106 Reagan and, 159\u2013160 France, 19, 30, 71\u201372, 91, 96, 172, 175 regulation and, 209 Fraud, 64\u201365 restrictive economic policies of, 209 Fresco, Paolo, 193 socialism and, 107, 160, 210\u2013211 Frost and Sullivan, 200 software exports and, 159, 163 Fujitsu, 192 state involvement and, 43, 45\u201346, Future Software, 148\u2013150, 234n32 51\u201352 Galaxy computer, 115 telecoms and, 82 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 24 television networks and, 82 Gandhi, Indira war with Pakistan and, 79 Gandhi, Mahatma, 7\u20138, 207 assassination of, 78, 163 Gandhi, Rajiv Bangladesh and, 79 airplanes and, 78\u201379 bank nationalization and, 79 background of, 78\u201379 Cabinet Committee on Economics Af- computer age and, 4, 78\u201385, 88, 90, fairs (CCEA) and, 163 97, 99 censorship and, 79 \u201ccomputer boys\u201d and, 78, 81, 85, 88, 90 communism and, 52 Deodhar and, 79\u201381, 83, 85, 97, 101 computer age and, 81, 96\u2013100 elitism and, 88 Congress Party and, 79 enters politics, 81 economic liberalization and, 160\u2013161, last term of, 167 liberalization and, 168 209\u2013211 licensing and, 82, 173 export processing zones (EPZs) and, new computer policy and, 85\u201388 NIC and, 83 160 offshoring and, 163\u2013164, 167\u2013168 Foreign Trade Policy for 1985\u20131989 poverty and, 102 private sector and, 211 and, 163 technology diffusion and, 88, 100 Haksar and, 107 as technophile, 4, 78\u201385, 88, 90, 97, IBM and, 64, 67\u201368 import restrictions and, 67\u201368 99 India International Trade Fair and, 109 Texas Instruments (TI) and, 164 Industrial Licensing Policy Inquiry train reservation project and, 90\u201395 Gandhi, Sanjay, 81 Committee and, 107 Gandhi, Sonia, 81 liberalization and, 160, 210\u2013211 Lok Sabha and, 79 Marathe and, 159\u2013160 Narayan and, 79","252\u2001Index Ganesh, Krishnan, 190 Nehru and, 100, 210 Garwin, R. L., 23\u201324 offshoring and, 160, 173\u2013176, Gateway Design Automation (GDA), 185\u2013186 159, 235n8 regulation and, 4 (see also Regulation) GE Capital International Services software and, 4\u20135, 140\u2013141, 153, 211 Software Technology Parks (STPs) and, (GECIS), 189\u2013190 General Atlantic Partners, 190 211 General Electric (GE), 140, 189\u2013191, state involvement and, 51\u201352, 127 sustainability and, 129, 213\u2013216 193\u2013194, 201\u2013202 symbols of, 2 General Insurance Corporation, 58 telecoms and, 217 General Motors (GM), 192, 196, 198 GTE, 96 Genpact, 191 Gulf Oil, 192 Geometric, 198 Gun and Shell Factory, 12 Germanium, 15, 20, 40 Gupta, Dan, 65, 75 Germany, 30, 71\u201372, 91, 118, 175, 184 Gupta, N. C., 91\u201392 GI, 112 Gupta, Prem Prakash, 84 Global Delivery Indian Center, 1 Gupta, Umang, 174 Global Software Group India, 177 Gupta Corporation, 174 Godbole, Sharad, 179 Godrej & Boyce Manufacturing Com- H1B visas, 183 Haggerty, Patrick E., 164 pany, 147 Haksar, Parmeshwar Narain, 45, 107 Goel, Prabhakar, 159 Haldane, J. B. S., 13 Goldman Sachs, 202 Harvard Business Review (journal), 99 Gopalakrishnan, S., 135, 139 HCL 8C computer, 105, 116\u2013121 Government of India Act, 8 HEC-2M computer, 13\u201314 Grants, 15, 23, 26, 37, 53, 71\u201372, 74, HEC4 computer, 13 Heidrick & Struggles, 202 193, 208 Heitler, Walter, 18 Grass Foundation, 132 Hewlett Packard (HP), 82\u201383, 122, 166, Green Revolution, 39 Grove, Andy, 126 173, 204 Grover, Ramesh D., 70 Hill, Archibald V., 9, 36 Growth Hinditron, 152 Hindustan Cables, 41 commercial data processing and, 4 Hindustan Computers Limited (HCL) computer science education and, 33 data processing and, 4 ad campaigns of, 118\u2013119 domestic service sector and, 206 computer age and, 88 IBM and, 72, 74 data processing and, 118 Infosys and, 140\u2013141 market issues and, 105, 112\u2013128, 190, innovation and, 204 (see also 197\u2013198 Innovation) offshoring and, 173, 179 KPO industry and, 201 programming and, 124 liberalization and, 173\u2013176, 186, 188, 192, 199, 209, 213","Index\u2001253 software and, 139, 146\u2013147, 151, 210 equity issues and, 64\u201369, 75 state involvement and, 139 exports and, 57\u201358, 60, 63\u201366, 69, 71, Hindustan Teleprinters Limited (HTL), 75, 148 41, 117 fall of, 62\u201369, 161 Hindustan Times (newspaper), 62 foreign exchange and, 56, 64, 66, 68 Hitachi, 112 fraud and, 64\u201365 Hoechst Center for Basic Research, Global Services, 75 high technology and, 3 190\u2013191 Hollerith Section and, 60 Hollerith Electronic Computer (HEC), ICL competition and, 60\u201361 imports and, 55\u201370, 75 13\u201314 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) Hollerith India, 12 Hollerith Section, 60 and, 57, 75 Honda, 198 Indian Railways (IR) and, 59 Honeywell, 23, 49, 60 Indira Gandhi and, 64, 67\u201368, 160 Honeywell-Bull, 71 innovation and, 56, 159 Hong Kong, 108 International Computers Limited Hopper, Grace Murray, 178 House of Tatas, 17 (ICL) and, 60\u201361, 64\u201365, 71\u201372, 208 HSBC, 199 investigations into business practices Hughes Network Systems (HNS), 150 Hughes Software Services (HSS), 150, of, 62\u201369 investment and, 58, 63, 68, 75 234n32 joint ventures and, 68, 71\u201372, 74\u201375 Hukku, Rajesh, 158 labor and, 61\u201362, 64 Hungary, 175 leasing by, 58\u201364, 74 Hunger, 7, 39 licensing and, 63, 65, 69, 126 Huskey, Harry D., 31, 36 life after, 69\u201370 Mahalanobis and, 24 IBM, 4 mainframe computers and, 117\u2013118 airlines and, 58, 61, 69, 149 maintenance charges and, 63 Bhabha and, 24\u201325 market issues and, 55, 63\u201364, 108, 204 BPO and, 191 Mastek and, 148 bundling and, 142\u2013143 Mehra and, 55, 60, 69 Burroughs and, 144\u2013145 as monopoly, 49, 209 collaboration and, 68 Nehru and, 55, 56f, 59f, 68 Committee on Automation and, 63 offshoring and, 159\u2013161, 166\u2013167, custom-built sorters and, 12 customer philosophy of, 60 170\u2013171, 173, 177\u2013178, 180 Daksh and, 190 Palmisano and, 1, 75 data processing and, 55\u201360, 63, 65, 68, personal computers and, 95 73, 108, 117\u2013118, 142, 152, 209 power struggles and, 72\u201374 Department of Electronics (DoE) and, pricing disparities of, 62\u201363 48\u201349, 54, 64\u201366, 69\u201370, 73\u201375, 144 programming and, 61, 74, 118 Electronics Committee and, 63, 72\u201373 Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and, 63\u201365","254\u2001Index IBM (cont.) defense technology and, 40\u201341, 43 public relations and, 61\u201362 early computers and, 9\u201310, 26 punched cards and, 55\u201357 IBM and, 55\u201370, 75 reconditioned machines and, 57\u201359, 61 liberalization and, 213 (see also regulation and, 56 rental rates of, 60\u201361, 65 Liberalization) Research Laboratory and, 193, 199\u2013200 market issues and, 105\u2013109, 112, 115, rise of, 57\u201362, 75 rupee devaluation and, 62\u201363 118, 120\u2013121, 125\u2013129 socialism and, 67, 