Alexander_2

2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 51and hence, vo ϭ 2i ϭ 2 ϫ 2 ϭ 4 V. Another way is to apply voltage i 4Ω a iodivision, since the 12 V in Fig. 2.42(b) is divided between the 4-⍀ and 12 V +−2-⍀ resistors. Hence, + 6 Ω vo 3 Ω 2 vo ϭ 2 ϩ 4 (12 V) ϭ 4 V − Similarly, io can be obtained in two ways. One approach is to apply i bOhm’s law to the 3-⍀ resistor in Fig. 2.42(a) now that we know vo; thus, 12 V +− (a) 4 4Ω a vo ϭ 3io ϭ 4 1 io ϭ 3 A +Another approach is to apply current division to the circuit in Fig. 2.42(a) vo 2 Ωnow that we know i, by writing − 62 4 b io ϭ i ϭ (2 A) ϭ A 6 ϩ 3 3 3 (b)The power dissipated in the 3-⍀ resistor is Figure 2.42 For Example 2.12: (a) original circuit, 4 (b) its equivalent circuit. po ϭ vo io ϭ 4 ab ϭ 5.333 W 3Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.43. Also calculate i1 and Practice Problem 2.12i2 and the power dissipated in the 12-⍀ and 40-⍀ resistors. i1 12 ΩAnswer: v1 ϭ 10 V, i1 ϭ 833.3 mA, p1 ϭ 8.333 W, v2 ϭ 20 V, i2 ϭ + v1 −500 mA, p2 ϭ 10 W. 6Ω 30 V +− i2 + 10 Ω v2 40 Ω − Figure 2.43 For Practice Prob. 2.12.For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.44(a), determine: (a) the voltage vo, Example 2.13(b) the power supplied by the current source, (c) the power absorbedby each resistor.Solution:(a) The 6-k⍀ and 12-k⍀ resistors are in series so that their combinedvalue is 6 ϩ 12 ϭ 18 k⍀. Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.44(a) reduces tothat shown in Fig. 2.44(b). We now apply the current division techniqueto find i1 and i2. 18,000i1 ϭ 9,000 ϩ 18,000 (30 mA) ϭ 20 mAi2 ϭ 9,000 (30 mA ) ϭ 10 mA 9,000 ϩ 18,000

52 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 30 mA 6 kΩ 12 kΩ Notice that the voltage across the 9-k⍀ and 18-k⍀ resistors is the same, and vo ϭ 9,000i1 ϭ 18,000i2 ϭ 180 V, as expected. + (b) Power supplied by the source is vo 9 kΩ − po ϭ voio ϭ 180(30) mW ϭ 5.4 W (a) (c) Power absorbed by the 12-k⍀ resistor is io i2 p ϭ iv ϭ i2 (i2 R) ϭ i 2 R ϭ (10 ϫ 10Ϫ3)2 (12,000) ϭ 1.2 W 2 + i1 vo 9 kΩ Power absorbed by the 6-k⍀ resistor is −30 mA 18 kΩ p ϭ i 2 R ϭ (10 ϫ 10Ϫ3)2 (6,000) ϭ 0.6 W 2 Power absorbed by the 9-k⍀ resistor is (b) p ϭ v2o ϭ (180)2 ϭ 3.6 W R 9,000Figure 2.44For Example 2.13: (a) original circuit, or(b) its equivalent circuit. p ϭ voi1 ϭ 180(20) mW ϭ 3.6 W Notice that the power supplied (5.4 W) equals the power absorbed (1.2 ϩ 0.6 ϩ 3.6 ϭ 5.4 W). This is one way of checking results.Practice Problem 2.13 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.45, find: (a) v1 and v2, (b) the power dissipated in the 3-k⍀ and 20-k⍀ resistors, and (c) the power supplied by the current source. 1 kΩ 3 kΩ + 30 mA 5 kΩ + v1 v2 20 kΩ − − Figure 2.45 For Practice Prob. 2.13. Answer: (a) 45 V, 60 V, (b) 675 mW, 180 mW, (c) 1.8 W. R1vs +− R2 R3 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations R4 Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in R5 R6 parallel nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig. 2.46. How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors are neitherFigure 2.46 in series nor in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in Fig. 2.46The bridge network. can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks. These are

