GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 301 OTHFELIPGOHWTER LASER EYE SURGERY IN CONTEXT L asers are used as a surgical The ability to knife in many areas of restore vision is the BEFORE medicine – including 1961 In the US, a laser is used ophthalmology, from repairing the ultimate reward. by Charles Campbell to destroy retina to correcting eyesight. But it Patricia Bath a retinal tumour, and by Leon was the development of femtosecond Goldman to treat a melanoma. laser technology in 1995–97 by African American eye surgeon American biomedical engineers (1942–2019) 1967 Phacoemulsification, Tibor Juhasz and Ron Kurtz that which uses ultrasound to made laser eye surgery safer, more resulting in impaired vision. About break up a cataract, is invented precise, and more predictable. 30 million cataract surgeries are by American eye surgeon performed every year, but untreated Charles Kelman and Slovenian Ophthalmic surgeons have been cataracts are still the main cause of engineer Anton Banko. using the LASIK technique since blindness globally. In femtosecond the mid-1990s to treat long- and laser-assisted cataract surgery, 1988 In the US, Marguerite short-sightedness. Originally, this a laser makes tiny incisions in the McDonald performs the first involved using a microkeratome cornea and then a circular opening laser vision correction surgery. precision blade to create a flap in in the front of the capsule that the surface of the cornea and a laser surrounds the lens. The cataract is 1989 Eye surgeon Gholam to reshape the cornea beneath, but then broken up and an artificial lens Peyman invents the LASIK increasingly, femtosecond lasers implant is inserted. The incisions (laser in situ keratomileusis) are being used for both parts of the in the cornea heal naturally. ■ technique. procedure. These ultrafast lasers work by emitting very short pulses AFTER of light that disrupt the eye tissue, 2001 The femtosecond laser enabling incredibly precise incisions is approved for use in LASIK to be made without a blade. surgeries in the US. Femtosecond technology is also 2008 A team of Hungarian transforming how surgeons deal surgeons, led by Zoltan Nagy, with cataracts – cloudy patches successfully uses femtosecond that develop on the lens of an eye, laser-assisted cataract surgery to remove cataracts. See also: Scientific surgery 88–89 ■ Ultrasound 244 ■ Minimally invasive surgery 298 ■ Robotics and telesurgery 305
302 NHEOWPETFHOERRAPIES STEM CELL RESEARCH IN CONTEXT I n 1998, James Thomson, an than 200 types of specialist cells. American cell biologist, and Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent: BEFORE his team in Wisconsin isolated they can be programmed to 1961 Two Canadian scientists, some human embryonic stem cells develop into almost any specialist Ernest McCulloch and James (ESCs) from embryos that had been cell. That makes them incredibly Till, discover the existence of donated for experimentation. This valuable for researchers. However, stem cells in mice. was a giant step, enabling the most adult stem cells are multipotent; creation of almost any type of cell they can give rise to other types of 1962 British researcher John in the body. Stem cells are the cells but – unlike pluripotent stem Gurdon proves that cell non-specialist cells that can give cells – these are of limited variety. specialization can be reversed rise to all other cells with specialist to create an organism using roles. After a cell divides, each new The only clinical use of adult the nucleus of a mature cell, daughter cell can either remain a stem cells began in the 1960s, paving the way for cloning. stem cell or become one of more before Thomson’s discovery, when oncologists began carrying 1995 James Thomson isolates the embryonic stem cells of Human embryonic cells can divide without limit, rhesus monkeys. with the potential to make any of the body’s cell types. 1996 In Scotland, Dolly the These can be used as the source of cells sheep is the first mammal for various treatments: cloned from a specialized adult stem cell. testing studying organ organ new drugs; and tissue transplantation. AFTER function; 2006 Shinya Yamanaka reprogrammes specialized cells to become pluripotent. 2010 A spinal injury patient in the US is the first to receive medical treatment derived from human embryonic stem cells.
GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 303 See also: Cellular pathology 134–35 ■ Inheritance and hereditary conditions 146–47 ■ The immune system 154–61 ■ Cancer therapy 168–75 ■ Transplant surgery 246–53 ■ In vitro fertilization 284–85 ■ Regenerative medicine 314 out bone marrow transplants as a at what stage an embryo gains A light micrograph shows stem cells cure for a variety of blood cancers. human status, and believe in a (pink) during the process of division, or In this procedure, haematopoietic moral duty to develop treatments mitosis. By directing this process, stem cells (HSCs, which give rise that could potentially offer cures for scientists can cause cells to specialize to all blood cells) are removed from terminal diseases and debilitating into a particular cell type. the pelvis marrow of the patient, or degenerative conditions. or a compatible donor, and stored However, scientists have not yet while high doses of radiation Developing the science established whether these cells eradicate any cancerous blood In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka, a have the same potential as ESCs, cells in the bone marrow. The researcher from Japan, found a way so both are still used in research. HSCs are then injected back into to genetically alter multipotent the bloodstream. stem cells and convert them into When a pluripotent stem cell pluripotent cells. This key discovery undergoes mitosis (division into A controversial procedure means that stem cells can now be two daughter cells), one of the Thomson’s work used only embryos taken from other body parts, not daughter cells may be of a more from donors who no longer wanted just embryos, and reprogrammed to specialized type. This process to use them for children. The US produce the kind of cells required. repeats, the cells becoming more Food and Drug Administration specialized each time until they agreed that the project could go reach maturity. For use in therapy, ahead, but the Catholic Church scientists must first convert these opposed it. In 2001, US president stem cells into the desired cell George W. Bush prohibited the types. This procedure, known as creation of new cell lines, although directed differentiation, allows this policy was later partly reversed researchers to grow cell and tissue by his successor, Barack Obama. types – such as heart muscle, brain, and retinal – and to coat synthetic Today, stem cell research is still organs to avoid tissue rejection by mired in controversy. An embryo the body. Reprogrammed stem cells from which cells are extracted is are also used in clinical trials for the unable to develop. While opponents treatment of heart disease, as well of the research insist that embryos as neurological conditions, retinal have the right to life, others debate disease, and type 1 diabetes. ■ James Thomson Born in Chicago in 1958, James his 1998 breakthrough. In 2007, Thomson graduated from the he described a way to convert University of Illinois with a degree human skin cells into pluripotent in biophysics before studying at cells that closely resembled the University of Pennsylvania. embryonic stem cells but could He was awarded a doctorate in potentially free research from veterinary medicine in 1985, and ethical controversies over the later another in molecular biology. use of human embryos. Thomson worked as the chief Key works pathologist for the Wisconsin Regional (now National) Primate 1998 “Embryonic stem cell lines Research Center, after conducting derived from blastocysts” key research into stem cell 2007 “Induced pluripotent stem development in rhesus monkeys. cell lines derived from human The next step was to work with somatic cells” human embryos, which resulted in
304 BSEMTATLELRER IS NANOMEDICINE IN CONTEXT N anomedicine is the use of Most QDs are fabricated from toxic materials on an atomic chemicals such as zinc sulphide, so BEFORE scale to monitor, repair, have to be coated in a polymer to 1959 American physicist build, and control body systems. shield the body. This “coat” mimics Richard Feynman writes of Nanostructures measure less than receptors on body cells, enabling a time when scientists will 100 nanometres (nm) in at least one QDs to bind them. Coated QDs can be able to create structures dimension – a sheet of paper is about be used as biomarkers to highlight at the molecular level. 100,000 nm thick. Nanotechnology the presence of target cells, such as has been used for years in fields cancer cells, before symptoms 1980 Alexei Ekimov, a ranging from food packaging to show. Scientists are also working on Russian physicist, discovers electronics, but it was not until 1999, using QDs to deliver drugs to target the fluorescent quality of when American nanotechnologist cells. Such precise delivery would nanocrystals, which in 1988 Robert Freitas published his first avoid damage to healthy cells. ■ are named “quantum dots”. volume of Nanomedicine, that the concept of using nanotechnology in 1992 American scientist medicine became mainstream. K. Eric Drexler envisages molecular machines in his Quantum dots We have come much further book Nanosystems. Nanoscientists are exploring fields than I would have predicted applicable to medicine. One is the just a few years back when 1993 American chemist investigation of quantum dots (QDs) Moungi Bawendi finds a way to as biomarkers for diagnosis and the research resembled make quantum dots artificially. treatment. QDs are nanoparticles, science fiction. tiny crystals (less than 20 nm across) 1998 Quantum dots are first of semiconducting materials. They Karen Martinez, tested in place of traditional are sensitive to light, so if “excited” 2011 dyes for biological imaging. by certain wavelengths, they emit tiny packets of light called photons. AFTER Larger QDs emit red or orange light, 2011 Karen Martinez, a Danish and smaller ones show blue or green. nanotechnologist, builds a nanotube to test cells’ internal See also: The immune system 154–61 ■ Cancer therapy 168–75 ■ Genetics and responses to new drugs. medicine 288–93 ■ Gene therapy 300 ■ Stem cell research 302–03
GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 305 HSTHPAVAECEBECAAORNLRLDIEADRPISSSETODAFNCE ROBOTICS AND TELESURGERY IN CONTEXT I n 2001, French surgeon robots like ZEUS are controlled from Jacques Marescaux and his a remote console: the robot’s arms BEFORE team performed the first long- work as scalpels, scissors,graspers, 1984 Surgeons in Vancouver, distance telesurgery on a woman in and camera-operators. Supervisory Canada, use a robotic support Strasbourg, France, from a building controlled robots are the most (“Arthrobot”) to reposition a in New York City, US. They guided autonomous: a surgeon inputs data patient’s leg during surgery. the arms of a ZEUS medical robot into the robot, which then carries to remove the patient’s gallbladder out controlled motions to accomplish 1994 The FDA (Food and Drug using minimally invasive surgery. the surgery. At present, they are Administration) approves the limited to simple operations, but in use of AESOP, the first robotic Work on medical robots began future, sophisticated autonomous camera-operator, in the US for in the 1980s. In the UK, medical robotic surgeons may be able to laparoscopy (keyhole surgery). robotics engineer Brian Davies perform complex operations. ■ developed a robot (PROBOT) with 1995 A prototype of the ZEUS some autonomous functions, which This surgeon is using the da Vinci system is unveiled in the US. was used in a clinical trial in 1991 telesurgical system to perform heart to operate on a patient’s prostate. surgery. Da Vinci robots assist in more 1998 The first robot-assisted AESOP, designed in the US, soon than 200,000 operations annually. heart bypass is performed in followed; it could manoeuvre an Germany, using the da Vinci endoscope inside the body during system developed in the US. surgery. Then in 1998, the ZEUS system performed the first robotic 2000 American cardiac coronary artery bypass surgery. By surgeon Stephen Colvin uses the time Marescaux used it, ZEUS telesurgery to repair the valve was equipped to manipulate 28 of a patient’s heart. different surgical implements. AFTER There are three types of robotic 2018 Surgeons in Cleveland, surgery system. Shared-control US, perform the first robotic robots steady a surgeon’s hand and single-port kidney transplant, manipulate instruments, but do not using just one incision in the act autonomously. Telesurgical patient’s abdomen. See also: Plastic surgery 26–27 ■ Transplant surgery 246–53 ■ Orthopaedic surgery 260–65 ■ MRI and medical scanning 278–81 ■ Minimally invasive surgery 298
ENEMYPUBLIC HEALTH NUMBER ONE PANDEMICS
308 PANDEMICS IN CONTEXT COVID-19, this was a virus – now Little has changed since 1918 in identified as a deadly strain of the terms of the medical response to a BEFORE H1N1 influenza virus. One of the pandemic. Wearing face masks, these 165–180 ce The Antonine great discoveries in the century American National Red Cross nurses Plague kills a quarter of the between these two outbreaks is that are waiting to collect flu patients. Roman Empire’s population. all it can take to trigger a pandemic is a tiny chance mutation in a virus, increasing scientists’ ability to pin 1347 The Black Death reaches especially an influenza virus or a down the exact nature of a mutant Europe from Asia, spreading coronavirus such as COVID-19. That virus and provide the necessary westwards via trading ships. chance mutation conceals the virus’s data to create a vaccine quickly. identity, leaving the human body c. 1500 In Central and South defenceless. The proximity of people In the early days of humankind, America, European explorers and animals in the modern world infectious diseases were probably introduce diseases that kill 90 makes such mutations highly likely. rare. Hunter-gatherers were too per cent of Indigenous people. scattered for germs to spread. They Pandemics are complex global did not stay long enough near water 1918 The Great Influenza threats that test to the limits how sources to pollute them, nor did pandemic begins, killing an people and governments behave. estimated 50 million people Epidemiologists have made much Bodies were left worldwide by 1920. progress in understanding how an in empty houses, epidemic spreads from one area to and there was no one to 1981 HIV starts to spread; by multiple countries (at which point it give them a Christian burial. 2018, 32 million people globally becomes a pandemic), and experts Samuel Pepys have died from the disease. provide detailed protocols for taking action. Yet vaccines remain the English diarist (1633–1703), AFTER one proven weapon against such on the Great Plague of 1665–66 2013 An outbreak of Ebola outbreaks. In 2005 – more than virus in West Africa raises 80 years after the Great Influenza fears of a pandemic. pandemic – American virologist Jeffery Taubenberger revealed the 2019 The COVID-19 virus complete genetic structure of the appears in Wuhan, China 1918 H1N1 virus, enabling it to be and spreads across the world; reconstructed and analysed. This it is declared a pandemic in was a landmark achievement in March 2020. P andemics are outbreaks of infectious disease spread over multiple countries. Some spread rapidly but are less damaging, such as the pandemic swine flu of 2009. Others spread slowly but are highly dangerous, such as Ebola. A few spread quickly and make many who catch it very ill. The COVID-19 outbreak that erupted in 2020 is one such pandemic. The Great Influenza was one of the most devastating pandemics in history, killing 50 million people in the wake of World War I. Like
GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 309 See also: Medieval medical schools and surgery 50–51 ■ Vaccination 94–101 ■ Epidemiology 124–27 ■ Germ theory 138–45 ■ Virology 177 ■ The World Health Organization 232–33 ■ Global eradication of disease 286–87 they keep animals that today There have been as many the Americas in the 16th and 17th harbour germs. The rise of farming plagues as wars in history, centuries, they brought smallpox around 10,000 bce provided food yet always plagues and wars and swine flu. This devastated for a population explosion, but Indigenous peoples, who had no bringing people and animals close take people equally past exposure to these diseases together promoted the conditions by surprise. and therefore no natural immunity. for infectious diseases to thrive. Albert Camus The Great Influenza Breeding grounds In 1918, the Great Influenza struck. Domestic animals share germs with The Plague, 1947 It probably started in the trenches humans directly. Tuberculosis (TB), of World War I, where millions of smallpox, and measles originally In 189 ce, the Antonine Plague soldiers crammed together in the came from cattle, and the common (probably smallpox) flared up again, mud with pigs there to provide cold possibly from birds. Flu may killing about 2,000 people per day food. The flu virus may have have come from chickens or pigs, or in the city of Rome. Around 1300, become more virulent as it passed possibly humans passed it to them. the Black Death (a bubonic plague among soldiers. It is often called As farming intensified, manure- pandemic) began to sweep across the Spanish flu, since news of it polluted water allowed diseases Eurasia and Africa, culminating first came out in Spain, but in reality, such as polio, cholera, typhoid, and in 1347–51 when at least 25 million it appeared almost everywhere hepatitis to thrive, while irrigation people died in Europe alone, and globally at about the same time. water provided breeding grounds whole villages were wiped out. for the parasites that cause malaria This pandemic left the world in and schistosomiasis. Virgin populations are especially a state of shock, and no one could vulnerable to infectious diseases. identify the killer. It was assumed As each infection struck, When European settlers arrived in to be bacteria, not a virus. Viruses survivors acquired resistance. Short- are so tiny they could not even be term immunity to many diseases seen before the invention of the was passed from mothers to children electron microscope in 1931. It was in the womb or through breast milk. not until 1933 that Wilson Smith, But waves of new epidemics spread Christopher Andrewes, and Patrick across the globe as populations Laidlaw at the National Institute for grew and people moved around. Medical Research in London, UK, ❯❯ Some hospitals set up “pneumonia Killer flu cyanosis. Very quickly, over the porches” in the hope that fresh air space of a few hours or a few would help to reduce transmission. The Great Influenza began in days at best, their lungs filled up 1918 and spread with devastating with fluid and they suffocated. speed across a world already This is now known as acute ravaged by war, infecting around respiratory distress syndrome a third of the global population. (ARDS), but doctors at the time This horrific disease was nothing called it “atypical pneumonia”. like a winter flu. Those who were worst affected suffered acute pain, Unlike most flu strains, which rib-cracking coughing fits, and are dangerous for young children profuse bleeding from their skin, and the elderly, the 1918 strain eyes, and ears. Their lungs became proved most fatal to those aged inflamed, starving the blood of between 20 and 40. As more oxygen and giving their skin a people developed immunity, the deep blue hue – a condition called virus could no longer spread, and the pandemic ended in 1920.