72 offshoring and, 158\u2013162, 170\u2013177, software and, 131, 142\u2013153, 166 Special Opportunity Plan and, 66 182\u2013183 Srivastava and, 150 protectionism and, 72, 86 state involvement and, 62\u201369 restricted, 48\u201352, 80 System\u2019s Research Institute and, 177 software and, 131, 135, 143\u2013145, 147, taxes and, 65 Training and Education Center and, 57 149, 154\u2013155 unit record machines (URMs) and, state involvement and, 40\u201354, 72, 57\u201359, 63, 69 Watson and, 55, 107 80\u201383, 86, 210 World Trade Corporation (IBM WTC), Import substitution 55, 107 computer age and, 84, 100, 103 IBM 1401 computer, 23\u201324, 57\u201359, 61, market issues and, 3\u20134, 44, 47, 53, 84, 69\u201370, 142, 147 100, 103, 107, 208 IBM 1620 computer, 28, 31, 32f, 57 state involvement and, 44, 47, 53 IBM 370 computer, 65 India IBM 701 computer, 20 Bangladesh war and, 34 IBM 704 computer, 24\u201325, 28 Bombay, 5, 14 (see also Bombay IBM 7090 computer, 24\u201326 IBM System\/360 series, 33, 57\u201358, 63, [Mumbai]) Calcutta (Kolkata), 5\u20136, 10\u201317, 19, 55, 65, 110 ICICI OneSource, 190 59\u201360, 70 ICL 1901 computer, 61 China war and, 40 ICL 1903 computer, 143 colonial rule of, 9, 18, 29, 35, 207 ICT 1201 computer, 13 currency devaluation and, 62 I-flex Solutions, 214 defense technology and, 7, 28, 40\u201346, Illinois Institute of Technology, 96 Import-export double funneling (IEDF), 48, 50, 53\u201354, 60\u201361, 69, 88, 151, 177, 208\u2013209 162 digital future and, 216\u2013217 Imports, 2, 208 diversity of, 2 early computers of, 7\u201338 atomic energy and, 43\u201344 Five Year Plan and, 16 computer age and, 80\u201391, 94\u201395, growth in, 2 (see also Growth) import substitution and, 3\u20134, 44, 47, 100\u2013103 53, 84, 100, 103, 107, 208 independence of, 18 industrialization of, 8, 47, 82, 132 liberalization and, 7 (see also Liberalization)","Index\u2001255 Madras (Chennai), 5\u20136, 27, 30, 34, 70, Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), 89, 92, 121, 135, 146, 148\u2013149, 171, 39 178, 180, 185, 197, 200, 202, 235n7 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) market strength of, 1\u20132 (see also Mar- American faculty members of, 30\u201331 ket issues) computer age and, 92, 96 computer science and, 33\u201335, 92, 135, misperceptions of, 1\u20132 146, 200 mixed-economy approach and, 3, 8, early computers and, 14, 27\u201335, 37\u201338 finding employment and, 132 10, 208 global brand value of, 29 national computer center and, 22\u201328 IBM and, 57, 75 New Computer Policy (NCP) and, 85, market issues and, 109, 113, 193, 200, 215 148, 157, 160, 163 modern computers at, 28\u201335 nuclear programs and, 2, 18\u201319, 23\u2013 Nehru and, 29\u201330, 34, 36 offshoring and, 159 24, 36, 39\u201340, 43\u201344, 46, 57, 71, 99, Sarkar and, 29 101f, 102, 208\u2013209, 212 software and, 132, 134\u2013135, 141, 146, offshoring and, 157\u2013184 150 Poona (Pune), 5\u20136, 40, 60, 133\u2013134, state involvement and, 210 137\u2013138, 167, 170, 182f, 185, 187\u2013 188, 191, 193, 196\u2013198, 202, 217 Indian Meteorological Department poverty in, 2, 7, 102, 205, 207 (IMD), 134, 212 rising IT industry of, 2\u20133 rupee devaluation and, 62\u201363 Indian National Congress (INC), 7\u20139 self-reliance and, 7, 10, 41, 44, 46\u201348, Indian Railways (IR), 59\u201360, 77, 90\u201394, 52, 65, 80, 102\u2013103, 161, 209 self-sufficiency and, 4, 39, 41\u201342, 208 208, 212 socialism and, 3 (see also Socialism) Indian Science Congress, 8, 13, 14f space technology and, 28, 39, 42, 51, Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) 53, 57, 89, 99, 102, 208\u2013209, 212 Y2K problem and, 2\u20133, 141, 146, 178\u2013 early computers and, 11\u201316, 23, 25, 181, 184, 212 208 India Act, 8 India Brand Equity Fund, 184 state involvement and, 39, 41 Indian Administrative Service (IAS), 85 Indian Telephone Industries (ITI), 41, Indian Airlines, 58, 78, 81, 93, 129 Indian Association for the Cultivation 90, 102, 210 of Science, 14 Indo-American Capital and Technol- Indian Banks Association (IBA), 94\u201395, 139 ogy Corporation (ICAT), 163\u2013164, Indian Calculating Machine and Scien- 167, 169 tific Instrument Research Society, 11 Indus Entrepreneurs, The (TIE), 174 Indian Civil Service, 29 Industrialization, 8, 47, 82, 132 Indian Institute of Management, 147 Industrial Licensing Policy Inquiry Indian Institute of Science (IISc), 14, Committee, 107 18\u201319, 125, 145, 210 Infosys BANCS 2000 and, 139\u2013140 beginnings of, 136\u2013141 CAMP and, 136\u2013138","256\u2001Index Infosys (cont.) International Chamber of Commerce Finacle and, 214 (ICC), 106\u2013107 growth of, 140\u2013141 market issues and, 190\u2013191 International Computers and Tabulators modern architecture of, 181f, 182f Limited (ICT), 9, 13 Murthy and, 135\u2013139, 148, 153 offshoring and, 166, 172, 175, 179\u2013 International Computers Indian Manu- 180, 181f\u2013182f facturing Company Limited (ICIM), Progeon and, 190\u2013191 49, 60\u201361, 64, 73, 121, 150 regulations and, 140 reorganization of, 140 International Computers Limited (ICL) revenue of, 141, 213 bundling and, 142\u2013143 software and, 136\u2013141, 148 Committee on Automation and, 63 Hollerith Section and, 60 Infotech Enterprises, 198 IBM and, 60\u201361, 64\u201365, 71\u201372, 208{tab} Initial public offering (IPO), 140, 159 mainframe computers and, 118 Innovation, 210, 214 market issues and, 109\u2013110, 113, 115, 118, 126, 128 computer age and, 81, 88, 96, 99, 102 as near monopoly, 49 early computers and, 37\u201338 software and, 131, 142\u2013144, 150, 152 IBM and, 56, 159 state involvement and, 41, 49, 54 market issues and, 110, 119, 126, 185, International Data Management (IDM), 194\u2013195, 200, 204, 206 70, 152 offshoring and, 159, 171, 174, 181f patents and, 42, 65, 96, 185\u2013186, 195, International Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 143, 199\u2013200, 203 153 R&D and, 216\u2013217 (see also Research International Monetary Fund (IMF), 173 & Development [R&D]) Internet, 89, 150, 172, 181, 199, 207, royalties and, 65, 107\u2013108 software and, 37, 149\u2013152, 155 211\u2013213 state involvement and, 53 Investment, 215 Institutional Group and Information angel investors and, 35 Company, 145 computer age and, 88, 91, 98\u201399, 102 Integra Software, 202 early computers and, 35, 38 Integrated circuits, 33, 38, 45\u201346, 106, 164 foreign, 1\u20132, 38, 68, 161, 187, 202, Intel, 35, 108, 115, 123, 125\u2013128, 166, 208\u2013209, 209, 214 173 IBM and, 58, 63, 68, 75 Intellectual property market issues and, 123, 128, 185, 187\u2013 copyright and, 137\u2013138, 183, 185, 204 188, 190, 193\u2013195, 197, 200, 202 patents and, 42, 65, 96, 185\u2013186, 195, offshoring and, 158, 160\u2013161, 163, 199\u2013200, 203 167, 169, 