2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 53the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.47 and the delta (¢) or Rcpi (ß) network shown in Fig. 2.48. These networks occur by themselves 13or as part of a larger network. They are used in three-phase networks,electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main interest here is in how Rb Rato identify them when they occur as part of a network and how to applywye-delta transformation in the analysis of that network. 24 (a)1 3 R1 R2 Rc R1 R2 1 3 13 R3 R3 4 Rb Ra (b)2 42 24 (a) (b)Figure 2.47 Figure 2.48Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T. Two forms of the same network: (a) ¢, (b) ß.Delta to Wye ConversionSuppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a placewhere the circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wyenetwork on the existing delta network and find the equivalent resistancesin the wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye net-work, we compare the two networks and make sure that the resistancebetween each pair of nodes in the ¢ (or ß) network is the same as theresistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. Forterminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 2.47 and 2.48, for example, R12 (Y) ϭ R1 ϩ R3 (2.46) R12(¢) ϭ Rb 7 (Ra ϩ Rc) (2.47a)Setting R12(Y) ϭ R12 (¢) gives R12 ϭ R1 ϩ R3 ϭ Rb (Ra ϩ Rc) Ra ϩ Rb ϩ RcSimilarly, R13 ϭ R1 ϩ R2 ϭ Rc (Ra ϩ Rb) (2.47b) Ra ϩ Rb ϩ Rc (2.47c) R34 ϭ R2 ϩ R3 ϭ Ra (Rb ϩ Rc) Ra ϩ Rb ϩ RcSubtracting Eq. (2.47c) from Eq. (2.47a), we get R1 Ϫ R2 ϭ Rc (Rb Ϫ Ra) (2.48) Ra ϩ Rb ϩ RcAdding Eqs. (2.47b) and (2.48) gives R1 ϭ Ra Rb Rc Rc (2.49) ϩ Rb ϩ

54 Chapter 2 Basic Laws and subtracting Eq. (2.48) from Eq. (2.47b) yields R2 ϭ Ra Rc Ra Rc (2.50) ϩ Rb ϩ Subtracting Eq. (2.49) from Eq. (2.47a), we obtain R3 ϭ Ra Ra Rb Rc (2.51) ϩ Rb ϩ We do not need to memorize Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51). To transform a ¢ net- Rc work to Y, we create an extra node n as shown in Fig. 2.49 and followa b this conversion rule: R1 R2 n Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent ¢ branches, divided by the sum of the three ¢ resistors.Rb Ra One can follow this rule and obtain Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) from Fig. 2.49. R3 Wye to Delta Conversion c To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network to an equivalent delta network, we note from Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) thatFigure 2.49Superposition of Y and ¢ networks as an R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 ϭ Ra Rb Rc (Ra ϩ Rb ϩ Rc)aid in transforming one to the other. (Ra ϩ Rb ϩ Rc)2 ϭ Ra Rb Rc (2.52) Ra ϩ Rb ϩ Rc Dividing Eq. (2.52) by each of Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) leads to the fol- lowing equations: Ra ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 (2.53) R1 Rb ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 (2.54) R2 Rc ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 (2.55) R3 From Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) and Fig. 2.49, the conversion rule for Y to ¢ is as follows: Each resistor in the ¢ network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 55 The Y and ¢ networks are said to be balanced when (2.56) R1 ϭ R2 ϭ R3 ϭ RY, Ra ϭ Rb ϭ Rc ϭ R¢Under these conditions, conversion formulas become RY ϭ R¢ or R¢ ϭ 3RY (2.57) 3One may wonder why RY is less than R¢. Well, we notice that the Y-connection is like a “series” connection while the ¢-connection is likea “parallel” connection. Note that in making the transformation, we do not take anythingout of the circuit or put in anything new. We are merely substitutingdifferent but mathematically equivalent three-terminal network patternsto create a circuit in which resistors are either in series or in parallel,allowing us to calculate Req if necessary.Convert the ¢ network in Fig. 2.50(a) to an equivalent Y network. Example 2.14 a Rc b ab 25 Ω 5 Ω 7.5 Ω 10 Ω 15 Ω R1 R2 Rb Ra R3 3 Ω cc (a) (b) Figure 2.50 For Example 2.14: (a) original ¢ network, (b) Y equivalent network.Solution:Using Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51), we obtainR1 ϭ Ra Rb Rc Rc ϭ 15 10 ϫ 25 25 ϭ 250 ϭ 5 ⍀ ϩ Rb ϩ ϩ 10 ϩ 50R2 ϭ Rc Ra ϭ 25 ϫ 15 ϭ 7.5 ⍀ ϩ Rb ϩ 50 Ra RcR3 ϭ Ra Rb ϭ 15 ϫ 10 ϭ 3 ⍀ ϩ Rb ϩ 50 Ra RcThe equivalent Y network is shown in Fig. 2.50(b).