310 PANDEMICS deliberately infected ferrets with Better a vaccine DNA, as James Watson and Francis influenza and proved it to be a virus: without an epidemic Crick had discovered in 1953. a near-invisible disease-causing Influenza and coronaviruses are agent that can be filtered but not than an epidemic both RNA viruses. cultured in a dish (as bacteria can). without a vaccine. Edwin Kilbourne, Shifting identity Many people hoped the Great When DNA is copied, it is copied Influenza was a never-to-be-repeated 1976 near perfectly. But when RNA aberration. But as soldiers crowded viruses such as coronaviruses and into barracks again at the onset of be passed from human to human. flu replicate themselves in order to World War II in 1939, doctors feared Type A is the most dangerous. It infect other cells, there are often there might be a new outbreak. In is essentially a bird virus, but can misprints. This creates problems the United States, Thomas Francis acquire the ability to cross into for immune systems, which identify and Jonas Salk at the Commission humans, either via a host animal, a virus by matching up antibodies on Influenza developed the first such as a pig, or directly from birds. with antigens (markers) on the flu vaccine, which was used to When it does, people may have virus’s shell. If a misprint in RNA immunize US troops. What Francis so little resistance that another changes the shell enough, antibodies and Salk did not know is that a flu pandemic is a real possibility. may no longer recognize it, so the vaccine only works against the virus can enter the body undetected. strains it is made for. Their vaccine In 1955, American scientists was based on existing strains from Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley This “antigenic drift” is why flu the 1930s, so when a new mutation Williams found that viruses can comes around again and again. With appeared in 1947, the vaccine proved be single strands of the genetic viral diseases like measles, people useless. Fortunately the 1947 flu material RNA wrapped in a shell usually only get it once, since the epidemic was mostly mild in effect. (capsid). The genetic material in first attack primes the body with human body cells is double-helix antibodies to fight measles viruses. The chameleon virus Flu viruses, however, are rarely the It was soon discovered that the flu same, so antibodies built up after virus is more variable than anyone one year’s winter flu fail to identify imagined. There are several kinds. the next year’s version. Even so, Type C (IFCV) is the mildest, they are recognizable enough for causing cold-like symptoms. Type the body to mount a defence and B brings the classic seasonal flu, eventually defeat it. This is why, for which can be severe but can only most people, seasonal flu is mild. Human activity Prolonged contact with Humans may have brings people into animals increases the no resistance to a chances of mutations that mutant animal virus, close contact allow viruses to jump so the virus can multiply with animals. between animals in the body and cause dangerous illness. and humans. Global connectivity and air travel Once a mutant virus is able to make it possible for a virus to be transported multiply in one human host, around the world in a matter of hours, it can spread rapidly from leading to a pandemic. person to person.
GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 311 How viruses mutate Antigenic drift Antigenic shift Mutations Virus A build up over time Virus A Virus B Host cell Virus C Tiny changes to the Virus B (new subtype) virus’s shell eventually result in a new strain. When a flu virus copies itself, mutations cause minute When two different viruses infect the same cell changes in the haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) in a host species (such as a pig), they form an entirely antigens on the virus’s surface. This process creates winter new subtype, which can jump between species and may flu strains, to which most people have some resistance. spread rapidly as populations have no immunity. In 1955, Australian virologist Frank neuraminidase (N). H spikes bind In 1997, Taubenberger, working Macfarlane Burnet suggested that to host cells so the virus can invade, at the Armed Forces Institute of more radical changes can occur if while N spikes dissolve cell walls Pathology in the US, described a different flu viruses colonize the to create the virus’s escape route. partial analysis of the 1918 virus same cell, letting their genes swap Crucially, though, both H and N based on a fragment of lung tissue certain sections. If this reshuffling are antigens that identify the virus taken from an American serviceman involves the genes that code for to the host body. Andrewes and who died from the disease. Hultin the virus’s shell, their antigens may Kilbourne showed that in the saw the paper, and returned to become completely unrecognizable, Asian flu virus, both H and N had Brevig. This time he obtained a leaving people with little or no changed. Consequently, the Great sample from the body of a young protection against the new virus. Influenza virus was dubbed H1N1 Inuit woman who he called “Lucy”. This dramatic change is called and the Asian flu H2N2. Since an “antigenic shift”. then, scientists have discovered The killer resurrected that there are 16 versions of H and From Hultin’s sample, Taubenberger Two years later, in 1957, another 9 of N, which come together in and his colleague Ann Reid at last pandemic broke out. Dubbed Asian different combinations. unlocked the 1918 H1N1 virus’s full flu, it spread widely and rapidly genome in 2005. Their sequencing and vaccines had no effect. For most, These advances shed little light was so complete that later that year, symptoms were mild, yet over two on what made the 1918 H1N1 virus American microbiologist Terrence million died. Over the next decade, so deadly. In 1951, Johan Hultin, a Tumpey managed to create a live virologists including Christopher Swedish microbiologist, had gained version. The resurrected virus is Andrewes and American medical permission to excavate the burial securely contained at the Centers researcher Edwin Kilbourne showed site at Brevig Mission in Alaska, for Disease Control and Prevention. that the virus had had an antigenic where 72 of the village’s 80 mostly shift of the kind Burnet suggested. Inuit inhabitants had died from Studying Tumpey’s resurrected the flu in 1918. The frozen ground virus proved it originated in birds Identity spikes preserved bodies well, and Hultin rather than pigs, with telltale H Under an electron microscope, it is extracted a sample of lung tissue, spikes similar to the bird flu virus possible to see minute spikes on but with the technology of the time that sparked a panic in 2005. There the flu virus’s shell of the protein he could not find much information is no real understanding yet of why haemagglutinin (H) and the enzyme from it. one mutant flu virus is deadly and ❯❯
312 PANDEMICS Virus enters body through mouth, Aerosol transmission occurs nose, or eyes. when smaller droplets hang in the air. The measles virus, for Airborne droplets Direct example, can stay airborne contact for up to two hours. Infected person Droplets When people cough or sneeze, they blow droplets into Indirect contact the air. Many of these droplets can travel several metres before they fall and settle on surfaces. Some germs, particularly flu and coronaviruses, can also be picked up when they linger on objects such as phones, door handles, and taps. another not, but Tumpey and his The World Health Organization cause disease. With four of these, colleagues concluded that no one (WHO) issued an alert at once, and symptoms are mild, but the other genetic component of the 1918 SARS victims, already identified three can be fatal. SARS appeared virus made it so lethal; rather, it as far away as Toronto, Canada, in 2002, followed by MERS (Middle was a particular combination of were isolated. Guangdong in China, East respiratory syndrome) in 2012, genes that made this strain of the where the disease originated, was which was probably transmitted virus so deadly. Even so, increasing subjected to a huge public hygiene from camels, and then COVID-19, knowledge of how viruses work operation and SARS was brought which was identified in 2019. helps to speed up the creation of in check within a year. The virus a vaccine each time a new and was identified as a coronavirus and Zoonotic diseases dangerous mutation emerges. traced to animals in Guangdong Urbanization, intensive agriculture, such as the masked civet and ferret and deforestation create breeding Coronaviruses badger used in Chinese medicine. grounds for viral diseases. As Just as scientists were getting a humans disrupt ecosystems and handle on flu viruses, coronaviruses There are many coronaviruses. come into ever closer contact with emerged as a major pandemic Most circulate among animals animals, they are exposed to more threat. Coronaviruses were first such as pigs, camels, bats, and “zoonotic” pathogens – germs that identified in the 1930s in chickens cats. Seven are known to jump to can be transmitted from vertebrate and named by Scottish virologist humans in a “spillover” event and animals to humans. Around three- June Almeida in 1967 when she quarters of new infectious diseases made the first electron microscope We have rung the alarm come from wildlife, and there is images. The corona (from the Latin bell loud and clear. an increasing probability of one for “crown”) described the virus’s Tedros Adhanom mutating to create a pandemic killer. fringe of bulbous projections. Ghebreyesus Besides flu and coronaviruses, a In 2003, Carlo Urbani, an Italian WHO director-general (2017–) range of viral diseases has recently doctor working in Hanoi, Vietnam, emerged in the tropics, including realized that a patient admitted Ebola, Lassa fever, dengue, West to the hospital did not have flu, Nile virus, hantavirus, and HIV. as suspected, but was suffering Some of these are entirely “novel” from an entirely new disease, now mutations, but others have been known as SARS, or severe acute brought out of hiding by human respiratory syndrome, from the way activity. The COVID-19 virus is it attacks the lungs. likely to have originated in bats,
GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 313 Some might say that AIDS If an emerging disease is spotted Many hospitals are well equipped has made us ever-vigilant early, it may be possible to isolate to support severely ill patients, with victims and carriers before the machines to help breathing, for for new viruses. disease spirals out of control. This example. But the most effective I wish that were true. is what happened with SARS in measures for tackling a pandemic Joshua Lederberg 2003, but not with COVID-19. If a remain as they have always been: pandemic does break out, scientists to limit the spread of the disease American molecular biologist expect it to run around the globe in and prevent people catching it. (1925–2008) two or three waves. Each may last several months, and may be up to When the threat of a bird flu driven from forest habitats into four months apart, but they peak pandemic loomed in 2005, the UK’s close proximity to humans and locally after about five weeks. NHS informed the public: “Since other animals. vaccines and antiviral drugs are Limiting the spread likely to be in limited supply … Although scientists now know Globalization and air travel have other public health and ‘social’ that mutant viruses are responsible increased the threat of pandemics. interventions may be the only for pandemics, there is no telling In the time of the Black Death, an available countermeasures to slow where or when one will emerge, outbreak could take years to spread the spread of the disease. Measures or how deadly it will be. But by across the globe. COVID-19 emerged such as hand washing, and limiting studying past outbreaks intently, in Wuhan, China, in late 2019. non-essential travel and mass epidemiologists can plot just how By March 2020, cases had been gatherings of people may slow the far and fast they spread. This has recorded in at least 140 countries. spread of the virus to reduce the given them the tools to predict impact and ‘buy’ valuable time.” how a disease will develop once Growing knowledge of viruses COVID-19 proved this right. ■ it reaches a certain stage. improves the chances of a vaccine being found, but however quickly Milan’s Duomo is deserted in March The WHO has devised a six- this happens, it will still be well 2020 after Italy’s government enforced phase timetable to guide the global after the first wave. Antiviral drugs a strict COVID-19 lockdown. Limiting response to a pandemic in the early might ameliorate symptoms in the movement of people and closing stages. The first three phases some cases, and antibiotics may churches, businesses, and schools involve monitoring viruses that are help treat secondary infections. helped to slow the spread of the virus. circulating among animals and identifying any that may present a threat to humans, or that have already mutated and infected humans. Once human-to-human infection has been established at community and then national level (phases 4–5), rapid containment and national pandemic responses are called for, culminating in a pandemic being declared (phase 6) once human-to-human infection has been reported in at least two WHO regions.
314 TAOCERLELPROGRAM REGENERATIVE MEDICINE IN CONTEXT O rgan transplantation is development of multipotent cells, often hindered by organ turning them back into immature BEFORE availability and the problem cells with the potential to grow into 1962 British biologist John of tissue rejection. The relatively a range of different body cells. Gurdon demonstrates that the new science of “regenerating” genetic material of a mature human cells and tissues aims to In 2015, using the techniques cell can be reprogrammed. overcome such obstacles, paving pioneered by Yamanaka, researchers the way for growing organs to order. working at Heriot-Watt University in 1981 Martin Evans and Edinburgh, Scotland, developed a Matt Kaufman, biologists at In 2006, Japanese researcher 3D printing process that can print the University of Cambridge, Shinya Yamanaka made the crucial human stem cells derived from a successfully culture embryonic discovery that multipotent stem donor’s own tissue. This paved the stem cells from mice. cells (those with the capacity to way for making laboratory-grown develop into a range of specialized human tissue available for wider 2003 An inkjet printer in the cell types within a specific organ) use, both in transplantation and US is modified by biomedical can be reprogrammed to become in pharmaceutical research. engineer Thomas Boland to pluripotent cells (those with the build cell arrays and place potential to grow into any cell type). Brazilian researchers in 2019 them in successive layers – a Yamanaka’s vital work reversed the reprogrammed human blood cells crucial step towards printing to form hepatic organoids, in effect complex tissue types. “mini livers” to mimic the functions of a normal liver, such as storing AFTER vitamins, producing enzymes, and 2012 German researchers use secreting bile. Only miniature livers bioprinted skin tissue to heal have been produced so far, but the wounds on mice. technique could be used to produce entire organs for transplantation. ■ 2019 Researchers at Tel Aviv University, Israel, print A bioprinter at Zurich University of a miniature 3D heart from Applied Sciences is used to print 3D human cells – the first to be human tissue. The tissue is then printed complete with blood matured in a cell culture. cells, vessels, and chambers. See also: Histology 122–23 ■ Cellular pathology 134–35 ■ Transplant surgery 246–53 ■ Genetics and medicine 288–93 ■ Stem cell research 302–03
GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 315 NTHEWIS FISACMEY FACE TRANSPLANTS IN CONTEXT P lastic surgery is an ancient Faces help us understand art, first recorded by the who we are and BEFORE Egyptians around 1600 bce. 1597 Italian surgeon Gaspare The development of microsurgery where we come from. Tagliacozzi describes skin techniques in the 1970s enabled Royal College of grafts to repair noses that the complex reattachments of skin Surgeons, 2004 have been sliced off in duels. and body parts, complete with nerves and blood supply. In 1994, 1804 Giuseppe Baronio, an the successful reattachment of the Italian physician, discovers face of a nine-year-old girl in India small grafts survive with no gave plastic surgeons confidence blood supply as they reattach. to try face transplants. 1874 Using thinly cut skin Transplantation Face transplants rely on “free tissue to make large grafts, German In 2005, French surgeon Bernard transfer”, where a donor’s tissue has surgeon Karl Thiersch enables Devauchelle made the first partial its blood supply cut off and is then the treatment of extensive transplant by rebuilding the face of reconnected to the blood supply of burns for the first time. a woman. Another French plastic the recipient. 3D printing can create surgeon, Laurent Lantieri, claimed models of both donor and recipient 1944 Key techniques, such the first full face transplant on a for surgeons to follow. In the US in as the walking skin graft, are 30-year-old man in 2008. In 2010, 2017, surgeons used augmented developed by New Zealand Spanish doctors declared they had reality computer visualizations to plastic surgeons Harold Gillies carried out a more complex, “fuller” guide them in a facial transplant. As and Archibald McIndoe. face transplant, but Lantieri remains yet, there is no certainty of long-term a pioneer in this field. His team success, and immunosuppressive AFTER performed eight of the world’s 42 drugs to prevent rejection increase 2011 Belgian surgeon Phillip face transplants by 2020 – including the risk of dangerous infections. ■ Blondeel performs the first face a second operation on the 2008 transplant using 3D printing. patient after his body rejected the first transplant in 2018. 2017 At the Cleveland Clinic in the US, surgeon Frank Papay See also: Plastic surgery 26–27 ■ Skin grafts 137 ■ The immune system 154–61 does the first face transplant ■ Transplant surgery 246–53 ■ Regenerative medicine 314 using augmented reality.