173\u2013175, 180 royalties and, 65, 107\u2013108 patents and, 42, 65, 96, 185\u2013186, 195, Inter-Ministerial Standing Committee 199\u2013200, 203 (IMSC), 87 R&D and, 128 (see also Research and International Atomic Energy Agency, 43 development [R&D]) restrictive policies and, 128 returns on, 42, 91, 151","Index\u2001257 software and, 151, 154 Karnataka State Electronics Devleop- state involvement and, 42, 44 ment Corporation, 140 Ionosphere, 39 Ireland, 175 Karnataka State Industrial Investment iRMX86 chip, 120 and Development Corporation, 139 Isaac, J. R., 33 ISIJU-1 computer, 16\u201317, 37 Kaul, Pradman, 174 iSmart BPO, 199 Kelkar, P. K., 30, 34 ISO 9000 certification, 176\u2013177 Kennedy, John F., 24 ISO 9001\/TickIT assessment, 150 Kennedy tapes, 115 IT-enabled services (ITES), 186, 203, 205 Kernels, 120 Itochu Corporation, 171 Khadi, 7 Khatau Mills, 58 Jadavpur University (JU), 16 Khosla, Vinod, 174 Jalan, Bimal, 169 Kildall, Gary, 120 James Martin & Co, 180 Kits, 79, 88, 120, 125, 128, 147, 173 Janata Party, 67, 79 Knowledge Center, 199 Japan, 42 Knowledge process outsourcing (KPO), computer age and, 79, 83, 90, 96, 99 186, 200\u2013203 early computers and, 25 Kohli, Faqir Chand, 142\u2013143, 152 mainframe computers and, 90 Korea, 79, 99, 108, 164 market issues and, 106, 197, 200, 204 Kothari, D. S., 101 offshoring and, 164, 175, 179 Kurt Salmon Associates (KSA), 139 protectionism and, 72 Jenson and Nicholson, 81 Labinf group, 139 John Deere Corporation, 171 Lab on Hire, 127 John F. Welch Technology Centre Labor, 38, 217 (JFWTC), 193\u2013195 automation and, 42, 47\u201348, 61, 64, 94, Joint ventures, 208\u2013209, 234n27 125, 139, 145, 158\u2013159, 197, 209 computer age and, 88, 90 automation fears and, 47, 209 early computers and, 10, 35 body shopping and, 5, 87, 137, 140, IBM and, 68, 71\u201372, 74\u201375 market issues and, 107\u2013108, 112\u2013113, 150, 154\u2013155, 168, 171, 176, 180 cheap, 108, 123, 131, 146, 154, 159, 122, 126, 186 offshoring and, 160, 167, 173\u2013174, 162, 175, 184, 191, 198, 202\u2013203, 214 179, 183 China and, 175 software and, 139, 143\u2013144, 152\u2013153, data analysis and, 202 data conversion and, 136 155 export processing zones (EPZs) and, JP Morgan, 202 158 Fernandes and, 61\u201362, 67 Kanodia, Lalit Surammal, 141\u2013142 IBM and, 61, 64 Kanpur Indo-American Project (KIAP), import substitution and, 44, 47, 53, 84, 100, 103, 107, 208{tab}intellec- 30, 35 tual, 160, 171, 179","258\u2001Index Labor (cont.) scientific collaboration and, 46 market issues and, 108, 123 security monitoring and, 169 offshoring and, 159 (see also software and, 131, 145\u2013146, 149, 154 Offshoring) structural changes in computer indus- protectionism and, 72, 86 skilled, 2, 10, 29, 73\u201374, 123\u2013124, 157, try and, 131 159, 170, 183, 193, 206\u2013207, 213, telecoms and, 5, 180, 213 215 as turning point, 7 Special Opportunity Plan and, 66 Licensing state involvement and, 47\u201348, 50 computer age and, 82\u201384, 87, 99 unions and, 47\u201348, 61\u201362, 67, 85, Export Oriented Units (EOUs) and, 163 93\u201395, 142 IBM and, 63, 65, 69, 126 unskilled, 211 ICAT and, 163, 169 writing code and, 171, 179 Indus Technologies and, 163 industrial, 45, 63, 83, 107, 125, 173 Landa, Krishna, 166 Intel and, 126 Land Earth Station (LES), 150 Letter of Intent and, 107 Laptop computers, 83, 85, 213 liberalization and, 83 (see also Large-scale integration (LSI), 106 Lauda Air, 187 Liberalization) Leasing, 58\u201364, 68, 74, 88\u201390, 118, 140, manufacturing, 51, 84, 107, 112 offshoring and, 163\u2013165, 169\u2013170, 142, 151, 172 Lehman Brothers, 202 173, 176 Leslie, Stuart W., 35 Open General License (OGL) and, 87, Letter of Intent, 107 LEXIS (Legal Exchange Information Ser- 154 Rajiv Gandhi and, 82, 173 vice), 133 regulation and, 45\u201346, 50\u201351, 54, 63, LG, 192 Liberalization, 2, 120 65, 69, 78, 82\u201384, 87, 99, 106\u2013107, 111\u2013112, 125\u2013126, 150, 154, 163\u2013 airlines and, 186 165, 169\u2013170, 173, 176, 209, 214 computer age and, 81\u201388, 103 software and, 150, 154, 214 computer policy and, 82\u201388 SUN Microsystems and, 126 connection with United States and, 35 Texas Instruments and, 163\u2013165 full-scale, 4, 122 Life Insurance Corporation of India, 58, 69 growth and, 173\u2013176, 186, 188, 192, Liles, Donn, 136, 137 Lobbying, 24, 122, 144, 168, 170 199, 209, 213 Local Area Network (LAN), 150, 158 Indira Gandhi and, 160, 210\u2013211 Logic circuits, 44 mixed-economy approach and, 3, 8, Logic design, 21, 26 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 16 10, 208 Lotus 1-2-3, 120, 147 Nehru and, 68 Lovelock and Lewes Services Private offshoring and, 157, 160, 168\u2013169, Limited, 199 Loyalty Gate, 187 173\u2013176, 180, 183\u2013184, 199 Lyka Labs, 148 private sector and, 3 Rajiv Gandhi and, 168","Index\u2001259 Mac World (magazine), 157 Mainframe computers, 210 Magnetic drums, 15 banks and, 58, 61, 64, 94, 158 Magnetic tape, 20, 26, 31, 57, 115, 120, computer age and, 86, 90, 94 CPUs and, 86 132\u2013133 early use of, 32 Magnum, 123 IBM and, 32, 61, 69, 117, 145, 171, 180 Mahalanobis, Prasanta Chandra ICL, 118 Japan and, 90 Aiken and, 12 market issues and, 105, 110, 113f, background of, 10\u201311 117\u2013119, 124, 126, 128 Bernal and, 13 offshoring and, 158, 171, 178\u2013180 Bhabha and, 22, 24\u201325, 36, 38 PC dominance and, 131 Bohr and, 14f programming and, 3 calculators and, 38 software and, 131, 135, 142\u2013143, 145\u2013 computer age and, 101 146, 150, 152\u2013153, 216 early computers and, 3, 8\u201317, 22\u201325, state involvement and, 42, 47, 50 36, 38, 101 Majumder, Dwijesh Datta, 16 early technical capabilities and, 36 Malhotra, Arjun, 105, 109, 111, 119 Electronic Computer Laboratory and, Malhotra, Ashok, 142 Mallikarjun, Y., 91 11 Malmoe Aviation, 187 as Fellow of Royal Society, 12 Malviya, Madan Mohan, 9 Five Year Plan and, 16 Manchester University, 22 Harvard Mathematical Laboratory Manhattan Project, 18 Marathe, Sharad Madhav, 159\u2013160, and, 12 IBM and, 24 163\u2013164, 167 Indian Calculating Machine and Sci- Market issues entific Instrument Research Society acquisitions and, 39, 146, 184, 190, 214 and, 11 airlines and, 129, 185\u2013188, 191 Indian self-reliance and, 16 banks and, 107, 128\u2013129, 185\u2013191, Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), 13\u201314 integrated circuits and, 38 199, 202\u2013203, 206 Metropolis and, 16 buyouts and, 184 Nehru and, 3, 9\u201310, 13, 101 China and, 190\u2013194, 198\u2013200, research institutes and, 3, 11, 13 \u201cShort Visits of Scientists from 203\u2013204 Abroad\u201d and, 13 collaboration and, 106\u2013107, 116, 126, socialism and, 12\u201313, 17 social networking of, 12\u201313 128\u2013129, 196 Soviet Science Academy and, 15 Control Data Corporation (CDC) and, state