56 Chapter 2 Basic LawsPractice Problem 2.14 Transform the wye network in Fig. 2.51 to a delta network. Answer: Ra ϭ 140 ⍀, Rb ϭ 70 ⍀, Rc ϭ 35 ⍀. R1 R2 ba 20 Ω 10 Ω R3 40 Ω cFigure 2.51For Practice Prob. 2.14.Example 2.15 Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.52 and use it to find current i. i a Solution: a 10 Ω 12.5 Ω 5Ω 1. Define. The problem is clearly defined. Please note, this part normally will deservedly take much more time.120 V +− c n 20 Ω 2. Present. Clearly, when we remove the voltage source, we end 15 Ω 30 Ω up with a purely resistive circuit. Since it is composed of deltas b b and wyes, we have a more complex process of combining the elements together. We can use wye-delta transformations as oneFigure 2.52 approach to find a solution. It is useful to locate the wyes (thereFor Example 2.15. are two of them, one at n and the other at c) and the deltas (there are three: can, abn, cnb). 3. Alternative. There are different approaches that can be used to solve this problem. Since the focus of Sec. 2.7 is the wye-delta transformation, this should be the technique to use. Another approach would be to solve for the equivalent resistance by injecting one amp into the circuit and finding the voltage between a and b; we will learn about this approach in Chap. 4. The approach we can apply here as a check would be to use a wye-delta transformation as the first solution to the problem. Later we can check the solution by starting with a delta-wye transformation. 4. Attempt. In this circuit, there are two Y networks and three ¢ networks. Transforming just one of these will simplify the circuit. If we convert the Y network comprising the 5-⍀, 10-⍀, and 20-⍀ resistors, we may select R1 ϭ 10 ⍀, R2 ϭ 20 ⍀, R3 ϭ 5 ⍀ Thus from Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) we have Ra ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 ϭ 10 ϫ 20 ϩ 20 ϫ 5 ϩ 5 ϫ 10 R1 10 ϭ 350 ϭ 35 ⍀ 10 Rb ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 ϭ 350 ϭ 17.5 ⍀ R2 20 Rc ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 ϭ 350 ϭ 70 ⍀ R3 5

2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 57 aa 4.545 Ω d12.5 Ω 17.5 Ω a 2.273 Ω 30 Ω 15 Ω c 1.8182 Ω 70 Ω 30 Ω 7.292 Ω n 15 Ω 35 Ω 21 Ω 20 Ω 10.5 Ωbb b (a) (b) (c)Figure 2.53Equivalent circuits to Fig. 2.52, with the voltage source removed. With the Y converted to ¢, the equivalent circuit (with the voltage source removed for now) is shown in Fig. 2.53(a). Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain 70 ʈ 30 ϭ 70 ϫ 30 ϭ 21 ⍀ 70 ϩ 30 12.5 ʈ 17.5 ϭ 12.5 ϫ 17.5 ϭ 7.292 ⍀ 12.5 ϩ 17.5 15 ʈ 35 ϭ 15 ϫ 35 ϭ 10.5 ⍀ 15 ϩ 35 so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.53(b). Hence, we find Rab ϭ (7.292 ϩ 10.5) ʈ 21 ϭ 17.792 ϫ 21 ϭ 9.632 ⍀ 17.792 ϩ 21 Then i ϭ vs ϭ 120 ϭ 12.458 A Rab 9.632 We observe that we have successfully solved the problem. Now we must evaluate the solution. 5. Evaluate. Now we must determine if the answer is correct and then evaluate the final solution. It is relatively easy to check the answer; we do this by solving the problem starting with a delta-wye transformation. Let us transform the delta, can, into a wye. Let Rc ϭ 10 ⍀, Ra ϭ 5 ⍀, and Rn ϭ 12.5 ⍀. This will lead to (let d represent the middle of the wye): Rad ϭ Ra Rc Rn Rn ϭ 5 10 ϫ 12.5 ϭ 4.545 ⍀ ϩ Rc ϩ ϩ 10 ϩ 12.5 Rcd ϭ Ra Rn ϭ 5 ϫ 12.5 ϭ 2.273 ⍀ 27.5 27.5 Rnd ϭ Ra Rc ϭ 5 ϫ 10 ϭ 1.8182 ⍀ 27.5 27.5