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318 DIRECTORY F ar more people have made crucial contributions to the development of medical science than those featured in detail in this book. The following pages acknowledge some of the other individuals who have played a vital role in improving human health. Whether scientists, physicians, or patients, they have influenced the practice of medicine, the technologies associated with that practice, or knowledge of how our bodies are constructed and function. Some achieved fame during their lifetimes, although many are scarcely known outside their own specialisms. Others contributed unwittingly or posthumously as organ or tissue donors or subjects for study, or played a part as authors of seminal texts and advocates of health reforms that still benefit us today. AMMAR AL-MAWSILI and injuries. In 2012, more than NICHOLAS CULPEPER 800 years after her death, she c. 996–c.1020 was canonized and made a doctor 1616–1654 of the Church, one of only four An innovative ophthalmologist, women ever to have been accorded A botanist, herbalist, physician, and Ammar al-Mawsili was born in this distinction. political radical, Culpeper is best Mosul, in present-day Iraq, and later See also: Herbal medicine 36–37 known for his systematic appraisal moved to Egypt. His only known ■ Medieval medical schools and of herbal medicine in The English writing, a treatise on eye diseases, surgery 50–51 ■ Pharmacy 54–59 Physician (or Culpeper’s Herbal), describes his pioneering use of a published in 1653 and still in print syringe to perform cataract surgery. HIERONYMUS FABRICIUS today. This work popularized His method of using a thin, hollow astrological botany – the belief that needle to remove cataracts by 1537–1619 plants’ medical properties are linked suction became an established to the movements of the planets practice among Islamic oculists. Often described as the “father of and stars. A reformer, opposed to See also: Islamic medicine 44–49 embryology”, Fabricius was a highly bloodletting, Culpeper believed influential teacher of surgery and that medicine should be based on HILDEGARD OF BINGEN anatomy at the University of Padua reason rather than received wisdom, in Italy. By dissecting animals, he and that it should be available to all, 1098–1179 investigated the formation of the regardless of wealth. foetus and determined the structure See also: Herbal medicine 36–37 Born into German nobility, Hildegard of the intestines, stomach, and ■ Midwifery 76–77 of Bingen entered the convent of oesophagus; described the cerebral Disibodenberg, Germany, aged 14, fissure between the brain’s frontal STEPHEN HALES eventually becoming its prioress. and temporal lobes; and discovered She combined her deep theoretical the valves within veins. In 1594, he 1677–1761 and practical knowledge of herbal designed the first public-viewing medicine in two key texts: Physica, operating theatre, transforming the British parish priest Stephen Hales which described the properties of teaching of anatomy. developed a fascination with biology plants and minerals, and Causae See also: Anatomy 60–63 ■ Blood after attending lectures given by et Curae, which set out causes as circulation 68–73 ■ Scientific Italian chemist Giovanni Francisco well as treatments for diseases surgery 88–89 ■ Physiology 152–53 Vigani at Cambridge University.
DIRECTORY 319 Although an amateur, Hales came journalism. In 1823, he founded Pathological Anatomy, published to be considered one of the great The Lancet, with the primary aim between 1842 and 1846. By linking physiologists of his day. He was the of exposing the nepotism, secrecy, the symptoms of disease with the first to measure blood pressure, and and incompetence of the medical abnormalities observed at autopsy, to describe the roles of the aortic establishment. The Lancet also Rokitansky advanced understanding and mitral valves. In 1733, many of campaigned against many social of how the body can malfunction. his discoveries were published in injustices, including flogging, See also: Anatomy 60–63 Haemastaticks. In the third edition workhouses, and the adulteration ■ Cellular pathology 134–35 of the book (1740), he suggested that of food. In 1835, Wakley was elected electricity plays a role in enabling as a Member of Parliament, and CAMPBELL DE MORGAN nerves to control muscle function – he was largely responsible for the long before Luigi Galvani was able 1859 Medical Act, which introduced 1811–1876 to prove this in 1791. medical registration for doctors. See also: Blood circulation 68–73 See also: Scientific surgery 88–89 Based on more than 30 years of ■ The nervous system 190–95 ■ Epidemiology 124–27 observations at London’s Middlesex Hospital, British surgeon Campbell JAMES BARRY JOHN HARRIS de Morgan described in a series of papers (1871–74) how cancer arises c. 1789–1865 1798–1849 locally and then spreads, first to the lymph nodes, then elsewhere. His Since women were barred from In 1827, American physician John explanation of metastasis effectively accessing higher education, Irish- Harris began preparing would-be ended a decades-long debate about born Margaret Bulkley disguised doctors for medical college at whether cancer has a generalized herself as a man and took the name his home in Bainbridge, Ohio. By or focal origin. He stressed the James Barry to enrol at Edinburgh including dentistry, a specialty often importance of prompt treatment, also University in Scotland. In 1813, Barry ignored at the time, Harris pioneered warning that patients often have no joined the British Army as a surgeon, education in this field and inspired signs of illness at the onset of cancer. travelling widely, and rising to the several of his students to become See also: Cancer therapy 168–75 rank of general. As well as treating skilled dentists. One, his brother ■ Cancer screening 226–27 soldiers and their families, Barry Chapin, founded the first American campaigned for better sanitation, college of dental surgery in Baltimore HENRY DUNANT fought to improve conditions for in 1840. Another, James Taylor, set slaves, prisoners, and those with up the Ohio College of Dental 1828–1910 leprosy, and performed one of the Surgery five years later. first described caesarean sections. See also: Scientific surgery 88–89 While travelling in Italy in 1859, In 1857, Barry was posted to Canada Swiss businessman Henry Dunant as the inspector-general of military KARL ROKITANSKY witnessed the bloody aftermath hospitals there. of the Battle of Solferino. Horrified See also: Battlefield medicine 53 1804–1878 by the treatment of the injured, he ■ Midwifery 76–77 ■ Women in campaigned for the creation of a medicine 120–21 ■ Nursing and A pioneering pathologist, Rokitansky neutral body to help those wounded sanitation 128–33 helped to establish the New Vienna on the battlefield. His work led to the School, Austria, as a medical centre establishment of the International THOMAS WAKLEY of excellence, and anatomical Committee of the Red Cross in 1863 pathology – the study of tissues and and the first Geneva Convention the 1795–1862 organs to diagnose disease – as a following year. The latter decreed medical science. His vast practical that all wounded soldiers and After running a medical practice in experience, gained through more prisoners of war should be given London for a number of years, British than 30,000 autopsies, was distilled the best treatment, regardless of surgeon Thomas Wakley turned to in his influential Handbook of nationality, and that the safety of
320 DIRECTORY medical personnel should be DANIEL HALE WILLIAMS and practised at Johns Hopkins, guaranteed on the battlefield. Harvard, and Yale universities. See also: Battlefield medicine 53 1856–1931 Cushing was the foremost expert on ■ Triage 90 the diagnosis and treatment of brain African American surgeon Daniel tumours, and a leading authority on JOHN MARSHALL HARLAN Hale Williams was a pioneer of open- the pituitary gland, identifying its heart surgery. In 1891, he opened the role in the disease named after him. 1833–1911 Provident Hospital in Chicago, which See also: Cancer therapy 168–75 was the first American hospital with ■ Hormones and endocrinology In 1905, US Supreme Court justice interracial medical staff. Two years 184–87 John Marshall Harlan delivered the later, he became one of the first landmark Jacobson v. Massachusetts surgeons to operate successfully on ALFRED ADLER verdict that the state had the right a patient’s heart, repairing damage to enforce a compulsory vaccination caused by a severe stab wound. In 1870–1937 programme. An outbreak of smallpox 1913, he became a founder member in Massachusetts posed a serious of the American College of Surgeons. The first psychologist to emphasize threat to public safety, but resident See also: Transplant surgery the need to understand individuals Henning Jacobson had argued that 246–53 ■ Pacemakers 255 within their social context, Austrian vaccination infringed his personal psychiatrist Alfred Adler founded liberty. The Supreme Court ruling THEODOR BOVERI the field of “individual psychology”. established that the obligation to Believing that disabling feelings of maintain public health can override 1862–1915 inferiority arise from factors such individual freedoms. as low social status, neglect during See also: Vaccination 94–101 ■ In 1914, German biologist Theodor childhood, or physical disability, Global eradication of disease 286–87 Boveri published Concerning the Adler advocated therapy to build an Origin of Malignant Tumours, which individual’s self-esteem. His ideas ORONHYATEKHA became the foundation for future had particular influence on child and cancer research. He explained that educational psychology. 1841–1907 chromosomal defects cause cancers, See also: Psychoanalysis 178–83 and that tumours arise from single ■ Behavioural and cognitive A Mohawk, born on the Six Nations cells. His pioneering genetic work therapy 242–43 reserve near Brantford, in Canada, on chromosomes also proved that Oronhyatekha (“Burning Cloud”) was inheritance plays a role in an OSWALDO CRUZ invited to study at Oxford University, individual’s susceptibility to cancer. in the UK, after impressing visiting See also: Cellular pathology 134–35 1872–1917 British royal physician Henry Acland ■ Inheritance and hereditary in 1860. Oronhyatekha returned to conditions 146–47 ■ Cancer A Brazilian epidemiologist who Canada in 1863 to complete his therapy 168–75 studied bacteriology at the Pasteur studies at the Toronto School of Institute in Paris, France, Oswaldo Medicine, becoming one of the first HARVEY CUSHING Cruz became director general of the doctors from North America’s First Federal Serum Therapy Institute in Nations. He established a successful 1869–1939 Rio de Janeiro in 1902, turning it medical practice and, in 1871, was into a world-class institution. After appointed consulting physician to Trailblazing American neurosurgeon he became Brazil’s director general the Mohawk people of Tyendinaga, Harvey Cushing developed many of of public health in 1903, he waged Ontario. A scholarship fund in his the techniques responsible for a series of successful campaigns to name continues to support First reducing the mortality rate during tackle yellow fever, bubonic plague, Nations medical students. and after neurosurgery. The world’s and malaria, as well as instituting See also: The World Health leading teacher of neurosurgery in a smallpox vaccination programme. Organization 232–33 the early 20th century, he taught See also: Vaccination 94–101
DIRECTORY 321 ANTÓNIO EGAS MONIZ used to anaesthetize pigs before the number of false positive results they were butchered. The treatment generated by earlier tests. In 1934, 1874–1955 involves passing an electric current the Hinton test was adopted by the through the brain to induce a short- US Public Health Service and Hinton In 1927, Portuguese neurologist term seizure, as a way of managing became the first African American António Egas Moniz developed the mental disorders that do not respond to publish a medical textbook, with brain imaging technique cerebral to other therapies. Cerletti began to Syphilis and its Treatment. angiography. He injected dyes that apply ECT to patients at Sapienza See also: Germ theory 138–45 block radiation into the arteries of University in Rome from 1938. ECT ■ Antibiotics 216–23 the brain, then used X-rays to reveal is still in use today for those with abnormalities. Moniz also devised severe depression who have not LINUS PAULING a surgical procedure (lobotomy) to responded to other treatments. isolate the brain’s frontal lobe to See also: Lithium and bipolar 1901–1994 treat psychosis. While this gained disorder 240 ■ Chlorpromazine and him a Nobel Prize in Physiology or antipsychotics 241 A prolific researcher and writer, Medicine in 1949, lobotomy fell out American scientist Linus Pauling of use due to its serious side effects. HAROLD GILLIES received two Nobel Prizes – one in See also: Humane mental health chemistry and one for his peace care 92–93 ■ MRI and medical 1882–1960 activism. In 1949, he became the scanning 278–81 first person to advance the concept Described as “the father of plastic of a molecular disease when he CARL JUNG surgery”, Gillies was born in New showed that the inherited disorder Zealand but trained as a surgeon sickle cell anaemia is caused by the 1875–1961 in the UK. After witnessing the presence of abnormal haemoglobin horrific facial wounds suffered by proteins in red blood cells. The start The founder of analytic psychology, soldiers in France during World of molecular genetics, this showed Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung worked War I, he returned to the UK and that the specific properties of closely with Austrian psychoanalyst persuaded the authorities to open proteins can be inherited, and has Sigmund Freud between 1907 and Queen's Hospital, Sidcup, the world’s fuelled modern genome research. 1912, but increasingly disagreed first hospital dedicated to facial See also: Inheritance and with what he viewed as Freud’s reconstruction. There, Gillies hereditary conditions 146–47 ■ overemphasis on sexuality in the pioneered new skin-grafting Genetics and medicine 288–93 development of personality. Jung techniques while treating men introduced the idea of introvert and disfigured by gunshot and shrapnel. CHARLES RICHARD DREW extrovert personalities, archetypes, See also: Plastic surgery 26–27 and the power of the unconscious. ■ Skin grafts 137 ■ Face transplants 1904–1950 He also defined four functions of the 315 mind that affect personality: feeling, An African American pioneer in thinking, sensation, and intuition. HWIINLTLOIANM AUGUSTUS preserving blood for transfusion, See also: Psychoanalysis 178–83 Drew turned his attention from ■ Behavioural and cognitive 1883–1959 surgery to blood storage when he therapy 242–43 won a postgraduate fellowship to The son of freed slaves, Hinton study at Columbia University in UGO CERLETTI overcame racism and poverty to New York City. Drew developed a become a leading pathologist and method for processing and 1877–1963 the first African American professor preserving blood plasma – blood at Harvard University. In 1927, he without cells – which lasts much Italian neurologist Ugo Cerletti created a test for diagnosing syphilis longer than whole blood. In 1940, devised electroconvulsive therapy whose accuracy dramatically cut as head of the “Blood for Britain” (ECT) after seeing a similar process programme in World War II, Drew
322 DIRECTORY initiated a blood banking process, University. In 1958, while head of the Nazi occupation. She left collecting, testing, and transporting anaesthetics at the Johns Hopkins Hungary in 1947 to work at the blood plasma from the US to the UK Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, to alleviate shortages of blood for Safar developed the procedure of Sweden. In the early 1970s, she led transfusion. Drew was appointed cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). the discovery of a new type of white director of the American Red Cross In order to train people how to clear blood cell. Later named natural killer Blood Bank in 1941 but resigned an airway and give mouth-to-mouth (NK) cells, they form a vital part of when the blood of African resuscitation, he persuaded a the immune system, responding Americans was segregated from Norwegian doll company to design quickly to kill virus-infected cells that of white Americans. and produce mannequins, versions and identify cancer cells. Klein also See also: Blood transfusion and of which have been used to teach developed cell lines derived from blood groups 108–11 the life-saving method ever since. Burkitt lymphoma biopsies. See also: Triage 90 See also: The immune system HENRIETTA LACKS 154–61 ■ Cancer therapy 168–75 JAMES BLACK 1920–1951 GILLIAN HANSON 1924–2010 In 1951, aged 31, African American 1934–1996 Henrietta Lacks underwent a biopsy Scottish pharmacologist James at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Black was interested in the way After graduating in 1957, British Baltimore, Maryland, and was hormones affect blood pressure, physician Gillian Hanson spent her diagnosed with cervical cancer. particularly in people suffering from entire working life at Whipps Cross Some of her cells were sent to angina. When blood oxygen levels Hospital, London. An authority on pathologist George Gey, whose are low, adrenaline and other lung disease, kidney failure, and research required live tumour cells. hormones instruct the heart to beat other acute metabolic disorders, Usually, Gey couldn’t keep cells faster, and if the circulation cannot she was appointed head of the alive for more than a short time, keep up, pain results. From 1958, hospital’s new intensive care unit in but Lacks’ cells divided rapidly and Black sought a way to break the 1968. Under her direction, the unit could be kept alive long enough to cycle while working as a chemist at gained an international reputation allow more in-depth examination. pharmaceutical company ICI. Six for excellence and innovation, and These “immortal” cells, known as years later, the company launched established the field of intensive the HeLa cells, have been used in the beta-blocker drug propranolol; it care as a medical specialism. countless research projects – from is still used today to reduce high See also: Diabetes and its the development of the polio vaccine blood pressure. Black also helped treatment 210–13 ■ Dialysis 234–35 to the investigation of AIDS. Lacks to develop drugs to prevent some died months after her diagnosis, but types of stomach cancers and treat DOLORES “DEE” O’HARA her cell line lives on and continues to peptic ulcers, and was awarded aid the progress of medical science. the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology 1935– See also: Cancer therapy 168–75 or Medicine. ■ Cancer screening 226–27 ■ HIV See also: Hormones and After working as a surgical nurse and autoimmune diseases 294–97 endocrinology 184–87 in Oregon, US, O’Hara joined the US Air Force and in 1959, she PETER SAFAR EVA KLEIN was assigned to Project Mercury, America’s first human space flight 1924–2003 1925– programme, at Cape Canaveral, Florida. There she developed the Of Jewish ancestry, Peter Safar Inspired by Marie Curie, Jewish- field of “space nursing” for NASA, evaded the Nazis in wartime Vienna, born Eva Klein (née Eva Fischer) conducting the pre-flight and post- Austria, then moved to the US in studied medicine at the University flight physical examinations of 1949 and trained in surgery at Yale of Budapest, where she hid during every astronaut on the Mercury,