involvement and, 16\u201317 statistical methods and, 8, 10\u201311, 13, 24 108 UNIVAC and, 12, 23, 25 data conversion and, 196 von Neumann and, 12 data processing and, 108, 117\u2013118, 127 Mahalanobis Distance, 13 Delhi Cloth Mills (DCM) and, 105\u2013 Main automatic exchange (MAX), 97 116, 119\u2013121, 124\u2013125, 128, 146, 152","260\u2001Index Market issues (cont.) investment and, 123, 128, 185, 187\u2013 Department of Electronics (DoE) and, 188, 190, 193\u2013195, 197, 200, 202 109, 117 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Japan and, 106, 197, 200, 204 and, 115 joint ventures and, 107\u2013108, 112\u2013113, Electronics Corporation of India Lim- ited (ECIL) and, 109, 112, 115, 117, 122, 126, 186 121, 124\u2013125 knowledge business and, 199\u2013203 engineering services and, 196\u2013198 labor and, 108, 123 entrepreneurs and, 105, 111, 113f, legal work and, 200\u2013201 118, 190\u2013191, 206 Letter of Intent and, 107 equity and, 112, 188, 202 liberalization and, 2 (see also export processing zones (EPZs) and, 80, 137, 158\u2013160, 163, 169, 181 Liberalization) exports and, 121, 128, 137, 144\u2013145, licensing and, 45\u201346 (see also 148\u2013149, 151, 154\u2013155, 159\u2013163, 166\u2013171, 175\u2013176, 180\u2013186, 189, Licensing) 194, 211\u2013212, 215\u2013216 mainframe computers and, 105, 110, foreign exchange and, 11, 24, 50\u201352, 56, 64, 66, 68, 87, 99, 129, 135, 140, 113f, 117\u2013119, 124, 126, 128 144, 167\u2013168, 173, 175 medical devices and, 197\u2013198 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act mergers and, 184, 190, 192 (FERA) and, 52, 64, 66\u201368, 73 Microcomp and, 111\u2013112 garage start-ups and, 111\u2013116 minicomputers and, 152\u2013153 hardware industry evolution and, mixed-economy approach and, 3, 8, 127\u2013129 Hindustan Computers Limited (HCL) 10, 208 and, 105, 112\u2013128, 190, 197\u2013198 Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Prac- IBM and, 55, 63\u201364, 108 imports and, 105\u2013109, 112, 115, 118, tices (MRTP) Act and, 52 120\u2013121, 125\u2013129 New Computer Policy (NCP) and, 85, import substitution and, 3\u20134, 44, 47, 53, 84, 100, 103, 107, 208 148, 157, 160, 163 increase in design services and, offshoring and, 157\u2013184 196\u2013198 physical infrastructure and, 211 Indian advantage and, 203\u2013206 protectionism and, 72, 86 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) research and development (R&D) and, and, 109, 113, 193, 200, 215 innovation and, 110, 119, 126, 185, 120, 124\u2013128, 186, 191\u2013195, 197\u2013 194\u2013195, 200, 204, 206 198, 203\u2013204, 206 International Computers Limited research institutes and, 191\u2013195 (ICL) and, 109\u2013110, 113, 115, 118, rupee devaluation and, 62\u201363 126, 128 satellite communications and, 1, 4\u20135, 86\u201387, 89, 121, 157, 161\u2013172, 168, 180\u2013183, 186, 211\u2013212 Singapore and, 121\u2013124 smuggling and, 83, 109 socialism and, 107 software and, 86\u201387 tariffs and, 83, 171, 173, 175, 179, 181 taxes and, 121","Index\u2001261 telecoms and, 128, 141, 189, 197, 199, Y2K and, 178 202\u2013203 Menon, M. Govind Kumar, 24, 44, 46, United States and, 189\u2013196, 199\u2013200, 50\u201354, 61, 66\u201368, 72 203\u2013205 Merck, 192 Mercury computer, 23 Wall Street and, 1, 185, 202 Mergers, 184, 190, 192 MarketRx, 202 Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS), 109 Marshall, Roy, 187 Metropolis, Nicholas C., 16 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mexico, 175, 190\u2013191, 193, 196, 198, (MIT), 21, 29\u201330, 32, 34, 132, 134, 204 141\u2013142 MICO Bosch, 170 Mastek, 148, 175 Micro-2200 computer, 113\u2013114 Mathematics, 135, 201 MicroBanker, 158 algebra and, 28 Microcomp computer, 111\u2013112 calculus, 134 Microprogramming, 153, 162 differential equations, 20, 28 Microsoft, 35, 116, 120, 147, 173, 201, PREDA and, 20 significant digit arithmetic (SDA), 16, 204 87, 161 Minicomputers statistics, 8, 10\u201317, 24, 36, 54, 110, 142, 202, 208 as alternative to mainframes, 50, 146 Mauchly, John, 12 computer age and, 84, 86 McDonald, John, 189 Data General and, 134\u2013135, 152 McDonald, Ray, 144 market issues and, 105, 110, 115, 117, McKenzie & Company, 122\u2013123 McKinsey and Company, 199, 206 122, 124, 126, 129, 152 Mead Data Central, 133 Menon report on, 50 Medical devices, 197\u2013198 minicomputers and, 152\u2013153 Meemansi, G. B., 96 PC dominance and, 131 Mehra, Om Prakash, 55, 60, 69 programming and, 3 Mehta, Ketan, 147 software and, 134\u2013136, 138f, 142, 152 Memorex, 115 state involvement and, 50\u201352, 54, 61 Memory, 94\u201395, 108 Minsk computer, 33, 60 cassettes and, 114, 116\u2013117 Missiles, 2 early computers and, 14\u201315, 20\u201321, Mitra, Samarendra Kumar, 11\u201312, 19 24, 28, 38 Mitta, Sridhar, 124\u2013127 expandable, 44 Mixed-economy approach, 3, 8, 10, 208 ferrite-core, 20\u201321, 38, 44, 209 Mobile phones, 204, 207, 213, 216 floppy disks and, 115\u2013116, 120\u2013121 Monitor Group, 200 iRMX chip and, 120 Monopolies, 49, 51\u201352, 64, 70, 73, 99, magnetic tape storage and, 20, 26, 31, 57, 115, 120, 132\u2013133 144, 172\u2013173, 209 random access, 95 Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Prac- serial, 20 tices (MRTP) Act, 52, 173 Morarji Goculdas, 58 Morita, Akio, 106\u2013107 Mostek, 112","262\u2001Index Motor Industries Company Limited National Informatics Centre (NIC), 53\u2013 (MICO), 138, 170 54, 82\u201384, 89\u201390, 101, 162 Motorola, 115\u2013116, 122\u2013128, 159, 166, National Library of Medicine, 162 170, 177\u2013178, 190, 204 National Planning Committee (NPC), 8 National Sample Survey (NSS), 13, 25 MphasiS, 190 National Semiconductor, 166 MS-DOS operating system, 116 National Task Force on Information Mukherjee, Hirendra Nath, 64 Multinational corporations (MNCs), Technology and Software Develop- ment, 184 70\u201372, 131, 194. See also specific NEC, 112 corporation Nehru, Arun, 81, 85 Multiple access computing (MAC), 35, Nehru, Jawaharlal 141 atomic energy and, 7 Murthy, K. S. N., 139 Bhabha and, 3, 9\u201310, 18\u201319, 25, 40\u2013 Murthy, N. R. Narayana, 135\u2013139, 148, 41, 43, 46, 101 153 Bose and, 8 central planning and, 10 Nadar, Shiv Shankar, 109\u2013112, 113f, death of, 4, 43 115, 136 as first prime minister of India, 7, 9 foreign capital and, 10 Narasimhan, Ashok, 125 Government of India Act and, 8 Narasimhan, Rangaswamy, 20, 21f, growth and, 100, 210 IBM and, 55, 56f, 59f, 68 25\u201326, 44 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) NASA, 39 and, 29\u201330, 34, 36 NASDAQ Stock Exchange, 141 Indian National Congress (INC) and, NASSCOM, 176, 237n1 7\u20139 National, 112 Indian Science Congress and, 8, 13, National Association of Software and 14f Indira Gandhi and, 43, 99, 102 Services Companies (NASSCOM), liberalization