58 Chapter 2 Basic Laws This now leads to the circuit shown in Figure 2.53(c). Looking at the resistance between d and b, we have two series combination in parallel, giving us (2.273 ϩ 15)(1.8182 ϩ 20) 376.9 Rdb ϭ 2.273 ϩ 15 ϩ 1.8182 ϩ 20 ϭ 39.09 ϭ 9.642 ⍀ This is in series with the 4.545-⍀ resistor, both of which are in parallel with the 30-⍀ resistor. This then gives us the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (9.642 ϩ 4.545)30 425.6 Rab ϭ 9.642 ϩ 4.545 ϩ 30 ϭ 44.19 ϭ 9.631 ⍀ This now leads to i ϭ vs ϭ 120 ϭ 12.46 A Rab 9.631 We note that using two variations on the wye-delta transformation leads to the same results. This represents a very good check. 6. Satisfactory? Since we have found the desired answer by determining the equivalent resistance of the circuit first and the answer checks, then we clearly have a satisfactory solution. This represents what can be presented to the individual assigning the problem.Practice Problem 2.15 For the bridge network in Fig. 2.54, find Rab and i. Answer: 40 ⍀, 6 A. i a 13 Ω 24 Ω 10 Ω240 V +− 20 Ω 2.8 Applications 30 Ω 50 Ω Resistors are often used to model devices that convert electrical energy into heat or other forms of energy. Such devices include conducting b wire, light bulbs, electric heaters, stoves, ovens, and loudspeakers. In this section, we will consider two real-life problems that apply the con-Figure 2.54 cepts developed in this chapter: electrical lighting systems and designFor Practice Prob. 2.15. of dc meters.So far, we have assumed that connect- 2.8.1 Lighting Systemsing wires are perfect conductors (i.e.,conductors of zero resistance). In real Lighting systems, such as in a house or on a Christmas tree, often con-physical systems, however, the resist- sist of N lamps connected either in parallel or in series, as shown inance of the connecting wire may be Fig. 2.55. Each lamp is modeled as a resistor. Assuming that all the lampsappreciably large, and the modeling are identical and Vo is the power-line voltage, the voltage across eachof the system must include that lamp is Vo for the parallel connection and Vo͞N for the series connec-resistance. tion. The series connection is easy to manufacture but is seldom used in practice, for at least two reasons. First, it is less reliable; when a lamp fails, all the lamps go out. Second, it is harder to maintain; when a lamp is bad, one must test all the lamps one by one to detect the faulty one.

2.8 Applications 59 HistoricalThomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) was perhaps the greatest Library of CongressAmerican inventor. He patented 1093 inventions, including suchhistory-making inventions as the incandescent electric bulb, the phono-graph, and the first commercial motion pictures. Born in Milan, Ohio, the youngest of seven children, Edison receivedonly three months of formal education because he hated school. He washome-schooled by his mother and quickly began to read on his own. In1868, Edison read one of Faraday’s books and found his calling. Hemoved to Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 1876, where he managed a well-staffed research laboratory. Most of his inventions came out of thislaboratory. His laboratory served as a model for modern research organ-izations. Because of his diverse interests and the overwhelming numberof his inventions and patents, Edison began to establish manufacturingcompanies for making the devices he invented. He designed the first elec-tric power station to supply electric light. Formal electrical engineeringeducation began in the mid-1880s with Edison as a role model and leader. 1 2 + Vo − + 1 23 N 3Vo N − (b)Powerplug (a) LampFigure 2.55(a) Parallel connection of light bulbs, (b) series connection of light bulbs.Three light bulbs are connected to a 9-V battery as shown in Fig. 2.56(a). Example 2.16Calculate: (a) the total current supplied by the battery, (b) the currentthrough each bulb, (c) the resistance of each bulb. I I1 + I2 V2 R2 + − 9V V1 R1 15 W − +9V 20 W V3 R3 10 W − (a) (b)Figure 2.56(a) Lighting system with three bulbs, (b) resistive circuit equivalent model.