DIRECTORY 323 Gemini, and Apollo space missions HIDEOKI OGAWA FIONA WOOD to determine fitness for participation and the effects of space on the 1941– 1958– human body. See also: Nursing and sanitation In 1993, Japanese immunologist British-born Australian plastic 128–33 and dermatologist Hideoki Ogawa surgeon Fiona Wood invented and argued that the chronic skin disorder patented “spray-on skin” in 1999. GRAEME CLARK atopic dermatitis (eczema) results The treatment involves taking a from a defect in the permeability of small patch of healthy skin and 1935– skin, as well as abnormalities in dissolving the cells with an the immune system. The latter was enzyme to create a solution that The son of a deaf father, Australian already recognized, but his “barrier is sprayed across the damaged ear surgeon Graeme Clark began defect” theory has helped clinicians skin. The technique allows researching the possibility of an better understand this as-yet regenerated skin to heal more implantable, electronic hearing incurable condition, which affects quickly and creates less scarring device in the mid-1960s. In 1978, he more than 10 per cent of children than traditional skin grafting and installed the first cochlear implant and up to 3 per cent of adults. meshing. Although the technique in a patient in Melbourne. The See also: Cellular pathology had not yet been fully tested in “bionic ear” converts sound into 134–35 ■ The immune system clinical trials, Wood successfully electric impulses that stimulate the 154–61 used this method to treat burns auditory nerve, sending messages victims from the Bali bombings in to the brain. Clark’s device has DENIS MUKWEGE 2002. It has since been approved improved the hearing of thousands for use in a number of countries. of people with profound deafness. 1955– See also: Skin grafts 137 See also: The nervous system ■ Regenerative medicine 314 190–95 Described as the world’s leading expert on repairing injuries caused JOANNA WARDLAW ROBERT BARTLETT by rape, Congolese gynaecologist Denis Mukwege trained as a 1958– 1939– paediatrician, gynaecologist, and obstetrician before devoting himself Scottish clinical neurologist During the 1960s, American thoracic to helping female victims of sexual Joanna Wardlaw established the surgeon “Bob” Bartlett developed a violence. In 1999, he founded Panzi Brain Research Imaging Centre life-saving extracorporeal membrane Hospital, Bukavu, in the Democratic in Edinburgh in 1997. By 2020, oxygenation (ECMO) machine. This Republic of the Congo. The hospital it was an international centre of supports patients whose heart and has treated more than 85,000 women excellence for neuroimaging, lungs cannot provide sufficient with gynaecological damage and with one of the largest groups of oxygen exchange to sustain life. In trauma, 60 per cent of them victims academic radiologists in Europe. 1975, Bartlett had his first neonatal of violence inflicted as a weapon of A world authority on brain scanning; success using ECMO when he war. He addressed the United brain ageing; and the prevention, saved the life of newborn “Baby Nations on rape as a war strategy diagnosis, and treatment of Esperanza”, who was experiencing in 2012, and created the Mukwege strokes, Wardlaw has conducted severe breathing difficulties; after Foundation in 2016, to “advocate for pioneering research into the small three days, she made a full recovery. an end to wartime sexual violence”. strokes and dementia caused by ECMO is now an established tool He and fellow campaigner Nadia damage to the brain’s smallest for supporting patients with life- Murad (an Iraqi Yazidi survivor of blood vessels. threatening conditions such as rape) were jointly awarded the See also: Alzheimer’s disease heart attacks or severe lung disease. Nobel Peace Prize in 2018. 196–97 ■ Electroencephalography See also: Transplant surgery See also: The World Health 224–25 ■ MRI and medical 246–53 ■ Pacemakers 255 Organization 232–33 scanning 278–81
324 GLOSSARY In this glossary, terms defined Apothecary A term used in today to treat certain disorders that within another entry are identified medieval times to refer not only cause excess iron in the blood. with italic type. to the place where remedies were dispensed, but also to the person Blood pressure The pressure Acute Describes a condition that who dispensed them. exerted by blood on the walls of begins abruptly and may last for a blood vessels as it is pumped around short time. See also chronic. Artery A blood vessel that carries the body by the heart. Blood pressure blood away from the heart. is measured to assess cardiovascular AIDS The abbreviation for acquired health and to diagnose disease. immunodeficiency syndrome, a Autoimmune disease A disease deficiency of the immune system that occurs when the body’s immune Cancer The abnormal growth of that can occur as a result of HIV. system attacks healthy tissue. cells in body tissues that causes disease. Anaesthetic A drug or mixture Autopsy The examination of a of drugs that either numbs part of dead body to establish the cause of Capillary A minute blood vessel the body (local anaesthesia) or death and/or the nature of disease. with thin walls through which renders the patient unconscious nutrients and waste products pass (general anaesthesia). Bacterium (plural: bacteria) to and from body tissues. A single-celled microorganism that Analgesia A form of pain relief. does not have a nucleus or other Cell The smallest functional unit in specialized membrane-bound the human body. As well as forming Anatomy 1) The body’s structure. structures and is too small to see tissues and organs, cells take in 2) The study of that structure with the naked eye. nutrients, fight invaders, and contain through dissection. See also genetic material. The body has histology. Bile 1) A dark green/yellowish fluid 35–40 trillion cells, of at least 200 produced by the liver that aids the different types. Antibiotic A drug that is used to digestion of fats in the small kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, intestine. 2) Yellow or black “bile”, Central nervous system (CNS) usually those causing infections. two of the four humours in ancient The part of the nervous system that and medieval medicine. consists of the brain and spinal cord Antibody A protein produced in and controls the body’s activities. the body by white blood cells to Biopsy The taking of a tissue or mark foreign particles or antigens fluid sample for analysis. Chemotherapy Treatment that uses and stimulate the immune response. drugs to target and kill cancer cells. Blood group/type system The Antigen A foreign substance that presence or absence of certain Chromosome A structure made stimulates the body to produce antibodies and antigens in blood, of DNA and protein that contains antibodies and an immune response. which may mean that it clots and a cell’s genetic information (in the clumps when mixed with blood of a form of genes); human cells usually Antiseptic Antimicrobial chemical different type. Among more than 30 have 23 pairs of chromosomes. applied to skin or wounds to kill systems, the two most important microbes that may cause infection. are ABO and Rhesus (Rh). Chronic Describes a medical condition that lasts several months Antitoxin An antibody that Bloodletting The removal of blood and may result in long-term change counteracts a toxin, or poison. from a patient to treat disease, used in the body. See also acute.
GLOSSARY 325 Circulatory system The Endocrine system The glands Homeostasis The process of continuous movement of blood and cells that make and control the maintaining a stable internal around the body via the heart and production of the body’s chemical environment within the body. blood vessels. messengers – hormones. Hormone A chemical produced Clinical medicine The study Endoscope A viewing instrument in an endocrine gland to control a and practice of medicine based on that is inserted into the body though process or activity in the body. direct examination of the patient to an orifice or a surgical incision. diagnose, treat, and prevent disease. Human genome The complete set Enzyme A molecule, usually a of genes for a human – there are Computed tomography (CT) An protein, that acts as a catalyst to approximately 20,000 genes. imaging technique that uses weak speed up chemical reactions in X-rays to record thin 2D slice-like the body. Humours In early medicine, four views through the body, then chief body fluids or temperaments combines them to make 3D images. Epidemic An outbreak of a (blood/sanguine, yellow bile/choleric, Also known as computerized axial contagious disease in which the black bile/melancholic, and phlegm/ tomography (CAT). incidence rate is much higher than phlegmatic). Physicians believed expected, but, unlike a pandemic, that good health depended on these Congenital Describes a physical is confined to a particular region. humours being in balance. abnormality or condition that is present from birth and may be Epidemiology The study of how Immune system The body’s the result of genetic factors. often diseases occur in different natural defence network that protects groups of people and why. against infection and disease. Contagious Describes an infectious disease that is spread by direct or Functional magnetic resonance Immunity The ability of the body indirect contact. imaging (fMRI) A magnetic to resist or fight a particular resonance imaging technique that infection or toxin by the action of Coronavirus A common type of measures brain activity by antibodies or white blood cells. virus that causes upper respiratory detecting changes in blood flow. infections in humans and animals. Immunization Rendering a Gene The basic unit of heredity, person resistant to attack from Cytokine A small protein that is passed from parents to offspring as a microbes that cause an infectious secreted by a specific cell of the section of DNA that provides coded disease, usually by inoculation. immune system and has an effect instructions for a specific trait. on other cells. Immunosuppressant A drug Germ A microbe, such as a virus that reduces the workings of the Diagnosis Identification of an or bacterium, that causes disease. immune system, such as to prevent illness from its symptoms (what the the rejection of transplanted organs. person describes) and signs (what Gland A group of cells or an organ is observed). that produces a chemical substance Immunotherapy The treatment with a specific function in the body, of disease, usually cancer, with Dissection Cutting apart a dead such as a hormone or an enzyme. substances that stimulate the body to study its internal structure. body’s immune response. Histology The study of the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) microscopic structure of cells, Implant An item surgically The long, thin, double-helix-shaped tissues, and organs. inserted into the body. It may be molecule that makes up the living (for example, bone marrow), chromosomes found in almost all HIV The abbreviation for human mechanical (hip replacement), body cells. It contains hereditary immunodeficiency virus, which electronic (heart pacemaker), or material called genes. causes AIDS. a combination of all three.
326 Infection A disease caused by Lymphocyte A white blood cell Organ A main body part with a specific function, for example the invading microbes such as bacteria, that protects against infection, for heart, brain, liver, or lungs. viruses, or similar life forms. example by producing antibodies. Inflammation The body’s immune Magnetic resonance imaging Orthopaedics The study and response to damage such as injury, (MRI) Computerized scanning that treatment of the musculoskeletal infection, or toxins. uses a powerful magnetic field and system’s bones, joints, and muscles. radio pulses to visualize 2D slices Inheritance Characteristics through the body, then combines Paediatrics The diagnosis and passed on by parents to offspring them to create a 3D image. treatment of disorders in children. through genes. Metabolism Biochemical processes Palliative care Relieving pain Inoculation In immunization, the in cells that are necessary for life: and other distressing symptoms introduction of disease-causing some convert nutrients into energy; to improve the quality of life of microbes into the body in a mild others use that energy to produce patients with life-threatening, form to stimulate the production of the proteins that build body tissue. and usually incurable, diseases. antibodies that will provide future protection against the disease. Metastasis The spread of cancer Pandemic An outbreak of a cells from the primary tumour where contagious disease that affects the Insulin A hormone that regulates they first formed to other body parts. populations of multiple countries. the level of glucose in the blood. Lack of it causes type 1 diabetes; Microbe/Microorganism A living Pathogen A microbe or organism the body’s inability to use it can organism too small to be seen by that causes disease or other harm. result in type 2 diabetes. the naked eye, such as a bacterium. Pathology The study of disease: Keyhole surgery Minimally Microsurgery Surgery requiring a its causes, mechanism, and effects invasive surgery performed through specialized microscope to operate on the body. a very small incision, using special on minute structures of the body instruments and an endoscope. such as blood vessels and nerves. Parasite An organism that lives in or on another living creature and Laser surgery Surgery performed Nerve A sheathed bundle of nerve causes harm. with a laser beam, for example cells (neurons) that carry electrical reshaping the cornea in order impulses between the brain, spinal Penicillin An antibiotic, or group to improve eyesight. cord, and body tissues. of antibiotics, produced naturally by certain blue moulds, but now Laparoscopy A form of keyhole Nervous system The system of mainly produced synthetically. surgery that is used to examine the brain, spinal cord, and nerves organs inside the abdomen. that receives stimuli and transmits Pharmacology The study of drugs instructions to the rest of the body. and how they act on the body. Lymph The excess fluid that collects in the tissues as blood Obstetrics The field of medicine Physiology The study of biological circulates through the body; its concerned with the care of women processes at every level, from cells to contents include white blood cells. during pregnancy and childbirth. whole body systems, and how they interact with each other. Lymphatic system An extensive Oncology The branch of medicine network of tissues and small organs concerned with cancer. Plasma The liquid part of the that drains lymph from body tissues blood in which the blood cells are into the blood and transports the Ophthalmology The study and suspended. It also carries proteins, infection-fighting white blood cells treatment of disorders and diseases antibodies, and hormones to contained in lymph around the body. of the eye. different cells in the body.
GLOSSARY 327 Positron emission tomography RNA (Ribonucleic acid) A Tumour A growth of abnormal (PET) An imaging technique that molecule that decodes DNA’s cells that may be malignant tracks radioactive tracers injected instructions to make proteins, or (cancerous) and spread throughout into the body to detect metabolic itself carries genetic instructions. the body or benign (non-cancerous) changes that indicate the onset of with no tendency to spread. disease in organs or tissues. Spinal cord The bundle of nerves running from the brain down Ultrasound scan An image of a Protein A large molecule made through the spinal column. It foetus, organ, or other tissue; this up of chains of amino acids. makes up part of the central image is produced by passing high- Proteins are the building blocks of nervous system. frequency sounds into the body the body, required for the structure, and analysing reflected echoes. function, and regulation of tissues Stem cell A non-specialist cell and organs. from which all specialist cells are Vaccination The administering generated. Stem cells provide new of a vaccine to provide immunity Psychotherapy A talking therapy cells as the body grows and replace against a disease. to treat mental health problems via damaged cells. psychological rather than medical Vaccine A preparation containing a means. This umbrella term covers Steroids A class of chemical weakened or killed form of a disease- a vast range of practices from compounds that includes some causing virus, bacterium, or toxin, psychoanalysis to CBT, to help hormones, such as testosterone, to stimulate the body’s immune people overcome their problems. and anti-inflammatory medicines. response without actually causing the disease. Pulmonary/respiratory system Telesurgery Surgery carried out The airways, lungs, and vessels by a robot that is operated from a Vector An organism that transmits involved in breathing, which takes remote console. disease, such as a virus, bacterium, oxygen into the body’s circulatory or some species of mosquitoes that system and expels carbon dioxide Tissue Groups of similar cells carry malaria. from the body. that carry out the same function, such as muscle tissue, which Vein A blood vessel that carries Pulse 1) The rate at which the heart can contract. blood from the body back to beats, reflected in the rhythmic the heart. expansion and contraction of an Tissue typing The identification artery as blood is pumped through of antigens in the tissue of a donor Vessel A duct or tube carrying it. 2) The diagnostic measurement and a recipient before procedures blood or other fluid through the body. of this expansion and contraction such as an organ transplantation per minute. take place, in order to minimize Virus One of the smallest types the possibility of rejection due to of harmful microbe, consisting of Radiotherapy The treatment of antigenic differences. genetic material in a protective disease, especially cancer, using coating; it can only multiply by localized X-rays or similar forms Toxin A poisonous substance, invading other living cells. of radiation. especially one produced by certain bacteria, plants, and animals. White blood cells Colourless Red blood cells The most common blood cells that play a part in the type of blood cell, containing Transfusion The transfer of blood body’s defensive immune system. haemoglobin, an oxygen-carrying from a donor to a recipient. protein that is delivered to body X-ray A photographic or digital tissue via the circulatory system. Transplant The taking and image of inside part of the body, implanting of tissue or organs from taken with X-rays, a form of Respiratory system one part of the body to another, or electromagnetic radiation that See pulmonary system. from a donor to a recipient. penetrates soft tissues.