and, 68 168, 176, 179, 237n1 Mahalanobis and, 3, 9\u201310, 13, 101 National Cash Register, 71 Mahatma Gandhi and, 8 National Centre for Electronic Switch National Planning Committee (NPC) R&D, 97 and, 8 National Centre for Medium Range Oppenheimer and, 18 Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), political economy and, 210 101f private sector and, 210 National Centre for Software Develop- public sector and, 102 ment and Computing Techniques Rajiv Gandhi and, 78 (NCSDCT), 34, 53\u201354, 88\u201389 role of science and, 7\u201313, 18\u201320, 22f, National champions, 46, 71, 84 25, 29\u201330, 34\u201336, 40\u201341, 100\u2013101, National Chemical Laboratory (NCL), 207\u2013208 193 National computer center, 22\u201328 National Financial Switch, 77 National Industrial Tribunal, 94","Index\u2001263 self-reliance and, 102 Offshore Development Centre model, Seshagiri and, 84 151, 171, 173, 197 \u201dShort Visits of Scientists from Offshore Software Development Center Abroad\u201d and, 13 (OSDC), 140 socialism and, 4, 8 state involvement and, 4 Offshoring Neilsoft, 198 airlines and, 171 Nelco, 112 American Express and, 188\u2013191, 206 Netravali, Arum, 174 banks and, 158\u2013159, 166, 168, 173\u2013 New Computer Policy (NCP), 85\u201386, 176, 179 Citibank and, 158\u2013159, 166, 168, 188, 148, 157, 160, 163 190\u2013191, 206 New Information Order, 161 collaboration and, 167 New Projects Organization (NPO), 106, Control Data Corporation (CDC) and, 160 109 cost savings and, 203\u2013206 New York Times (newspaper), 68 data conversion and, 184 NEC Sx-1000 computer, 90 Department of Electronics (DoE) and, Nexus 3000, 122 166\u2013167, 169\u2013170, 172, 176, 179, Nigam, Diwakar, 146\u2013147, 153 183 NIIT, 151, 175 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Nike-Apache, 39 and, 166 Nilekani, Nandan Mohan, 135 entrepreneurs and, 159, 167\u2013168, 170, Nipuna, 191 174, 182\u2013183 Nixdorf, 72 equity and, 170, 173\u2013175, 184\u2013185 Nokia, 204 exports and, 158\u2013171, 175\u2013176, Novell, 173 179\u2013184 Noyce, Robert, 108 foreign exchange and, 167\u2013168, 173, Nuclear programs, 208\u2013209, 212 175 Foreign Trade Policy for 1985\u20131989 Bhabha and, 18\u201319, 36, 39 and, 163 early computers and, 19, 23\u201324, 36 growth and, 160, 172\u2013176, 185\u2013186 France and, 71 Hindustan Computers Limited (HCL) Garwin and, 23\u201324 and, 173, 180 IBM and, 57 imports and, 158\u2013162, 170\u2013177, national self-assurance and, 99 182\u2013183 Rajiv Gandhi and, 102 Indian advantage and, 203\u2013206 state involvement and, 40, 43\u201344, Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and, 159 46 Infosys and, 166, 172, 175, 180, supercomputers and, 101f 181f\u2013182f United States and, 21, 24\u201325 innovation and, 159, 171, 174, 181f weapons and, 2 investment and, 158, 160\u2013161, 163, Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 46 167, 169, 173\u2013175, 180 Oak Hill Capital Partners, 190 OfficeTiger, 202\u2013203","264\u2001Index Offshoring (cont.) Operations Research Group (ORG), 146\u2013 Japan and, 164, 175, 179 147, 152\u2013153 joint ventures and, 160, 167, 173\u2013174, 179, 183 Oppenheimer, Robert, 18 liberalization and, 157, 160, 168\u2013169, Oracle, 147, 159, 173, 201, 235n7 172\u2013176, 180, 183\u2013184, 199 Ordnance Discrete Variable Automatic licensing and, 163\u2013165, 169\u2013170, 173, 176 Computer (ORDVAC), 20 Madras-Chicago link and, 171 Original equipment manufacturer mainframe computers and, 158, 171, 178\u2013180 (OEM), 123 market issues and, 157\u2013184 Overseas Communication Service New Information Order and, 161 Patni and, 133 (OCS), 163 private and state-supported enclaves Overseas Private Investment Corpora- for, 159\u2013163 quality issues and, 176\u2013178 tion (OPIC), 160, 164 regulation and, 166, 175, 183 research and development (R&D) and, P1024 protocol, 153 167, 191\u2013195, 214, 216 Pakistan, 46, 79 satellite communications and, 157, Palace Grounds, Bangalore, 1 161\u2013172, 180\u2013183 Palmisano, Samuel J., 1, 75 software and, 157\u2013184 PanAm, 162 \u201dSoftware India\u201d conferences and, Paper tapes, 26, 33, 116, 132\u2013134 166\u2013168 Patel, C. K. N., 174 Software Technology Parks (STPs) and, Patel, Nitin, 142 4\u20135, 140, 157, 160\u2013165, 168\u2013172, Patents, 42, 65, 96, 185\u2013186, 195, 199\u2013 179\u2013183, 211 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- 200, 203 search (TIFR) and, 161 Patil, Shivraj, 84 telecoms and, 162, 165, 171\u2013172, 174\u2013 Patil, Suhas, 174 175, 179\u2013181 Patni, Narendra United States and, 158\u2013160, 164\u2013167, 171\u2013175, 177, 179\u2013180, 183, 211 data conversion and, 132\u2013136, 141, Vittal and, 169\u2013172, 183 153, 210 Y2K issue and, 178\u2013180, 184 Murthy and, 136 Ohio State University, 30 offshoring and, 133 Oklahoma State University, 124 Patni, Poonam, 133 Omron, 112 Patni Computer Systems (PCS), 134\u2013 Online Data Processor (OLDAP), 45 Open General License (OGL), 87, 137, 146, 152\u2013154, 210, 232n3 Paul, K. Roy, 169 154 Pauli, Wolfgang, 18 Open Systems Interconnect, 89 Pawar, Rajendra, 151 PC World (magazine), 157 PDP 11 computer, 115 PDP-8 computer, 44 Pentium, 173 Permits, 47, 170 Personal computers (PCs), 80f, 158, 210, 213","Index\u2001265 IBM and, 73, 95 Processors Systems India (PSI), 128, liberalization and, 86\u201387 146 market issues and, 120, 122, 125, 128 New Computer Policy (NCP) and, 86 Product Engineering Solutions (PES), software and, 131, 135 197 state involvement and, 51, 54 Unique Identification Authority of Progeon, 190\u2013191 Programming India (UIDAI) and, 77 Personal Software Process (PSP), 178 ALGOL, 143 Pertec, 115 BASIC, 116\u2013117, 120, 147 Pfeiffer, Ralph, 67 Burroughs and, 153 Phadke, D. Y., 24\u201325 C, 98 Philbrick-Rideout Electronic Differential CDC and, 152 CMC and, 92 Analyzer (PREDA), 20, 33 COBOL, 27, 95, 120, 147, 178\u2013180 Philco Corporation, 16, 26 COMPASS, 27 Philippines, 175, 204\u2013205, 217 cost reduction and, 131 Philips International, 192 DBC and, 137 Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), 14, DCM and, 109 early computers and, 15\u201316, 23\u201324, 41, 57 Piore, E. R., 23 26\u201327, 32\u201334, 37\u201338 Pitroda, Sam, 85, 96\u2013101 FORTRAN, 26\u201327, 32\u201333, 37\u201338, 92, Plexion, 198 Polaris, 234n7 116, 147 Political economy, 5, 52, 209\u2013212 HCL and, 124 Populist approach, 51 IBM and, 61, 74 Posts and Telegraph Department, 86 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) Poverty, 2, 7, 102, 205, 207 Powers-Samas, 9 and, 152 PPS4 chip, 110 lack of basic knowledge of, 215\u2013216 PPS-8 microprocessor, 116 mainframe computers and, 3 Premji, Azim Hasham, 124\u2013125 microprogramming, 153, 162 Premji, Mohamed Hasham, 124 minicomputers and, 3 Presidency