60 Chapter 2 Basic Laws Practice Problem 2.16 Solution: (a) The total power supplied by the battery is equal to the total power absorbed by the bulbs; that is, p ϭ 15 ϩ 10 ϩ 20 ϭ 45 W Since p ϭ V I, then the total current supplied by the battery is I ϭ p ϭ 45 ϭ 5 A V9 (b) The bulbs can be modeled as resistors as shown in Fig. 2.56(b). Since R1 (20-W bulb) is in parallel with the battery as well as the series combination of R2 and R3, V1 ϭ V2 ϩ V3 ϭ 9 V The current through R1 is I1 ϭ p1 ϭ 20 ϭ 2.222 A V1 9 By KCL, the current through the series combination of R2 and R3 is I2 ϭ I Ϫ I1 ϭ 5 Ϫ 2.222 ϭ 2.778 A (c) Since p ϭ I 2R, R1 ϭ p1 ϭ 20 ϭ 4.05 ⍀ 2.222 2 I 2 1 R2 ϭ p2 ϭ 15 ϭ 1.945 ⍀ 2.777 2 I 2 2 R3 ϭ p3 ϭ 10 ϭ 1.297 ⍀ 2.777 2 I 2 3 Refer to Fig. 2.55 and assume there are 10 light bulbs that can be con- nected in parallel and 10 light bulbs that can be connected in series, each with a power rating of 40 W. If the voltage at the plug is 110 V for the parallel and series connections, calculate the current through each bulb for both cases. Answer: 364 mA (parallel), 3.64 A (series). 2.8.2 Design of DC Meters a By their nature, resistors are used to control the flow of current. We take advantage of this property in several applications, such as in aVin +− Max potentiometer (Fig. 2.57). The word potentiometer, derived from the words potential and meter, implies that potential can be metered out. b The potentiometer (or pot for short) is a three-terminal device that oper- ates on the principle of voltage division. It is essentially an adjustable + voltage divider. As a voltage regulator, it is used as a volume or level Vout control on radios, TVs, and other devices. In Fig. 2.57, Min − cFigure 2.57 Vout ϭ Vbc ϭ Rbc Vin (2.58)The potentiometer controlling potential Raclevels.

2.8 Applications 61where Rac ϭ Rab ϩ Rbc. Thus, Vout decreases or increases as the sliding An instrument capable of measuringcontact of the pot moves toward c or a, respectively. voltage, current, and resistance is called a multimeter or a volt-ohm Another application where resistors are used to control current flow meter (VOM).is in the analog dc meters—the ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter,which measure current, voltage, and resistance, respectively. Each of A load is a component that is receivingthese meters employs the d’Arsonval meter movement, shown in energy (an energy sink), as opposedFig. 2.58. The movement consists essentially of a movable iron-core coil to a generator supplying energy (anmounted on a pivot between the poles of a permanent magnet. When energy source). More about loadingcurrent flows through the coil, it creates a torque which causes the pointer will be discussed in Section 4.9.1.to deflect. The amount of current through the coil determines the deflec-tion of the pointer, which is registered on a scale attached to the metermovement. For example, if the meter movement is rated 1 mA, 50 ⍀, itwould take 1 mA to cause a full-scale deflection of the meter movement.By introducing additional circuitry to the d’Arsonval meter movement,an ammeter, voltmeter, or ohmmeter can be constructed. Consider Fig. 2.59, where an analog voltmeter and ammeter areconnected to an element. The voltmeter measures the voltage across aload and is therefore connected in parallel with the element. As shown scale Ammeter I A spring + Voltmeter V V Elementpointer − SN permanent magnet Figure 2.59 Connection of a voltmeter and an amme- ter to an element.spring rotating coil stationary iron coreFigure 2.58A d’Arsonval meter movement.in Fig. 2.60(a), the voltmeter consists of a d’Arsonval movement inseries with a resistor whose resistance Rm is deliberately made verylarge (theoretically, infinite), to minimize the current drawn from thecircuit. To extend the range of voltage that the meter can measure,series multiplier resistors are often connected with the voltmeters, asshown in Fig. 2.60(b). The multiple-range voltmeter in Fig. 2.60(b) canmeasure voltage from 0 to 1 V, 0 to 10 V, or 0 to 100 V, depending onwhether the switch is connected to R1, R2, or R3, respectively. Let us calculate the multiplier resistor Rn for the single-range volt-meter in Fig. 2.60(a), or Rn ϭ R1, R2, or R3 for the multiple-rangevoltmeter in Fig. 2.60(b). We need to determine the value of Rn to beconnected in series with the internal resistance Rm of the voltmeter. Inany design, we consider the worst-case condition. In this case, theworst case occurs when the full-scale current Ifs ϭ Im flows throughthe meter. This should also correspond to the maximum voltage read-ing or the full-scale voltage Vfs. Since the multiplier resistance Rn is inseries with the internal resistance Rm,Vfs ϭ I fs (Rn ϩ Rm) (2.59)