328 INDEX Page numbers in bold refer to aneurysms 88, 89 Babes,, Aurel 226–7 Black, James 322 main entries animalcules 134, 140, 141 Babylonia 28–9 Blackwell, Elizabeth 107, 120, 121 animals bacteria Blackwell, Emily 121 3D imaging 13, 123, 172, 176, 227, 244, Blair, Vilray 137 262, 265, 278–81, 298 testing 88, 89, 312–13 antibiotics 174, 205, 218–23 Blondeel, Phillip 315 and transmission of disease 309, 310 germ theory 13, 100, 118, 127, blood banks 53, 111 3D printing 103, 314, 315 use of antibiotics 222, 223 blood cancers 134, 170, 173, 174, anthrax 100, 107, 143, 206, 207 140–5, 156 A anti-smoking legislation 267 immunotherapy 170, 171 175, 292, 300, 303 antibiotics 12, 13, 59, 140, 145, 148, bacteriophages 204–5 blood circulation 13, 66, 68–73, 152 Abbasid dynasty 17, 46 balance 12, 16, 17, 23–5, 29, 30–5, blood glucose levels 211, 212, 213 Abel, John 234 166–7, 174, 198, 216–23 blood groups 108, 110–11, 135 abortion 214, 215 misuse of 223 40, 43, 57 blood pressure 73, 86, 153 Abraham, Edward 219, 222 resistance to 167, 174, 205, 222–3 Banko, Anton 301 blood transfusion 53, 106, 108–11 acceptance-based therapies 243 antibodies 13, 101, 156, 158, 159, 160, Banks, Joseph 99 blood types, identifying 282 acupuncture 17, 32, 34–5 Banting, Frederick 184, 187, 210, blood vessels 111, 248, 280, 298 Adams, Stewart 86 170, 175, 198, 257, 275, 282–3, 310 bloodletting 52, 73, 276 adaptive immunity 156, 158, 159, anticoagulants 108, 234 211, 212–13 Blum, Ferdinand 123 antidepressants 271 barber-surgeons 52, 61, 67, 90, 120 Blumberg, Baruch 293 160–1, 256, 257 antigens 157–8, 159, 160, 161, 175, 209, Barnard, Christiaan 230, 248, 251, 252 Blundell, James 106, 109–10 Addison, Thomas 236 Baronio, Giuseppe 137, 315 body-snatching 136 Addison’s disease 236 251, 256, 257, 282 Barré-Sinoussi, Françoise 274, 294, Boen, Fred 234 adjuvants 209, 271 antigenic drift/shift 310, 311 Boerhaave, Herman 66, 80, 81 Adler, Alfred 320 antihistamine 160, 241 295, 296, 297 Boesch, P.F. 298 adrenal glands 184, 236, 237, 238 antimicrobials 218, 221 Barrett, Howard 270 Boissier de Sauvages, François 75 adrenaline 160, 184 antipsychotics 241 Barry, James 319 Boland, Thomas 314 Adrian, Edgar 193, 195 antiretroviral therapy (ARV) 294, 297 Bartholin, Thomas 256, 257 bone cancer 176, 262, 265 ageing population 271 antiseptics 143, 148–51 Bartlett, Robert 323 bone grafts 248 Aguilon, François d’ 91 antitoxins 157, 166, 198–9, 207, 209, 282 Bassi, Agostino 141 bone marrow 256 AIDS 274, 275, 294–7 antivirals 145, 254 Bateson, William 146, 147 air pollution 266 Antonine Plague 42–3, 308, 309 Bath, Patricia 301 transplants 300, 303 airborne pathogens 142–3, 144, 145, anxiety 181, 242, 269, 270, 271 Battie, William 180 bones, orthopaedics 262–5 aortofemoral bypass surgery 298 battlefield medicine 12, 53, 67, 88–9, Booth, Edgar 255 177, 312 aphasia 194 Bordet, Jules 158 Al-Aslamia, Rufaida 130 Aquinas, Thomas 50 90, 111, 130–1, 263–4 Bottazzo, Gian Franco 294 al-Mawsili, Ammar 318 Archagathus of Sparta 40 Bawendi, Moungi 304 Bouchardat, Apollinaire 211 al-Razi (Rhazes) 12, 17, 40, 43, 46–7, Aristotle 28, 61 Bayliss, William 185, 186, 187, 267 Boveri, Theodor 320 arteries 70, 71, 72, 73 Bayt al-Hikma (Baghdad) 46 bowel cancer 174, 227, 296 49, 51, 80, 156 arthroscopic surgery 298 Bazalgette, Joseph 124 Boylston, Zabdiel 98 al-Tabari 49 asbestos 266 BCG vaccine 96, 166, 207, 208–9 Bozzini, Philipp 298 al-Tamimi 49 Asclepiades of Bithynia 28, 41 Beck, Aaron 242, 243 Bradford Hill criteria 267 al-Zahrawi 49, 52, 170, 171, 193, 262, 263 asepsis 151 Beers, Clifford 93 brain alchemy 48–9, 56, 57 Aserinsky, Eugene 224 behavioural therapy 230, 242–3 Alcmaeon of Croton 28, 29 Asian flu 311 Behring, Emil von 157, 166, 198, 207, 282 dementia 196–7 alleles 146 aspirin 59, 67, 86–7 Beijerinck, Martinus 166, 177, 204 electroencephalography 224–5 allergies 160, 237, 295 asthma 237, 239 Bellew, Henry 131 nervous system 192–5 Allison, James P. 156, 175 asylums 92, 93 Bennett, A.E. 114 psychoanalysis 180–3 Almeida, June 312 Atharvaveda 22–3 Berger, Hans 195, 224 brain cancer 224, 225, 244, 281 Alwall, Nils 235 atrial fibrillation 188 beriberi 201, 202, 203 breast cancer 49, 114, 170, 171, 173, Alzheimer, Alois 166, 196, 197 attenuated vaccines 166, 167, 206–9 Bernard, Claude 56, 59, 107, 152, 153, Alzheimer’s disease 166, 195, 196–7, Auenbrugger, Leopold 80, 81 174, 187, 226, 227, 293 augmented reality 315 184 Breckinridge, Mary 76 293 autografts 137 Berthold, Arnold 185–6 Breuer, Josef 180 ambulances 53, 90 autoimmune diseases 236, 283, 294–7 Bertillon, Jacques 75 Broca, Paul 194 American Civil War 90, 133 autonomic nervous system 193 Besredka, Alexandre 295 bronchitis 267 amputations 53, 149, 265 autopsies 119 Best, Charles 212, 213 Broussais, François 52 anaesthesia 53, 112–17 Avery, Oswald 290 beta-amyloid protein 196 Brown, Augusta 186 axons 192, 194 beta-blockers 189 Brown, James 137 and surgery 88, 106, 107, 148–9, 171 Ayurvedic medicine 12, 16, 22–5, 26–7 Bethune, Norman 53 Brown, Tom 244 traditional Chinese 32, 35 Bian Qiao 32, 34, 35 Brown-Séquard, Charles-Édouard 186 analgesics 59, 86–7, 271 B bile duct cancer 293 Bruno da Longobucco 52 anamnesis 81 Bills of Mortality 74 Buchner, Hans 158 anaphylaxis 160 B-cells/lymphocytes 158, 159–60, 161, bioelectricity 188, 194 Buchner, Johann 87 anatomy 12, 60–3, 67, 136 175, 256, 257, 282–3 bioprinting 314 Burgundio of Pisa 40 Anderson, William French 300 bipolar disorder 92, 230, 240, 241 Burnet, Frank Macfarlane 156, 159, Andrewes, Christopher 177, 309, 311 Baba, Kazunori 244, 262 bird flu 310, 311, 313 Andry, Nicolas 262 birth control 120, 167, 214–15, 231, 258 160, 282, 311 birth defects 76, 245, 259, 292 Black Death 17, 46, 51, 140, 308, 309
INDEX 329 Burney, Fanny 114 Central Council of Indian Medicine 22 contraception 120, 214–15, 231, 258 Democritus 41 burns 27, 137, 253, 315 central nervous system (CNS) 193 Cooley, Denton 252 dendrites 192, 194 Butenandt, Adolf 167, 187 cerebral cortex 197 Cooper, Astley 88, 137 dendritic cells 156, 161, 254 cerebrospinal fluid 193 Copeman, Sydney 286 dengue 312 C Cerletti, Ugo 321 Cormack, Allan MacLeod 280 Deniker, Pierre 230, 241 cervical cancer 135, 167, 170, 174, 226–7 corneal transplants 248–9, 253 Denis, Jean-Baptiste 108, 109 Cade, John 230, 240, 241 Chadwick, Edwin 78, 125 Corner, George W. 258 dentistry 20, 21, 88, 115, 117, 176 caffeine 58 Chain, Ernst 218, 219, 222 coronaviruses 310, 312 Depage, Antoine 90 Calmette, Albert 96, 166, 167, 207, Chambon, Ernest 100 Correns, Carl 146 depression 181, 240, 242, 269, 271 Chan, Priscilla 140 corticosteroids 236, 238, 239 dermatology 239 208, 209 Chang, Min Chueh 284 cortisone 230, 236–9 Derosne, Louis 56, 58 Calne, Roy 250–1 Charaka 23 cosmetic surgery 27 Descartes, René 192 Cammann, George P. 103 Charcot, Jean-Martin 180, 192, 194 COVID-19 101, 161, 177, 209, 233, 236, desensitization 242 Campbell, Charles 301 Chargaff, Erwin 290 Devauchelle, Bernard 315 cancer charitable trusts 83 275, 283, 308, 312–13 Dhanvantari 22, 23 Charlemagne 50 cowpox 98–100, 207, 286 dhatus 24 cellular pathology 134, 135 Charleton, Walter 137 Creutzfeld-Jakob disease 196 diabetes 59, 167, 187, 210–13, 295 histology 123 Charnley, John 231, 262, 263, 264, 265 Crick, Francis 230, 290–1, 299, 310 diagnosis interferon 254 Chase, Martha 204, 205 Crimean War 53, 106, 107, 130–1, 132, metastasis 89, 172, 173–4 Chauliac, Guy de 17, 50, 51, 263 Ayurvedic medicine 24–5 occupational 78 chemistry 56–9 133 case histories 80–1 palliative care 268 chemotherapy 167, 172–4, 265, 267 Cruz, Oswaldo 320 cellular pathology 134–5 scanning 278, 279, 281 Chiarugi, Vincenzo 93 CT imaging (computed electrocardiography 188–9 screening/diagnosis 135, 167, childbirth 66, 76–7, 115, 116, 118–19 electroencephalography 195, 224–5 childhood, psychoanalysis 180–3 tomography) 172, 176, 195, 274, genetic screening 292 226–7, 292–3 Chinese medicine, traditional 12, 278, 280–1 Islamic medicine 47–8, 49 therapy 168–75, 198, 282, 283 Cullen, William 75, 102 MRI and scanning 278–81 see also by type 16–17, 30–5, 96, 114 Culpeper, Nicholas 76, 77, 318 Roman medicine 42–3 cannabis 35, 114 Chirurgia Magna (Chauliac) 17, 50, 51, Cummings, Alexander 123 traditional Chinese medicine 33–4 Cannon, Walter B. 152, 153 curare 114, 117, 153 ultrasound 244 Canon of Medicine (Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb) 263 Cushing, Harvey 320 dialysis 234–5, 250 chlamydia 222 cyclosporine 231, 250, 251, 252, 253 diarrhoea 124, 126, 145, 202, 218, 222 (Ibn Sina) 12, 36, 46, 48, 50, 60, chloroform 115, 116, 127 cystic fibrosis 290, 292 diet 25, 29, 32, 200–3 118, 180 chloroquine 162 cytokines 161, 254, 267 digestion 153, 186 Cantell, Kari 254 chlorpromazine 230, 241 cytoscopes 298 digitalin 56, 58 capillaries 66, 70, 73 cholera 100, 106, 107, 124, 125, 126–7, Dioscorides, Pedanius 28, 29, 36, 37, CAR (chimeric antigen receptor) T-cells D 175 142, 144–5, 204, 207, 209, 223, 309 56, 57, 114 carbolic acid 107, 118, 150, 151 chromosomes 146, 147, 231, 245, 267, da Carpi, Giacomo Berengario 61 diphtheria 96, 101, 157, 166, 207, 209, carbon monoxide 153 da Gama, Vasco 85 cardiology 166, 188–9, 244, 248, 251, 275, 290, 293 da Vinci, Leonardo 60, 61 232, 287 252–3, 255 Chuonnasuan 18 da Vinci robotic system 298, 305 disease Carpue, Joseph 27 cirrhosis 293 Dakin, Henry 53 Carr, Hermann 279 Clark, Graeme 323 Dale, Henry 192, 195 autoimmune 236, 283, 294–7 Carrel, Alexis 248–9 cleft palates 27 Dalton, John 67, 91 Bradford Hill criteria 267 Carter, Henry Vandyke 136 Cline, Henry 110 Damadian, Raymond 279, 280 cellular pathology 134–5 cartilage 262, 265 clinical trials 259, 276–7 damage-associated molecular patterns epidemiology 124–7 case histories 66, 80–1 cloning 253, 275, 299, 302 gene-based 135, 192 Cassen, Benedict 281 cocaine 18, 117 (DAMPs) 161 germ theory 140–5 castration 185 Cochrane, Archibald 276, 277 Dameshek, William 250 global eradication of 286–7 casts, plaster 264, 265 coeliac disease 295, 296 Darwin, Charles 146 hereditary 146–7, 290, 291 cataracts 48, 203, 301 cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) Daughters of Charity 130 and hygiene 118–19 Catholic Church 50, 61, 71, 214, 258, 303 Davies, Brian 305 immune system 154–61 Cato the Elder 40–1 230, 242–3 Davies, Sally 293 insect-borne 162–3 Caton, Richard 224 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 114 Davy, Humphry 114 nosology 74–5 cautertization 53, 170 Coley, William 170, 171, 174 DDT 287 and nutrition 200–3 Caventou, Joseph-Beinamé 58 Collegium Internationale Neuro- De Humani Corporis Fabrica (Vesalius) occupational 78–9 cell theory 106, 134, 152 poverty-related 145 cell therapy 135 Psychopharmacologicum (CINP) 17, 43, 50, 62–3, 88, 136, 152, statistical analysis 132 cell-mediated immunity 160–1 241 193–4 vector-borne 287 Celli, Angelo 163 Collier, Leslie 287 De Materia Medica (Dioscorides) 36, zoonotic 296, 312–13 cells Collip, James 212, 213 37, 56, 57 see also diseases by name; infectious cancer screening 226–7 Colombo, Realdo 71 de Morgan, Campbell 170, 172, 319 carcinogens and 267 colorectal cancer 227 De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis (Harvey) diseases; viruses cellular pathology 106, 134–5 colour vision deficiency 67, 91 66, 72–3, 108, 152 disfiguring injuries 26–7 histology 122–3 Colvin, Stephen 305 death disinfectants 53 immune system 156–61 combination chemotherapy 174 classification of cause of 74 dissection 42, 60, 61, 62, 71, 136 interferons 254 computer aided navigation 265 palliative care 268–71 district nursing 133 lymphocytes 256–7 Comstock Act (US, 1873) 214, 215 degrees, medical 82 Djerassi, Carl 258 stem cell research 302–3 conditioning behaviour 152, 230, 242–3 Deiters, Otto 192 DNA 135, 177, 204, 205, 213, 222, 230, Celsus, Aulus 26, 27, 43, 171 condoms 214, 258 Delay, Jean 230, 241 census data 132 conformal radiation therapy (CRT) 172 dementia 195, 196–7, 225, 281, 293 231, 238, 275, 294, 297, 310 conjunctivitis 239 Demikhov, Vladimir 252 cancer therapy 172, 173 conscious mind 181, 182 gene therapy 300 contagion, tracking 126–7 genetics 290–2