College, 10 Rajaraman and, 32\u201333 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), 199\u2013 SCOPE, 27 software and, 124, 137, 142\u2013143, 200, 202 Prime Computers, 152 152\u2013153 Princeton University, 20, 30\u201331, 36 subroutines and, 26\u201327, 37 Principles of Computer Programming (Raja- TCS, 143 utility programs and, 27 raman), 33 WNS market research and, 202 Printers, 15, 20, 26, 41, 59, 115, 117\u2013 Project MAC, 141 Protectionism, 72, 86 119, 132\u2013133, 144 Public Accounts Committee (PAC), Private branch exchange (PBX), 97 Privatization, 213 63\u201365 Public Call Office, 99 Public good, 77","266\u2001Index Pulse code modulation (PCM), 97 Reduced Instruction Set Computing Punched cards, 55\u201357 (RISC), 122 Purdue University, 30 PureTech, 201\u2013202 Reebok, 139 Puri, D. S. (Pammi), 111 Refurbished machines, 58, 208 Pyramid Research, 77 Regional Computer Centres (RCCs), 48 Regulation Qualcomm, 204 Quality, 5, 212\u2013215 collaboration and, 41\u201342, 46, 48, 51, 68, 107 computer age and, 82 early computers and, 12, 15 development and, 48\u201352 IBM and, 73 Electronics Commission and, 4, 33, ISO certification and, 150, 176 \u2013177 market issues and, 123, 185, 189\u2013190, 45\u201346, 50\u201351, 66 Electronics Committee and, 39, 41\u201343, 195, 198, 204\u2013205 offshoring and, 175\u2013178, 180, 182, 46, 63, 72\u201373 foreign exchange and, 11, 24, 50\u201352, 184 software and, 140, 144, 150, 152 56, 64, 66, 68, 87, 99, 129, 135, 140, state involvement and, 48\u201349 144, 167\u2013168, 173, 175 QuEST, 198 Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) and, 52, 64, 66\u201368, 73 Rabinowitz, Irving N., 31 IBM and, 56 Raghavan, Nadathur S., 135 Indira Gandhi and, 209 Railway Board, 91 Letter of Intent and, 107 Rajam, Srini, 166 liberalization and, 210 (see also Rajaraman, V., 32\u201333 Liberalization) Ram, Lala Bharat, 105\u2013106 licensing and, 45\u201346, 50\u201351, 54, 63, Ram, Lala Shri, 105 65, 69, 78, 82\u201384, 87, 99, 106\u2013107, Ram, Vinay Bharat, 105\u2013110 111\u2013112, 125\u2013126, 150, 154, 163\u2013 Ramachandran, S., 101 165, 169\u2013170, 173, 176, 209, 214 Ramadorai, Subramaniam, 145 offshoring and, 166, 175, 183 Ramani, K. V., 148\u2013150, 153 permits and, 47, 170 Rao, Ayyagari Sambasiva, 19\u201320, 41 production ceilings and, 108 Rao, C. N. R., 101 software and, 131, 140 Rao, G. Ram Mohan, 164 state involvement and, 3\u20134, 47\u201353, 56, Rao, Jaithirth, 190 64, 107\u2013108, 118, 131, 166, 175, 183 Rao, N. J., 125 tax, 118 Rao, P. V. Narasimha, 84, 160 Rekhi, Kanwal, 174 Rao, Sanjeevi, 85 Remington Rand, 9, 12 Reagan, Ronald, 159\u2013160 Research and development (R&D), 210 Reconditioned computers, 57\u201359, atomic energy and, 7, 17\u201323, 27\u201328, 38\u201346, 49, 51, 53, 84, 100, 102, 212 61 computer age and, 88, 91, 93, 96\u201397 Reddy, Raj, 174 defense technology and, 7, 28, 40\u201346, 48, 50, 53\u201354, 60\u201361, 69, 88, 151, 177, 208\u2013209","Index\u2001267 early computers and, 34 Royal Society, 9\u201310, 12\u201313 ERNET and, 34, 54 Royalties, 65, 107\u2013108 grants and, 15, 23, 26, 37, 53, 71\u201372, R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 203 Rural automatic exchange (RAX), 97 74, 193, 208 Rutherford, Ernest, 18 market issues and, 120, 124\u2013128, 186, Sabena, 187 191\u2013195, 197\u2013198, 203\u2013204, 206 Saha, Meghnad, 8\u20139 national champions and, 46, 71, 84 Sankhya Yantra Private Limited, 38 offshoring and, 167, 191\u2013195, 214, Santa Cruz Electronics Export Process- 216 ing Zone (SEEPZ), 80, 137, 144, software and, 152 158\u2013160, 186 space technology and, 28, 39, 42, 51, SAP, 173 Sarabhai, Vikram, 39, 41, 43, 44\u201346, 53, 57, 89, 99, 102, 208\u2013209, 212 63, 72 state involvement and, 42\u201344, 46, 48, Sarkar, Nalini Ranjan, 29 Satcom, 172 51, 53, 208 Satellite communications Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- computer age and, 86\u201387, 89 market issues and, 1, 4\u20135, 86\u201387, 89, search (TIFR) and, 14 121, 157, 161\u2013172, 180\u2013183, 186, Telecommunications Research Center 211\u2013212 offshoring and, 157, 161\u2013172, (TRC) and, 89, 95\u201397 180\u2013183 Research institutes. See also specific Satellite terminals, 89\u201390, 93 Satyam Computer Services, 171, 180, institute 191 Bhabha and, 3, 8, 10, 17\u201318, 23, 25, Scheinman, Dan, 185, 195 SCOPE, 27 27, 51 Self-reliance Mahalanobis and, 3, 11, 13 computer age and, 80 market issues and, 191\u2013195 state involvement and, 7, 10, 41, 44, plethora of, 191\u2013195 46\u201348, 52, 65, 80, 102\u2013103, 161, 209 Research Triangle Park, 160 Self-sufficiency, 4, 39, 41\u201342, 208 Reserve Bank of India (RBI), 11, 64, 94, Semiconductors, 5, 21, 42, 44, 97, 108\u2013 109, 164, 197, 205 129 Semiconductors Limited, 40 Resistors, 20 Semi knocked down (SKD), 128, 147 Reuters, 162 Sen, Pronab, 169 Reverse engineering, 108\u2013109 Sentinel Computer Corporation, 125 Review Committee on Electronics, 52 Seshagiri, Girish, 178 Review of Scientific Instruments (journal), Seshagiri, N., 28, 66, 83\u201385, 90, 101, 161, 163, 166, 223n68 12 Rideout, Vincent C., 19\u201320 Risk Capital and Technology Finance Corporation, 174 Robotron, 118 Rockets, 28, 39, 57, 208 Rockwell International, 96, 110, 112\u2013 113, 114f, 116, 125, 160 Roorkee Engineering College, 57 Roy, Raman, 189\u2013190","268\u2001Index Sethi, Prakash Chand, 91 Society for Worldwide Financial Tele- Sharma, Anil, 157 communications (SWIFT), 162 Sharma, Arvind, 92 Sharma, Satish, 81 SoftCALC, 147 Sharp Electronics, 106, 108 Softek OFFICE, 147 Shaw Wallace, 148 Software, 1 Shepherd, Mark, Jr., 164 Shibulal, S. D., 135 BANCS 2000, 139\u2013140 \u201cShort Visits of Scientists from Abroad\u201d banks and, 139\u2013140, 142\u2013143, 145, program, 13 147\u2013148, 154, 158, 214 Shugart Associates, 115\u2013116 body shopping and, 5, 87, 137, 140, Siemens, 72 Sierra Atlantic, 198 150, 154\u2013155, 168, 171, 176, 180 Significant digit arithmetic (SDA), 16, Boston-Pune network and, 167 Silicon Valley Indian Professionals\u2019 As- bundling and, 131, 142\u2013143 CAMP, 136\u2013138 sociation (SIPA), 174 Capability Maturity Model for Soft- SIMSPACE, 28 Singapore, 121\u2013124, 148, 151, 160, 164\u2013 ware (CMM) and, 177\u2013178 collaboration and, 144, 152, 155 165, 175, 180, 209 data conversion and, 131\u2013136, 154, Singapore Airlines, 171 Singh, Kanwar Rajendra, 62 210 Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, 17 Data General and, 115, 134\u2013138, Smuggling, 83, 109 Socialism 152\u2013153, 166 data processing and, 131, 134, 138, automation fears and, 47, 209 computer age and, 79, 81\u201383 141\u2013142, 148, 152 democratic, 8 Delhi Cloth Mills (DCM) and, 146, IBM and, 67, 72 Indira Gandhi and, 160, 210\u2013211 152 Janata Party and, 67, 79 Department of Electronics (DoE) and, liberalization and, 7 (see also 144 Liberalization) Desai and, 147\u2013148, 153 Mahalanobis and, 12\u201313, 17 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) market issues and, 107 mixed-economy approach and, 3, 8, and, 134, 143 Electronics Corporation of India Lim- 10, 208 Narayan and, 79 ited (ECIL) and, 146\u2013147 Nehru and, 4, 8 entrepreneurs and, 131, 137, 146\u2013147, Soviet Union and, 8, 10, 15\u201316, 30, 150, 153 33\u201334, 37, 43, 46, 49, 102, 208 exports and, 4\u20135, 75, 86\u201387, 121, 135\u2013 trade unions and, 47 Societe Internationale Telecommunica- 137, 144\u2013155 Flexcube, 158, 214, 235n7 tions Aeronautiques (SITA), 162 foreign exchange and, 87, 135, 140, 144 Forrester and, 132, 134 growth and, 4\u20135, 140\u2013141, 153, 211 Hindustan Computers Limited (HCL) and, 139, 146\u2013147, 151, 210 IBM and, 131, 142\u2013153, 166","Index\u2001269 imports and, 131, 135, 143\u2013145, 147, softCALC, 147 149, 154\u2013155 softek OFFICE, 147 \u201csoftware export\u201d definition and, 87 increased capabilities in, 151\u2013155 softWORD, 147 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) Tally, 214 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- and, 132, 134\u2013135, 141, 146, 150 Infosys and, 136\u2013141, 148 search (TIFR) and, 152 innovation and, 37, 149\u2013152, 155 taxes and, 151 International Computers Limited TCS and, 141\u2013146, 152\u2013154 telecoms and, 99, 150, 154 (ICL) and, 131, 142\u2013144, 150, 152 Texas Instruments (TI) and, 166 investment and, 151, 154 train reservation project and, 90\u201395 joint ventures and, 139, 143\u2013144, United States and, 132\u2013136, 140, 142\u2013 152\u2013153, 155 143, 145\u2013146, 148, 151\u2013155 liberalization and, 131, 145\u2013146, 149, Word Perfect, 120 WordStar, 147 154 Software Development Promotion licensing and, 150, 154, 214 local markets and, 146\u2013151 Agency, 86 Lotus 1-2-3, 120, 147 Software Engineering Institute (SEI), 177 mainframe computers and, 131, 135, \u201cSoftware India\u201d conferences, 166\u2013168 Software Technology Parks of India 142\u2013143, 145\u2013146, 150, 152\u2013153, 216 (STPI), 140, 170, 181 Marathe and, 159\u2013160, 163\u2013164, 167 Software Technology Parks (STPs), 4\u20135, market issues and, 86\u201387 Microbanker and, 158 140, 157, 160\u2013165, 168\u2013172, 179\u2013 minicomputers and, 134\u2013136, 138f, 183, 211 142, 152 SoftWORD, 147 Murthy and, 135\u2013139, 148, 153 Sondhi, Mantosh, 81 NASSCOM and, 168, 176, 179, 237n1 Sony, 85, 106\u2013108, 204, 209 Nigam and, 146\u2013147, 153 Sorters, 12 offshoring and, 157\u2013184 Southern Pacific Railroad, 91 Open General License (OGL) and, 87, Soviet Union, 8, 10, 15\u201316, 30, 33\u201334, 154 37, 43, 46, 49, 102, 208 Patni and, 132\u2013136, 141, 153 Space Applications Centre, 89 personal computers (PCs) and, 131, Space technology 135 Nike-Apache and, 39 printers and, 15, 132\u2013133 R&D in, 28, 39, 42, 51, 53, 57, 89, 99, private and state-supported enclaves 102, 208\u2013209, 212 for, 159\u2013163 rockets and, 28, 39, 57, 208 programming and, 124, 137, 142\u2013143, SPC-1, 96, 97 152\u2013153 Special Opportunity Plan, 66 Ramani and, 148\u2013150, 153 Spectramind, 190\u2013191 regulation and, 131, 140 Sperry, 24, 150, 152, 153 research and development (R&D) and, Srikantan, S., 45 152","270\u2001Index Srivastava, Saurabh, 69, 150\u2013151, 167 investment and, 42 Standard Chartered, 199 labor and, 47\u201348, 50 Standing Committee on Software Ex- liberalization and, 46 (see also port Technology Parks, 163 Liberalization) Stanford University, 34, 124 licensing and, 45\u201346, 50\u201351, 54, 63, State Bank of India, 58 State involvement 65, 69, 78, 82\u201384, 87, 99, 106\u2013107, 111\u2013112, 125\u2013126, 150, 154, 163\u2013 atomic energy and, 39\u201346, 49, 51, 53 165, 169\u2013170, 173, 176, 209, 214 banks and, 42, 47\u201348, 51 Mahalanobis and, 16\u201317 Bhabha and, 18\u201319, 39\u201344, 46, 51, 73, mainframe computers and, 42, 47, 50 minicomputers and, 50\u201352, 54, 61, 101 105, 110, 115, 117, 122, 124, 126, calculators and, 51 129 central planning and, 10 multinational corporations (MNCs) collaboration and, 41\u201342, 46, 48, 51, 68 and, 70\u201372 Computer Maintenance Corporation national champions and, 46, 71, 84 National Informatics Centre (NIC) (CMC) and, 54, 70, 75, 83\u201384, 86, and, 53\u201354, 82\u201384, 89\u201390, 101, 162 91\u201394, 144, 146, 229n20 Nehru and, 4 Control Data Corporation (CDC) and, permits and, 47, 170 42, 45 protectionism and, 72, 86 data processing and, 39, 45, 47\u201349, 53 Regional Computer Centres (RCCs) defense technology and, 40\u201346, 48, and, 48 50, 53\u201354 regulation and, 3\u20134, 47\u201353, 56, 64, Department of Electronics (DoE) and, 107\u2013108, 118, 131, 166, 175, 183 33, 45\u201351, 53\u201354, 209 research and development (R&D) and, Electronics Corporation of India Lim- 42\u201344, 46, 48, 51, 53, 208 ited (ECIL) and, 44\u201346, 49, 53\u201354, 71 self-reliance and, 7, 10, 41, 44, 46\u201348, entrepreneurs and, 44, 52 52, 65, 80, 102\u2013103, 161, 209 exports and, 44, 47\u201348, 52 self-sufficiency and, 4, 39, 41\u201342, 208 foreign exchange and, 50\u201352 Software Technology Parks (STPs) and, growth and, 51\u201352, 127 4\u20135, 140, 157, 160\u2013165, 168\u2013172, Hindustan Computers Limited (HCL) 179\u2013183, 211 and, 139 tariffs and, 83, 171, 173, 175, 179, 181 IBM and, 62\u201369 Tata Institute of Fundamental Re- imports and, 40, 45\u201352, 72, 75, 80\u201383, search (TIFR) and, 39\u201341, 45\u201346, 74 86, 210 war with China and, 40 import substitution and, 44, 47, 53 State University of New York, 143 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) Statistics, 8, 10\u201317, 24, 36, 54, 110, 142, and, 210 202, 208 Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) and, Steel industry, 9, 42, 58, 69, 74, 169 39, 41 Strait Times, The (newspaper), 121 innovation and, 53 Subroutines, 26\u201327, 37 International Computers Limited (ICL) and, 41, 49, 54","Index\u2001271 Subsidies, 77, 121, 183 software and, 152 Sundar, K., 147 state involvement and, 39\u201341, 45\u201346, SUN Microsystems, 126, 173, 201 Supercomputers, 36, 101, 212 74 SuperSort, 117 Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited, 9 Swissair, 186\u2013187 Tata Sons, 38, 142 SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportu- Tata Technologies, 198 Tata Trust, 18 nities, and threats) analysis, 175 Tata Unisys Limited (TUL), 150, 154, Sycamore Networks, 174 Sykes, 191 158, 167 Symphony, 202 Taxes, 205 Taiwan, 79, 99, 160, 164, 209 accounting invoicing machine and, 118 Tally, 214 captive units and, 202 Tandon Magnetics Corporation, 144 computer age and, 83 Tandy Corp, 116 digital filing of, 151 Tariffs, 83, 171, 173, 