330 INDEX Human Genome Project 299 Einthoven, Willem 166, 188, 189, 255 fibromyalgia 295 Glenner, George 196 sequencing 275, 291 Ekimov, Alexei 304 fixatives 123 Glenny, Alexander 209 vaccines 209 electric hearts 253 Fleischman, Elizabeth 176 globalization 310, 313 DNA fingerprinting 292 electrocardiography 166, 167, 188–9, Fleming, Alexander 13, 140, 166–7, Gluck, Thermistocles 264 Dobson, Matthew 210, 211 glycogen 153 Doisy, Edward 187 255 218, 219 gods, disease as punishment of 28 Doll, Richard 231, 266 electroconvulsive shock treatment Flemming, Walther 146, 245, 290 Goldberger, Joseph 203 Dolly the sheep 275, 299, 302 Flint, Austin 276 Goldman, Leon 301 Donald, Ian 230, 244 (ECT) 114, 241 Florey, Howard 218, 219–20, 222 Golgi, Camillo 122, 194–5 Doniach, Deborah 294 electroencephalography 167, 195, 224–5 fMRI imaging 224, 225 gonorrhoea 218, 219, 223 donors, transplant 248–53, 292, 303 electron microscopes 122, 135, 195, 254 folic acid 173 Goodman, Louis 167, 172 doshas 16, 23–4 elements, five 23, 32, 33 folk remedies 21, 53, 56 Goodyear, Charles 214 double-blind trials 276 Eliava, Georgi 205 food gout 47, 75, 237, 240 Down, John Langdon 245 Ellis, Albert 242 Gowans, James 160, 231, 256, 257 Down syndrome 231, 245 Elmqvist, Rune 188, 255 contaminated 126, 141, 142–3, 145, gowns, surgical 151 dreams 181–2, 224 Elvehjem, Conrad 203 148, 150 Graham, Evarts 267 Drew, Charles Richard 321–2 embolism 134 Graham, Thomas 234 Drexler, K. Eric 304 embryonic stem cells (ESCs) 134, 135, diet and vitamins 200–3 Gram, Hans Christian 218–19 drugs Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Graunt, John 124 analgesics 59, 86–7 275, 302, 303, 314 Graves’ disease 295 anti-psychotics 92 embryos 284–5, 292–3 231, 259 Gray, Henry 60, 63, 136 antibiotics 59, 148, 174, 216–23 emotional response 243 forensic science 292 Gray’s Anatomy (Anatomy Descriptive antipsychotics 241 emphysema 267 Fracastoro, Girolamo 156 chemotherapy 172–4 Empiricists 41, 42 fractures 176, 262–5 and Surgical) 60, 63, 136 immunosuppressants 250–1, 252, encephalitis 101, 225 Fraenkel-Conrat, Heinz 310 Great Influenza 167, 308, 309–10, 311 Enders, John F. 206 Francis, Thomas 310 Great Plague (1665) 74, 308 253, 315 endocrinology 167, 184–7 Franklin, Rosalind 290 Greece, ancient 12, 16, 17, 28–9, 36, Islamic 48 endoscopes 298, 305 Frawley, David 22 palliative care 271 Enlightenment, Age of 49, 83, 92 Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor 61 40–1, 46, 48, 50, 52, 82, 193 pharmacy 54–9 enteritis 145 Frei, Emil (Tom) 174 see also Dioscorides; Hippocrates psychoactive 18 environmental factors 78–9, 124–5, 242, Freireich, Emil 174 Griffith, Harold 117 resistance to 162, 167, 174, 205, 218, Freitas, Robert 304 Grubbe, Emil 172 266 Freud, Anna 180 Guérin, Camille 96, 166, 167, 207, 208, 221, 222–3, 274 epidemics 74, 126–7, 132, 161, 308–13 Freud, Sigmund 166, 180–2, 183, 242 steroids and cortisone 236–9 epidemiology 78, 106, 124–7, 132 Friedmann, Theodore 300 209 targeted delivery 198–9 epidurals 116 fungi 145 Guinea worm disease 287 trials, testing and safety 56, 231, 259, epilepsy 195, 225, 281 Funk, Casimir 167, 200–1, 202, 203 gunshot wounds 53, 88–9, 264 Eros 182 Gunston, Frank 231, 262, 264 276–7 Erxleben, Dorothea 120 G Gurdon, John 302, 314 see also by name ether 53, 88, 106, 107, 114–15, 116 Guy, Thomas 83 Dubernard, Jean-Michel 248 etomidate 114 Gabillard, Robert 278, 279 Guyatt, Gordon 276 Duchesne, Ernst 220 eugenics 215 Gaerhart, John 134 Guy’s Hospital (London) 66, 83 Duggar, Benjamin 218, 221 Eustachi, Bartolomeo 63, 236 Galen, Claudius 12, 17, 29, 40, 41–3, 42, gynaecology 43, 49, 51, 226, 258, Dunant, Henry 319–20 Evang, Karl 232 Dussik, Karl and Friedrich 244 Evans, Herbert McLean 184 46, 47, 48, 53, 57, 60, 61, 62, 66, 284–5, 298 dye-making 59, 198 Evans, Martin 314 70–1, 73, 74, 140, 162, 193, 257 dysentery 131, 144, 145, 204 evidence-based medicine 276–7 Galilei, Galileo 78 H evil spirits 18, 23 Galvani, Luigi 188, 192, 194 E examinations, diagnostic 66, 80–1 Ganter, Georg 234 HAART (highly active antiretroviral excesses, six 32, 33–4 Garnier, Jeanne 268 therapy) 294, 297 early-onset dementia 196–7 exercises, traditional Chinese 32, 33 Garrett-Anderson, Elizabeth 107, 121 Ebers papyrus 21, 36, 84, 210 exorcism 29 Garrod, Alfred 237 Haas, Georg 234 Ebola 308, 312 experimental medicine 153 gastroenterology 239 haematology 108–11 ECG (electrocardiogram) 188–9, 255 eye surgery, laser 275, 301 Gates, Bill and Melinda 162 haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) 303 echo-planar imaging 278, 280 Gautier, Marthe 231, 245 haemoglobin 153 echocardiograms 244 F Gee, Samuel 295–6 haemophilia 147 Edelman, Gerald 160 gene editing 275, 300 Haffkine, Waldemar 207, 208 Edler, Inge 244 Fabricius, Hieronymus 73, 318 gene therapy 275, 300 Hahnemann, Samuel 102 education, health 83, 233 face masks 151 gene-based diseases 135, 192 Hales, Stephen 70, 318–19 Edwards, Robert 284, 285 face transplants 26, 27, 248, 253, 275, gene-splicing 187 hallucinogens 19 Edwards syndrome 245 general anaesthetics 116, 117 Halpert, Matthew 156, 254 Edwin Smith papyrus 16, 20, 21, 26, 53, 315 genetic engineering 213, 254, 293, 300 Halsted, William 171 faecal occult blood testing 227 genetics 13, 107, 146–7, 245, 287, Hamburger, Jean 230, 250 60, 88, 170, 171, 192, 263 Fallopio, Gabriele 63 288–93, 299 Hamilton, Alice 78, 79 EEG (electroencephalogram) 195, 224–5 Fantus, Bernard 111 Gerhardt, Charles 87 Hammond, William 240 ego 182 Faraday, Michael 114 Gerlach, Joseph von 123 Hammurabi’s Code 28 Egypt, ancient 16, 20–1, 26, 36, 52, 53, Farber, Sidney 170, 173 germ theory 13, 106–7, 119, 127, hand hygiene 83, 118, 119, 124, 142, 313 Farr, William 131 138–45, 148, 150, 156, 162, 177 hand transplants 248, 253 61, 85, 86, 103, 200, 262, 263, 315 femtosecond lasers 275, 301 Ghebreyesus, Tedros Adhanom 312 Handyside, Alan 292 Ehrlich, Paul 13, 140, 156–7, 166, 198, Fernel, Jean 74, 152 Gibbon, John 70 Hannover, Adolph 123 fertility treatment 275, 284–5 Gillies, Harold 26, 315, 321 Hanson, Gillian 322 199, 218, 220–1, 282 fever 86–7 Gilman, Alfred 167, 172 Harington, Charles 187 Eichengrün, Arthur 87 Feynman, Richard 304 glands 184–7 Harlan, John Marshall 320 Eijkman, Christiaan 200, 201, 202
INDEX 331 harmony 23, 25, 33 Hooke, Robert 122, 134 immunosuppressants 231, 250, 251, Kelman, Charles 301 Harrington, Paul 264 hookworm 286, 287 253, 275 Kelsey, Frances Oldham 231, 259 Harris, Henry 220 Hopkins, Barbara 209 Kendall, Edward 187, 237, 238 Harris, John 319 Hopkins, Frederick Gowland 200, 201–2 in vitro fertilization (IVF) 274, 275, ketamine 114 Hartmann, Heinz 180 Hopps, John 230, 255 284–5, 292–3 keyhole surgery 265, 274, 284, 298, 305 Harun al-Rashid, caliph 82 hormonal contraception 258 kidney dialysis 230, 234–5 Harvey, William 13, 66, 70, 71–2, 73, hormones 167, 184–7 Indian medicine 12, 16, 22–5, 47, 48, 114 kidney transplants 230, 234, 235, 248, hospices 231, 268, 269, 270, 271 Indigenous peoples 308, 309 103, 152 hospitals 21, 25, 82–3 Industrial Revolution 79, 107 250, 251, 253, 305 Hata, Sahachiro 221 infections Kilbourne, Edwin 310, 311 Hawkes, Nigel 174 as centres for education and King, Charles Glen 84 Haworth, Norman 203 innovation 83 surgical 21, 89, 115, 118, 148–51, Kirchner, Athanasius 140, 141 heart 170, 223, 265 Kissam, Richard 248 early 40, 46, 49, 50, 67 Kitasato, Shibasaburo 157, 166, 198, blood circulation 70–3 nursing and sanitation 128–33 wounds 53, 131, 132, 223 bypass surgery 189, 305 Hounsfield, Godfrey 280–1 see also immune system 207, 282 disease 145, 189, 266, 303 HRT (hormone replacement therapy) infectious diseases 74, 106, 166, 232, Klebs, Edwin 135 electric 253 Klein, Eva 322 electrocardiography 188–9 187 233, 274–5 Klein, Melanie 180 pacemakers 230, 255 Hua Tuo 32, 35, 114 antibiotics 218–23 Kleitman, Nathaniel 224 transplants 189, 231, 248, 252–3 Huanagdi Neijing 16, 32, 33, 70 bacteriophages and phage therapy knee replacements 262, 264 heart-lung machines 70 Huangfu Mi 35 Koch, Robert 13, 100, 106–7, 119, 124, heart-lung transplants 252 Hultin, Johan 311 204–5 Heatley, Norman 218, 219–20 Human Genome Project 245, 275, 290, germ theory 140–5 127, 140, 143–4, 145, 148, 151, Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 180 interferon 254 156, 177, 199 Heister, Lorenz 52 292, 299 pandemics 308–13 Köhler, Georges 160, 170, 175, 275, 282, Helmholtz, Hermann von 91 human growth hormone 184 vaccination 96–101, 206–9, 286–7 283 Helmont, Jan Baptista van 276 human papillomavirus (HPV) 174, 209 inflammation 86, 87, 156, 157, 158, 160, Kohut, Heinz 180 Hench, Philip 230, 236, 237–8, 239 humoral immunity 160–1 Kolff, Willem 230, 234, 235, 250 hepatitis 206, 209, 239, 254, 293, 309 humours, four 12, 17, 24, 25, 28, 29, 40, 161, 257 Kölliker, Albert von 106, 122, 123, 134, herbal medicine 18, 36–7, 50, 56 inflammatory diseases 236–9 135 hereditary conditions 146–7, 290, 291, 42, 43, 48, 52, 57, 73, 74, 157 influenza 101, 140, 145, 166, 167, 177, Konduri, Vanaja 156, 254 Hunter, John 67, 88, 89 Kontogianni, Elena 292 292–3 Hunter, William 63 283, 308–13 Kraepelin, Emil 74 Hérelle, Félix d’ 204, 205 Huntington, George 291 inheritance 146–7, 267 Kropowski, Hilary 282 Herodotus 20, 21 Huntington’s disease 147, 192, 290, 291 innate immunity 156, 158, 160, 161 Kuhl, David 278, 281 Herophilus of Alexandria 28, 61, 193 Hustin, Adolph 108, 111 Innocent VIII, Pope 214 Küler-Ross, Elisabeth 270 Herschel, William 176 Huxley, Andrew 195 inoculation see vaccination Küntscher, Gerhard 264 Hershey, Alfred 204, 205 hybridomas 282, 283 insect-borne disease 162–3 Kurtz, Ron 301 Hertz, Hellmuth 244 hydrocephalus 193 insecticides 287 Kwong, Kenneth 224 Hertz, Roy 173–4 hydrogen atoms 279–80 insulin 59, 92, 167, 184, 187, 210–13 Hesy-Re 20, 21 hygiene 106, 107, 118–19, 124, 130–3, interferon 254 L Hewson, William 256, 257 International Classification of Diseases Hildegard of Bingen 318 141–2, 145 Laborit, Henri 241 Hill, Austin Bradford 231, 266–7 Hyman, Albert 188 (WHO) 32, 35, 75 Lacks, Henrietta 322 Hilleman, Maurice 206 hypersensitivity 160 intinternational health 232–3 Lad, Vasant 22 Hinton, William Augustus 321 hypertension 73, 86 International Space Station 283 Laënnec, René 103, 188 hip replacements 231, 262, 263, 264–5 hypothalamus 153, 184 intestines 21, 33, 46, 62, 145, 186–7, Laidlaw, Patrick 177, 309 hippocampus 197 Lancisi, Giovanni Maria 162 Hippocrates 12, 16, 17, 28, 29, 40, 42, IJ 253, 296 Landsteiner, Karl 108, 110, 111, 135 intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) Lange, Frederik 240 43, 46, 48, 52, 70, 74, 78, 79, 80, iatrochemistry 58 Langerhans, Paul 210, 211 84, 85, 86, 102, 103, 118, 124, 146, Ibn al-Khatib 46, 140 285 Langevin, Paul 244 171, 193, 257, 263 Ibn al-Haytham 91 intubation 117 Lanoix, Gustave 100 Hippocratic Oath 12, 29, 47 Ibn al-Nafis 17, 61, 70, 71 Ishihara, Shinobu 91 Lantieri, Laurent 26, 248, 315 histology 106, 122–3 Ibn Ishaq 46 Islamic medicine 12, 17, 21, 25, 44–9, laparoscopy 284, 298 histopathology 123, 134 Ibn Khaˉtima 140 Larrey, Dominique-Jean, Baron 53, HIV 101, 274, 294–7, 308, 312 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 12, 17, 36, 46, 48, 51, 61, 82, 210, 263 HLA (human leucocyte antigen) 159, 251 Issacs, Alick 254 67, 90 Hodgkin, Alan 195 49, 50, 51, 60, 118, 148, 180, 210 Ivanovsky, Dmitri 177, 204 laser surgery 275, 301 Hodgkin, Dorothy 220 Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) 88 Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber) 48–9, 56–7 Lassa fever 312 Hodgkin’s lymphoma 174 ibuprofen 86 Jackson, Charles 116, 117 Latham, Peter Mere 59 Hoffman, Felix 87 id 182 Janeway, Charles 161 laudanum 58, 86, 269 Hoffmann, Erich 198 Ilizarov, Gavril 264 Janssen, Zacharias 141 Lauterbur, Paul 279, 280 holistic medicine 25, 28, 102, 270 imbalance see balance jaundice 237–8 Laveran, Alphonse 107, 162, 163 Holland, James 174 Imhotep 16, 20, 21 Jenner, Edward 13, 67, 96, 98, 99, 101, Leacock, John Henry 109 Holmes, Francis 177 immune system 154–61, 231 League of Nations, Health Organization Holmes, Oliver Wendell 106, 118, 119 156, 206, 207, 254, 286 homeopathy 102 autoimmune diseases 294–7 Jesty, Benjamin 99 232, 233 homeostasis 152, 153 blood groups 110–11 Jex-Blake, Sophia 121 Lederberg, Joshua 160, 313 Honigberger. Johann Martin 102 immunotherapy 170, 171, 174–5, joints, replacement 13, 262–5 leeches 52, 73 Honjo, Tasuku 156, 175 Jones, Mary Cover 242 Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van 122, 134, Hood, George 137 266, 282 Jones, Robert 263 lymphocytes and lymphatics 256–7 Juhasz, Tibor 301 140, 141, 162 organ transplants 250–1 Jung, Carl 321 immunology 94–101, 174–5, 198–9, K 206–7, 231, 282–3, 286–7 Kaposi’s sarcoma 296 Kaufman, Matt 314 Kelling, Georg 298