175, 179, 181 exemptions and, 65, 183 Tas, Jeroen, 190 IBM and, 65 Tata, Jamsetji Nusserwanji, 9 incentives and, 5 Tata Burroughs Limited (TBL), 86, 91, machine classifications and, 118 market issues and, 121 144\u2013145, 150 software and, 151 Tata Computer Centre, 142 subsidies and, 77, 121, 183 Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) tax holidays and, 159, 169\u2013170, 211 Taylor, Alex, 67 Burroughs and, 143\u2013145 TDC-12 computer, 44\u201345 computer age and, 86 TDC-312 computer, 45, 115 early computers and, 32 TDC-316 computer, 45, 115 market issues and, 186\u2013187, 191 Team Software Process (TSP), 178 offshoring and, 158\u2013159, 179\u2013180 TechBooks, 202 revenue of, 213 Technology Development and Invest- software and, 131, 141\u2013146, 152\u2013154 state involvement and, 50 ment Company of India, 174 Tata Group, 74\u201375, 141\u2013142, 144\u2013145, Technology diffusion, 4 153, 173, 209 computer age and, 85, 88, 99\u2013100 Tata Information Systems Limited phases of, 212\u2013213 Rajiv Gandhi and, 88, 100 (TISL), 75 Technology Information, Forecasting Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Assessment Council (TIFAC), (TIFR) 194 atomic energy and, 21, 27\u201328, 38 Telecommunications Research Centre Bhabha and, 17\u201318, 23 (TRC), 89, 95\u201397 computer age and, 88, 96\u201397, 208 Telecoms early computers and, 14, 17\u201329, 34, communication costs and, 212 computer age and, 77\u201378, 82\u201383, 36\u201338 85\u201390, 95\u2013102 offshoring and, 161","272\u2001Index Telecoms (cont.) TI 9900 chip, 125 growth of, 217 TIFR Automatic Calculator (TIFRAC), high-speed links and, 171 liberalization and, 5, 180, 213 20\u201323, 25\u201326, 37 market issues and, 128, 141, 189, 197, Times Higher Education World Univer- 199, 202\u2013203 modernization effects and, 211 sity Rankings, 215 monopolies and, 171 Tokyo University, 108 offshoring and, 162, 165, 171\u2013172, Toshiba, 83, 85, 96, 106 174\u2013175, 179\u2013181 Toyota, 198 privatization and, 213 Train reservation project, 90\u201395 Pyramid Research report on, 77 Transborder dataflow (TBDF), 162 software and, 99, 150, 154 Transistors, 16\u201317, 33, 42, 46, 57, 106, Telefunken-AEG, 72 108 Telephones Transmission Control Protocol\/Internet BHCA conditions and, 97 Protocol (TCP\/IP), 89 CHILL and, 98 Trilokekar, K. R., 60 computer age and, 95\u201399, 102 Trombay Digital Computer (TDC), 44\u2013 digital, 95\u201399 electronic switches and, 95\u201398 45, 49, 88, 102, 115 main automatic exchange (MAX) and, TRS-DOS operating system, 116 Trunk automatic exchange (TAX), 97 97 Turkey, 196 mobile, 204, 207, 213, 216 TVS Electronics, 198 PCO booth and, 99 Tymnet, 162 Pitroda and, 85, 96\u2013101 Typesetting, 132, 134 private branch exchange (PBX) and, Typewriters, 119 Tyroclean Airlines, 187 97 pulse code modulation (PCM) and, 97 Ullal, Shashi, 62 trunk automatic exchange (TAX) and, Unilever, 192 Unique Identification Authority of 97 Television, 1, 82\u201383, 112, 197\u2013198 India (UIDAI), 77, 212 Televista, 112 Unisys, 150 Telex machines, 132, 150, 161 United Kingdom Texas Instruments (TI), 206, 209 early computers and, 7, 10, 13, 22\u201323, Bangalore and, 164\u2013166 25 Haggerty and, 164 market issues and, 112, 125, 128, 195 ICL and, 71 offshoring and, 159, 162\u2013170 market issues and, 189, 196\u2013197 Rajiv Gandhi and, 164 offshoring and, 175, 180 reputation of, 166 railways and, 91 satellite links and, 165 software and, 139, 143, 148, 150 Shepherd and, 164 United Nations Centre on Transnational software and, 166 Corporations (UNCTC), 162 United Nations Development Pro- gramme (UNDP), 16, 34, 54, 89, 91","Index\u2001273 United Nations Educational, Scien- University of Roorkee, 132 tific and Cultural Organization University of Wisconsin, 19\u201320, 32, 60 (UNESCO), 30, 161 UNIX, 89, 95, 120\u2013123, 126\u2013127, 145, United Nations Technical Assistance Ad- 147 ministration (UNTAA), 12, 15\u201316 Unix-to-Unix Network Technologies United States, 3 (UUNet), 89 acquisitions in, 214 URAL computer, 15 Bangladesh war and, 34 U.S. Agency for International Develop- buying computers from, 25, 38, 90, 208 ment, 26 computer age and, 78, 89\u201392, 95 U.S. Census Bureau, 12, 24 IBM and, 55, 58, 68 U.S. Federal Drug Agency, 197 Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) U.S. Patent Office, 199\u2013200 and, 29\u201330 U.S. Technical Cooperation Mission industrial delegation to, 29 liberalization and, 35 (TCM), 23\u201326 market issues and, 116\u2013117, 122\u2013123, Utility programs, 27 128, 189\u2013196, 199\u2013200, 203\u2013205, Uttar Pradesh Electronics Corporation 209 nuclear programs and, 21, 24\u201325 Limited (UPTRON), 112, 118 Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and, 46 Vacuum tubes, 20\u201321 offshoring and, 158\u2013160, 164\u2013167, Vaidya, Yogesh, 110 171\u2013175, 177, 179\u2013180, 183, 211 VAX system, 92 software and, 132\u2013136, 140, 142\u2013143, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL), 145\u2013146, 148, 151\u2013155 student fellowships and, 10\u201311 86, 89, 170, 172 training in, 26, 35\u201336, 132, 212, 217 Visvesvaraya, Mokshgundam, 8 Vittal, Nagarajan, 169\u2013172, 183 Unit Pool, 187 Volkswagen, 198 Unit record machines (URMs), 9, 47, Vollenweider, Marc, 199\u2013200 Volvo, 192 57\u201359, 63, 69, 118 Von Neumann, John, 12, 16, 20, 36 Universal Automatic Computer (UNI- VSAT technology, 89, 90, 150 VAC), 12, 23\u201326 Wall Street, 1, 185, 202 University Mathematical Laboratory, Wang Laboratories, 142, 152 Warburg Pincus, 188 Cambridge, 22 Watson, Arthur K., 55, 107 University of California at Berkeley, Welch, Jack, 190, 193 Western India Products Limited, 30\u201331 University of Delhi, 57, 110 124 University of Hawaii, 161 Weston, 112 University of Illinois, 20\u201322, 25 Wiener, Norbert, 13, 16, 36 University of Kerala, 135 Wiesner, Jerome, 24 University of Madras, 27 Wilkes, Maurice, 89 University of Michigan, 16, 30, 105\u2013106 Williamson, Gordon R., 67","274\u2001Index Wipro Information Technology Limited (WITL) computer age and, 88 market issues and, 121, 124\u2013128, 190\u2013191, 197 offshoring and, 166, 172\u2013173, 178\u2013180 Product Engineering Solutions (PES) group and, 197 software and, 147 Word Perfect, 120 WordStar, 147 WorkHorse1 computer, 119 World Bank, 91, 154, 173, 175\u2013176 World Dynamics (Forrester), 132 World Network Services (WNS), 187\u2013 188, 191, 202 World War I era, 7 Wulf, William, 89 X.25 protocol, 149 XBox, 204 Xerox, 166 Y2K problem, 2\u20133, 141, 146, 178\u2013181, 184, 212 Yong, S. Y., 16 Youth Congress, 84 Zeneca PLC, 192 Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investi- gations and New Assemblies (ZER- LINA), 44 Zinnov Management Consultancy, 197"]

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