332 INDEX Lehmann, Heinz 241 major histocompatibility complex Miller, Jacques 160, 254, 256 neutrophils 157 leprosy 140 (MHC) 161 Milstein, César 160, 170, 175, 275, 282, Newton, Isaac 91 Leroux, Henri 87 night blindness 200 Letterman, Jonathan 90 malaria 86, 87, 102, 107, 145, 162–3, 283 Nightingale, Florence 83, 106, 107, 126, leukaemia 134, 170, 173, 174, 175, 292, 222, 274, 283, 286, 287, 309 mindfulness 243 minimally invasive surgery 274, 298 130–2, 133 300 Malpighi, Marcello 66, 70, 73, 122 Minkowski, Oskar 210, 211 nigoda 140 Levan, Albert 245 mammography 226, 227 mitochondria 134 nitrous oxide (laughing gas) 107, 114, Lewis, Thomas 188 mandrake 114 mobile/field hospitals 46, 53, 90 Li, Min 173–4 mania 240, 241 monasteries 17, 50, 83, 146, 147 115, 117 Li Shizhen 35 Mansfield, Peter 274, 278, 279, 280 Mondrino de Luzzi 61 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs lice 118 Mao Zedong 32 Moniz, António Egas 92, 321 Lickint, Fritz 266 Mapp, “Crazy” Sally 263 monoclonal antibodies 160, 175, 275, (NSAIDs) 239 Lidwill, Mark 255 Marchiafava, Ettore 163 nosology 66, 74–5 Liebig, Justus von 152–3 Marescaux, Jacques 305 282–3 Nossal, Gustav 160 ligaments 262, 265 marma points 24–5 Montagnier, Luc 274, 294, 295, 296, 297 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Lind, James 67, 84, 85, 200, 276–7 Martinet, Louis 80 mood stabilizers 240 Lindenmann, Jean 254 Martinez, Karen 304 Moorfields Eye Hospital (London) 20, 21 278–9, 280 Liotta, Domingo 253 Mascagni, Paolo 256 Morgagni, Giovanni Battista 266 nucleus, cell 135 Lippmann, Gabriel 188 mass vaccination programmes 286–7 Morgan, Thomas Hunt 146 nursing 106, 107, 125, 128–33 Lister, Joseph 89, 107, 118, 119, 122, Massa, Niccolò 61–2 morning-after pill 258 nutrition 200–3 Mather, Cotton 96, 98 morphine 56, 58, 59 obesity 167, 213, 265 143, 149, 150–1, 162, 220 Mathijsen, Anthonius 264 Morton, Henry 88 observation, clinical 42, 47–8, 49, 74–5 Lister, Joseph Jackson 122 Matteucci, Carlo 188 Morton, William T.G. 106, 115–16, 117 obstetrics 43, 63, 103, 118–19, 141–2, Liston, Robert 116 Mattioli, Pier Andrea 36 Moses 118 lithium 230, 240, 241 Maximow, Alexander 134 mosquitoes 162–3, 287 244 Littman, David 103 measles 101, 206, 232, 287, 309 motor function 192, 193, 194 occupational medicine 66–7, 78–9 liver Medawar, Peter 159, 249 mould 218, 219 Oedipus complex 181 Medical Research Council (UK) 276, 277 Mount, Balfour 270, 271 oesophageal cancer 293 cancer 174, 293 medical schools 12, 50–1, 61–3, 120, 136 moxibustion 35 oestradiol 187 function 153, 185 medieval medicine 17, 50–1, 52, 53, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) oestrogen 167, 187, 258 transplants 251–2, 253 Office International d’Hygiène lobotomies 92 82–3, 92 176, 195, 274, 278–81 local anaesthetics 116 Meerken, Job van 248 MRSA 223 Publique, L’ 233 Loewi, Otto 195 Meissner, Wilhelm 58 Mukherjee, Siddhartha 172 Ogawa, Hideoki 323 Long, Crawford 114–15, 117 Mellenby, Edward 202 Mukwege, Denis 323 O’Hara, Dolores “Dee” 322–3 Long, Joseph 184 memory cells 160, 161 Müller, Johannes 152–3 old age, dementia 196–7 Loubani, Tarek 103 Mendel, Gregor 107, 146, 147, 290 Mullis, Kary 274, 290, 291, 292 Oliver, Percy 111 Louis, Pierre 52, 81 meningitis 101, 219 multiple sclerosis (MS) 194, 254, 295 oncology 89, 168–75 Lower, Richard 108–9, 252 mental health mummification 20, 61 operations see surgery Ludwig, Carl 152–3 mumps 101 ophthalmology 25, 91, 239, 301 Ludwig, George 244 Alzheimer’s disease 196–7 Murray, Joseph 250 Opie, Eugene 211 Lullius, Raymundus 114 behavioural and cognitive therapy 242 muscardine disease 141 opium 58, 86, 114, 269 lungs chlorpromazine and antipsychotics muscles 192, 194 optical coherence tomography (OCT) blood circulation 70–3 muscular dystrophy 295 cancer 174, 231, 266–7 230, 241 musculoskeletal system 262–5 122, 123 transplants 204, 252, 253 classification of disorders 74, 75 myelin 295 oracle bones 32 Lunin, Nikolai 200 humane care 67, 92–3 myeloma 282, 283 organ transplants 13, 111, 159, 223, lupus 239, 295 Islamic medicine 47 Lyme disease 222 lithium and bipolar disorder 230, 240 NO 230–1, 239, 246–53, 275, 314 lymphatic system 160, 172, 231, 256–7 psychoanalysis 178–83 Oribasius 40 lymphocytes 158, 159, 160, 172–3, 175, mental hygiene 93 Nägeli, Carl Wilhelm 290 Oronhyatekha 320 meridians 33, 34, 35 Nagy, Zoltan 301 orthopaedic surgery 231, 260–5 231, 256–7, 282–3 Mering, Joseph von 86, 210, 211 nanomedicine 274, 304 osteoarthritis 262, 263, 265 lymphoma 175, 292 Merit-Ptah 21 nanotechnology 117 otoplasty 27 MERS 312 Napoleonic Wars 53 Ottenberg, Reuben 111 M Mesopotamia 20 National Childbirth Trust 76 Ötzi the Iceman 18 metastasis 89, 172, 173–4 National Health Service (UK) 130, ovarian cancer 293 McCollum, Elmer Verner 202 Metchnikoff, Élie 13, 107, 156–7, 161, ovaries 184, 186, 187, 285 McCulloch, Ernest 302 269, 270 McDonald, Marguerite 301 198, 254, 282 natural killer (NK) cells 158, 160, 175 PQ Macht, David 241 Methodist school 41, 42 Neanderthals 18 McIndoe, Archibald 27, 315 methotrexate 173, 174 Negri, Giuseppe 100 pacemakers 13, 188, 189, 230, 255 Macleod, John 184, 187, 212–13 miasma theory 51, 124–5, 140–1, 142, nervous system 166, 185–6, 190–5 Pacini, Filippo 142, 204 macrophages 157, 161, 198, 254 Nestorian Christians 46 Padgett, Earl 137 macular degeneration 203 162 Neuber, Gustav 148, 151 pain relief see anaesthesia; palliative McVicar, John 244 microbes 100, 140–5, 150, 156, 158, neural pathways 192, 195 Magellan, Ferdinand 84 neurons 192–5, 196–7, 224 care Magendie, François 59 177, 198, 201, 204–5 neurophysiology 192–5, 224–5 pain, total 269, 270, 271 Maggs, Ronald 240 microorganisms 74, 148, 149, 150, 157, neuropsychiatry 114, 224–5 painkillers see analgesics magical healing 16, 18–19 neuropsychoanalysis 183 palliative care 231, 268–71 Maitland, Charles 97–8 162 neurotransmitters 192, 194, 195 Pan American Health Organization microscopes 63, 73, 106, 122–3, 140, 232, 233 141, 171, 194–5 pancreas 153, 186–7, 210–13, 253 microtomes 123 pancreatic cancer 174, 293 midwifery 66, 76–7, 119 pandemics 106, 119, 140, 167, 177, 233, Midwives Act (UK, 1902) 76 Miescher, Friedrich 290 275, 306–13
INDEX 333 pap smear test 167, 226–7 Pliny the Elder 78 Ramazzini, Bernardino 66–7, 78–9 S Papanicolaou, George 135, 167, 226–7 pluripotent cells 302, 303, 314 Ramon, Gaston 209 Papay, Frank 315 pneumoconiosis 277 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago 193, 195 Sackett, Lewis 238 Paracelsus (Philippus von Hohenheim) pneumonectomy 267 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) Safar, Peter 322 pneumonia 145, 218, 219, 223, 274 Saiki, Randall 290 13, 17, 56, 57, 58, 59, 78, 102, 198 poisons 57, 58, 59, 102, 117, 153 276–7 St Christopher’s Hospice (London) 268, paracetamol 86 Rathbone, William 133 parasites 107, 141, 143, 162, 163, 222, industrial 78, 79 Rationalists/Dogmatists 41, 42 269, 270, 271 polio 96, 206, 209, 230, 232, 286, 309 Recklinghausen, Friedrich von 135 Sakel, Manfred 92 287, 309 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 274, recombinant vaccines 293 Salerno medical school 12, 17, 50–1, 61 Paré, Ambroise 53 Reed, Walter 177 salicin 58, 87 Parkington, John 218 290, 291, 292 regenerative medicine 314 Salk, Jonas 96, 206, 310 Parkinson, James 194 poor relief 82, 83 regional anaesthesia 116, 117 salmonella 145 Parkinson’s disease 192, 194, 281 Porter, Rodney 160 Reichstein, Tadeus 237, 238 Salvarsan 13, 59, 140, 158, 166, 199, passive smoking 266 post-mortems 80–1, 89 Reid, Ann 311 Pasteur, Louis 13, 100, 106–7, 118, 119, Pott, Percivall 78 Reid, John 244 218, 221 poverty-related diseases 145 Reitz, Bruce 252 Sanger, Frederick 210, 275, 291 127, 140, 142, 143, 145, 148, Practica Chirurgiae (Roger of Salerno) rejection (transplants/prostheses) 159, Sanger, Margaret 167, 214, 215, 258 149–50, 156, 162, 163, 177, 200, sanitation 206, 207 17, 51 231, 239, 248–53, 263, 275, 283, pasteurization 124, 142 Pravdich-Neminsky, Vladimir 224 303, 315 in hospitals 128–33, 141–2 pathogen-associated molecular pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) 294 religion and healthcare 83 public health 107, 125–7, 145 patterns (PAMPs) 161 preconscious mind 181, 182 REM (rapid eye movement) sleep 224 SARS 312, 313 pathogens 59, 101, 140, 142, 144–5, pregnancy 66, 214–15, 230, 237–8, 244, Remak, Robert 134 Sasanian Empire 46 157, 158, 160, 161, 166, 198–9, Renaissance 12, 17 Saunders, Cicely 231, 268, 269, 270, 271 205, 207, 218, 220–3, 257, 282, 312 283, 284–5, 292–3 research, medical 276–7 scanning 274, 278–81 pathology 123 prehistoric medicine 12, 16, 18–19 Reverdin, Jacques-Louis 137 Schatz, Albert 221 cellular 106, 134–5 preimplantation genetic diagnosis rheumatism 205 Schaudinn, Fritz 198 Paul VI, Pope 258 rheumatoid arthritis 204, 230, 236–9, Schauenstein, Walther 226 Paula Souza, Geraldo de 232 (PGD) 292–3 283, 295 Schenk, Samuel 284 Pauling, Linus 74, 321 prenatal screening 292–3 rhinoplasty 26, 27 Schiller, Walter 226 Pavlov, Ivan 152, 186, 242, 243 preventative medicine 48, 79, 86 Ricettario Fiorentino 56, 57 schistosomiasis 309 pébrine disease 143 Richards, Linda 133 schizophrenia 92, 230, 241 Pecquet, Jean 256 cancer screening 226–7 Richet, Charles 160 Schleiden, Matthias 134, 152 Peebles, Thomas C. 206 Priestley, Joseph 114 rickets 201, 202, 203 Schou, Mogens 240 pellagra 202–3 printing press 50 rinderpest 286 Schwann, Theodor 134, 152 Pelletier, Pierre-Joseph 58 Pritchard, James Cowles 196 ring strategy 287 Scientific Revolution 66 penicillin 13, 140, 166–7, 198, 218, progesterone 187, 258 Riolan. Jean 73 scoliosis 176, 262, 264 219–20, 221 prostate cancer 174, 175, 227, 293 Ritter, Johann Wilhelm 176 Scribner, Belding 234 percussion 80, 81 prostheses RNA 177, 294, 297, 310 scurvy 67, 84–5, 167, 200, 203, 277 peripheral nerve blocks 116 Robertson, Oswald 108, 111 secretin 187 peristalsis 186 first 26 Roblin, Richard 300 sedation see anaesthesia Perkin, William Henry 59, 198 orthopaedic surgery 262, 263, 264, 265 robotic surgery 13, 88, 274, 298, 305 Semm, Kurt 298 Peronne, Peretta 52 protozoa 145, 163 Rocks, John 258 Semmelweis, Ignaz 83, 118, 119, Persian Empire 46 Prussia’s Medical Edict (1725) 82, 83 Roger of Salerno (Rogerius) 17, 50, 51 PET (positron emission tomography) PSA test 227 Roget, Peter Mark 114 124, 141–2 scanners 225, 274, 278, 281 psoriasis 239, 295 Rokitansky, Karl 319 Senning, Åke 188, 255 Peyman, Gholam 301 psychoanalysis 166, 178–83, 242 Roman medicine 12, 17, 21, 27, 36, 37, sepsis 149 Pfolspeundt, Heinrich von 26, 27 psychology 242–3, 280–3 38–43, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 61, 82, 90 septicaemia 218, 219, 220 phacoemulsification 301 public health 107, 118, 124–7, 145, 233 see also Celsus; Galen serotherapy 207, 209 phage therapy 204–5 pandemics 308–13 Röntgen, Wilhelm 166, 167, 176, 262 Servetus, Michael 70, 71 phagocytes 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, puerperal fever 106, 118–19, 141–2 Rorschach inkblots 183 Seven Years’ War 67, 88 161, 254, 282 pulmonary circulation 17, 61, 70, 71 Rose, Noel 294 severe combined immunodeficiency pharmaceutical industry 13, 56, 59, 87, pulse 17, 188 Rosenbach, Friedrich 222 187, 198, 199, 213, 218, 221 Purdy, Jean 284, 285 Ross, Ronald 163 (SCID) 300 pharmacology 13, 17, 54–9 Purkinje, Johann 194 Rösslin, Eucharius 76 sevoflurane 114 pharmacopeias 56, 57 Pylarini, Jacob 97 Rous, Peyton 111 sewers 124, 125, 131 Philinus of Cos 41 Pythagoras 196 Roux, Émile 207 sex physiology 12, 107, 152–3 qi 16, 33, 34, 35, 70 Rowntree, Leopold 234 Pill, the 120, 214, 215, 231, 258 Quain, Jones 136 Royal College of Nursing (UK) 130 birth control 214–15 Pinard, Adolphe 103 quantum dots 304 Royal Navy 84 psychoanalysis 180, 182–3 Pincus, Gregory 215, 258, 284 quarantine 51 rubber gloves 151 sex hormones 167, 187 Pinel, Philippe 67, 93, 196 quinine 58, 59, 102, 162 rubella 101 sex-related conditions 147 Pirogov, Nikolai 53 quinolones 222 Rubin, Benjamin 287 sexual development 185–6 placebos 102, 276 Rudbeck, Olaus 257 sexuality 77 plague 42–3, 46, 51, 74, 118, 125, 140, R Ruddock, John 298 sexually transmitted diseases 218, 219, 141, 209, 308, 309 Rufus of Ephesus 80 plant remedies see herbal medicine Rabi, Isidor 278 Rush, Benjamin 52 220–1, 222, 223 plasma 24, 111, 257 rabies 100–1, 206, 208 Ruska, Ernst 122, 254 see also syphilis plasma cells 160, 161, 282–3 radioactive isotopes 278 Ruysch, Frederik 256 shamans 18, 19, 20 plasma-based vaccines 206 radiography 176 Sharp, Jane 66, 76–7 plastic surgery 26–7, 137, 315 radiotherapy 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, Sharpey-Schafer, Edward 184, 211 Sherrington, Charles Scott 166, 192, 265, 267 radiotracers 281 193, 194, 195 radon gas 266 Shumway, Norman 252
334 INDEX sickle cell anaemia 290, 292 Sydenham, Thomas 66, 74, 75, 86 twins, identical 249, 251 water, contaminated 125, 126–7, 131, Siddha medicine 25 Sylvius, Jacobus 63 Twort, Frederick William 204 142, 145, 309 skin cancer 172, 174, 293 Syme, James 149, 151 typhoid 208, 209, 219, 220, 309 skin grafts/transplants 27, 137, 249, synapses 192, 194, 195, 196, 224 Watson, James 230, 290–1, 299, 310 syphilis 13, 58, 59, 140, 158, 166, 198–9, UV Watson, John 242–3 253, 315 wave frequency 225 Skinner, B.F. 230, 242, 243 218, 220–1, 286 Ullmann, Emerich 248 Weekes, Claire 242, 243 sleep disorders 225 Sze, Szeming 232, 233 ultrasound 230, 231, 244, 262, 265, 278 Weiner, Alexander 108, 111 Sloane, Hans 97 Szent-Györgyi, Albert 84, 167, 200, 201 Unani medicine 25, 49 Wells, Horace 115, 116, 117 smallpox 13, 66, 67, 96–100, 101, 140, unconscious mind 180, 181, 182 white blood cells 107, 157, 158, 159, T Urbani, Carlo 312 156, 177, 204, 206, 208, 232, 233, urine tests 80, 210, 211 175, 282, 296, 300 254, 274, 286–7, 309 T-cells/T-helper cells 156, 160, 161, 170, vaccinations 12, 13, 59, 66, 67, 94–101, whooping cough (pertussis) 101, 209, Smith, Wilson 177, 309 175, 254, 256, 257, 296 smoking 231, 266–7 144, 145, 156, 157, 158, 161, 163, 232, 287 Snow, John 106, 116, 124, 126, Tagliacozzi, Gaspare 315 166–7, 204, 254 Wild, John 244 127, 142 TAH (total artificial heart) 253 attenuated vaccines 166, 167, 206–9 Wilkins, Maurice 290, 291 somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) 299 targeted drug delivery 198–9 and cancer 174 Williams, Daniel Hale 320 Soper, Fred 286, 287 Taubenberger, Jeffery 308, 311 global eradication of smallpox 286–7 Williams, Robley 310 Soranus of Ephesus 43 telesurgery 274, 275, 305 pandemics 308–13 Willis, Thomas 194 Southwood Smith, Thomas 125, 126 tendons 262, 265 recombinant vaccines 293 Wilmut, Ian 299 Spallanzani, Lazzaro 244 terminal illness 259, 268–71 WHO and 232, 233 Winston, Robert 292 Spanish Civil War 53 testes 184, 185–6 Vagbhata 23 Withering, William 56 sphygmomanometers 73 testosterone 187 Valenzuela, Pablo 293 Wöhler, Friedrich 56, 59 spinal blocks 116 tetanus 96, 101, 157, 166, 209, valetudinaria 40, 82 women spinal cord 193, 194 variolation 97, 98 spiritual healing 16, 18–19 232, 287 Varro, Marcus Terentius 140, 162 birth control 214–15 spleen 256, 257 tetracyclines 218, 221–2 vascular dementia 196 cancer screening 226–7 splints 262, 263–4, 265 thalidomide 231, 259 Vauquelin, Louis 58 midwifery 76–7 split-thickness grafts 137 Thanatos 182 vector-borne diseases 287 practitioners 18, 21, 51, 107, 120–1 staining 122, 123, 134, 195, 198, 219 Theophrastus 36, 37 veins 70, 71, 72, 73 Women’s Liberation Movement 120 Stanhope, Aubrey 207 thermometers 80, 81 venereal disease 20, 89, 233 Wong, Caine 196 Stanley, Wendell 177 Thieller, Max 206 Vesalius, Andreas 12, 17, 43, 50, 60, 61, Wood, Fiona 323 Starling, Ernest 185, 186–7, 267 Thiersch, Karl 137, 315 62, 63, 71, 88, 136, 152, 193–4 Woodall, John 84 Starzl, Thomas 251 Thomas, Hugh Owen 263–4 Victoria, Queen 115, 116, 127, 131, 151 workhouses 132–3 statistics, mortality 124, 125, 131–2 Thomson, James 134, 302, 303 Virchow, Rudolf 106, 134, 135 World Health Organization (WHO) 96, stem cells 134, 253, 265 thoracoscopic surgery 298 virology 177, 310–11 research 275, 302–3 thrombus 134 viruses 100, 101, 145, 159, 161, 163, 177, 218, 223, 226, 230, 232–3, Stenbeck, Thor 172 thymus 160, 254, 256 166, 292 236, 266, 268, 271, 274, 275, 286, Steptoe, Patrick 284–5 thyroid 184, 295 bacteriophages and phage therapy 293, 297, 312, 313 sterilization techniques 148, 151 thyroxine 187 204–5 World War I 26, 27, 53, 90, 108, 111, steroids 236–9, 251 Till, James 302 and cancer 170, 174 208, 263–4 stethoscopes 67, 81, 103 Timoni, Emmanuel 96, 97 genetic engineering 293 World War II 27, 90, 219–20, 230, 264 stomach cancer 293 tissue typing 251, 292 HIV 294–7 Wortley Montagu, Lady Mary 66, 96, 97 Stone, Edward 59, 67, 86, 87 Tjio, Joe Hin 245 interferon 254 wounds Störck, Anton von 102 tobacco 266–7 pandemics 306–13 battlefield 53, 88–9, 90 strokes 86, 187, 195, 196, 225 tobacco mosaic virus 177 Visser, Lynn Sayre 90 early treatment 20, 21, 26, 40, 46, 51, 88 strychnine 58 toll-like receptors (TLRs) 161 visualization 243 infected 118, 143, 145, 148–51, 220, 223 Sumerians 28, 36 Tonegawa, Susumu 160 vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 67, 84, 85, plastic surgery 27, 49 superbugs 223 tourniquets 53, 71 200, 203, 277 Wright, Almroth 156, 159, 208 superego 182 traction 263 vitamins 167, 200–3, 277 Wright, Jane 173, 174 supernatural healing 16, 18, 19 TRAIL therapy 267 Vitruvius 140 Wundt, Wilhelm 180 surgery training vivisection 153 Wyngaarden, James 299 anaesthesia 114–17 Vorderman, Adolphe 201 ancient Egypt 21 doctors 50–1, 82, 83, 107 Vries, Hugo de 146 XYZ antiseptics in 148–51 nurses 132–3 Ayurvedic 26–7 trance states 19 W X-rays 60, 166, 167, 172, 176, 227, 250, cancer 170–2, 174 transplants 13, 26, 27, 111, 159, 223, 262, 264, 278, 281 hygiene 118–19 Wakley, Thomas 126, 319 laser 301 246–53, 275, 315 Walden, George 213 Yamanaka, Shinya 275, 302, 303, 314 medieval 51 trepanning 16, 19, 20, 92 walking-on-two-legs policy 35 yellow fever 101, 166, 206, 286, 287 minimally invasive 298 triage 53, 67, 90 Waller, Augustus D. 188, 189, 255 Yersin, Alexandre 207 orthopaedic 260–5 trisomy 245 Walsh, Declan 271 Yi Yin 32 robotics and telesurgery 88, 305 Troidl, Hans 298 Walter, William Grey 224, 225 yin and yang 16, 32, 33, 35 scientific 67, 88–9 Trota/Trocta 51 Wang Shuhe 34 Young, Thomas 73, 91 transplants 246–53 Tschermak, Erich 146, 147 Wardlaw, Joanna 323 Zakrzewska, Maria 121 Sushruta 16, 23, 26–7, 53, 114 tuberculosis 13, 48, 96, 101, 140, 144, Warren, John 116 ZEUS medical robot 305 Sutherland, John 131 Washington, George 52 Zhang Zhongjing 35 sutures, Carrel’s 248 145, 156, 166, 174, 207, 208, 218, Zhen Quan 35 Suzuki, Umetaro 201 221, 223, 232, 274, 309 Zika virus 163 Svoboda, Robert 22 Tuke, William 93 Zirm, Eduard 248–9 Tumpey, Terrence 311–12 zoonotic diseases 296, 312–13 Turner, B.B. 234 Zuckerberg, Mark 140 Turner, Joseph 111 zur Hausen, Harald 170, 174
QUOTE ATTRIBUTIONS 335 UOTE ATTRIBUTIONS ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL MEDICINE 118 Website of the UK’s National 240 John Cade, Australian psychiatrist Health Service 18 Mircea Eliade, Romanian historian 241 The BMJ (British Medical Journal), 2007 of religion 120 Elizabeth Blackwell, British physician 122 Rudolf Virchow, German pathologist 242 Website of the UK’s National Health Service 20 Herodotus, Greek historian 124 Steven Johnson, The Ghost Map, 2006 22 Ashtanga Hridayam, 5th century BCE 128 Florence Nightingale 244 Ian Donald, British physician 26 Gaspare Tagliacozzi, Italian surgeon 134 Rudolf Virchow 28 Hippocrates, Greek physician 136 William Smellie, Scottish obstetrician 245 Marthe Gautier, French researcher 30 Eu Yan Sang, traditional Chinese medicine 137 Louis Ollier, French surgeon in paediatrics 138 Louis Pasteur, French chemist health company 146 Genetic Disorders UK, British charity 246 Joshua D. Mezrich, American 36 Hippocrates 148 Joseph Lister, British physician transplant surgeon 38 Claudius Galen, Roman physician 152 Wilhelm Wundt, German physiologist 44 Ibn Sina, Islamic physician 154 Élie Metchnikoff, Russian physician 254 Toine Pieters, Interferon: The Science and 50 Guy de Chauliac, French surgeon 162 Website of the UK’s National Health Service Selling of a Miracle Drug, 2012 52 Sobriquet for François Broussais, French VACCINES, SERUMS, 255 Arne Larsson, Swedish engineer and the first doctor and advocate of bloodletting AND ANTIBIOTICS patient to receive an implanted pacemaker 53 Emil Geist, American professor of 168 The Oncologist, 2013 256 Website of the Bodleian Library, University orthopaedic surgery 176 Wilhelm Röntgen, German physicist of Oxford, UK 54 Paracelsus, Swiss physician 177 Claus Wilke and Sara Sawyer, 60 William Harvey, English physician 258 Letty Cottin Pogrebin, American author American virologists THE SCIENTIFIC BODY 178 Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist 259 Frances Oldham Kelsey, Canadian-born 184 Ernest Starling, British physiologist American pharmacologist 68 William Harvey 188 Willem Einthoven, Dutch physiologist 74 Irish proverb 190 Charles Scott Sherrington, British 260 Anil Gambhir, consultant orthopaedic 76 Eucharius Rösslin, German physician surgeon, Wrightington Hospital, UK 78 Bernardino Ramazzini, Italian physician neurophysiologist 80 Herman Boerhaave, Dutch physician 196 Alois Alzheimer, German psychiatrist 266 UK Government, anti-smoking slogan 82 Florence Nightingale, British nurse 198 Paul Ehrlich, German scientist 200 Nikolai Lunin, Russian biochemist 268 Cicely Saunders, British nurse, social worker, and statistician 204 Félix d’Hérelle, French-Canadian and doctor 84 Richard Hawkins, English seaman 86 Edward Stone, British clergyman microbiologist GENES AND TECHNOLOGY 88 James Paget, British surgeon 206 US Department of Health and Human Services 90 Dominique-Jean Larrey, 210 Frederick Banting, Canadian physician, 276 Archibald Cochrane, Scottish physician French military surgeon and Ernest Starling 278 Website of Fermilab, American particle 91 John Dalton, British chemist and 214 Margaret Sanger, American nurse physics laboratory meteorologist and feminist 282 BMC Biotechnology, 2011 92 Marquis de Sade, French nobleman 216 Time magazine, 1944 224 Steven Rose, British neuroscientist and author 284 Patrick Steptoe, British gynaecologist and philosopher 226 Chris Groves, British director of bowel 94 PublicHealth.org, American public health 286 Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director- cancer screening general of the World Health Organization resource website 102 Samuel Hahnemann, German physician GLOBAL HEALTH 288 James Watson, American molecular biologist 103 René Laënnec, French physician 232 Website of the World Health Organization 294 Bill Clinton, 42nd US president CELLS AND MICROBES 234 Willem Kolff, Dutch physician 298 The Palgrave Handbook of the History of 108 Andreas Libavius, German chemist 236 Philip Hench, American physician Surgery, 2017 and physician 299 Francis Collins, American geneticist 112 Queen Victoria 300 Theodore Friedmann, American researcher 301 Melinda Rose and Hank Hogan, American writers 302 EuroStemCell, European Union project focused on public engagement with stem cell research 304 Alpharmaxim, British healthcare communications agency 305 Jacques Marescaux, French surgeon 306 Liam Donaldson, UK Chief Medical Officer (1998–2010) 314 EuroStemCell 315 Jérôme Hamon, French face transplant patient
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