62 Chapter 2 Basic Laws Multiplier Meter Rn Rm Probes + Im V − (a) R1 Meter 1V Rm R2 10 V Switch + 100 V Im Probes V R3 − (b) Figure 2.60 Voltmeters: (a) single-range type, (b) multiple-range type. In Rn From this, we obtain Meter Rn ϭ Vfs Ϫ Rm (2.60) Im Ifs Rm Similarly, the ammeter measures the current through the load and I is connected in series with it. As shown in Fig. 2.61(a), the ammeter Probes (a) consists of a d’Arsonval movement in parallel with a resistor whose R1 resistance Rm is deliberately made very small (theoretically, zero) to 10 mA minimize the voltage drop across it. To allow multiple ranges, shunt R2 100 mA Switch resistors are often connected in parallel with Rm as shown in 1A Fig. 2.61(b). The shunt resistors allow the meter to measure in the R3 range 0–10 mA, 0–100 mA, or 0–1 A, depending on whether the switch Meter is connected to R1, R2, or R3, respectively. Im Now our objective is to obtain the multiplier shunt Rn for the single- Rm range ammeter in Fig. 2.61(a), or Rn ϭ R1, R2, or R3 for the multiple- I range ammeter in Fig. 2.61(b). We notice that Rm and Rn are in parallel and that at full-scale reading I ϭ Ifs ϭ Im ϩ In, where In is the current Probes through the shunt resistor Rn. Applying the current division principle (b) yieldsFigure 2.61 Im ϭ Rn Rn IfsAmmeters: (a) single-range type, ϩ Rm(b) multiple-range type. or Rn ϭ Ifs Im Im Rm (2.61) Ϫ The resistance Rx of a linear resistor can be measured in two ways. An indirect way is to measure the current I that flows through it by

2.8 Applications 63connecting an ammeter in series with it and the voltage V across it by Aconnecting a voltmeter in parallel with it, as shown in Fig. 2.62(a).Then I + V (2.62) Rx ϭ I Rx V V −The direct method of measuring resistance is to use an ohmmeter. Anohmmeter consists basically of a d’Arsonval movement, a variable (a)resistor or potentiometer, and a battery, as shown in Fig. 2.62(b). OhmmeterApplying KVL to the circuit in Fig. 2.62(b) gives Im E ϭ (R ϩ Rm ϩ Rx) Im Rm Ror E E (2.63) RxRx ϭ Im Ϫ (R ϩ Rm)The resistor R is selected such that the meter gives a full-scale deflec-tion; that is, Im ϭ Ifs when Rx ϭ 0. This implies that E ϭ (R ϩ Rm) Ifs (2.64) (b)Substituting Eq. (2.64) into Eq. (2.63) leads to Figure 2.62 Two ways of measuring resistance:Rx ϭ a Ifs Ϫ 1b (R ϩ Rm) (2.65) (a) using an ammeter and a voltmeter, Im (b) using an ohmmeter. As mentioned, the types of meters we have discussed are knownas analog meters and are based on the d’Arsonval meter movement.Another type of meter, called a digital meter, is based on active circuitelements such as op amps. For example, a digital multimeter displaysmeasurements of dc or ac voltage, current, and resistance as discretenumbers, instead of using a pointer deflection on a continuous scale asin an analog multimeter. Digital meters are what you would most likelyuse in a modern lab. However, the design of digital meters is beyondthe scope of this book. HistoricalSamuel F. B. Morse (1791–1872), an American painter, invented Library of Congressthe telegraph, the first practical, commercialized application ofelectricity. Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts and studied at Yaleand the Royal Academy of Arts in London to become an artist. In the1830s, he became intrigued with developing a telegraph. He had aworking model by 1836 and applied for a patent in 1838. The U.S.Senate appropriated funds for Morse to construct a telegraph linebetween Baltimore and Washington, D.C. On May 24, 1844, he sentthe famous first message: “What hath God wrought!” Morse also devel-oped a code of dots and dashes for letters and numbers, for sendingmessages on the telegraph. The development of the telegraph led to theinvention of the telephone.

64 Chapter 2 Basic Laws Example 2.17 Following the voltmeter setup of Fig. 2.60, design a voltmeter for the following multiple ranges: (a) 0–1 V (b) 0–5 V (c) 0–50 V (d) 0–100 V Assume that the internal resistance Rm ϭ 2 k⍀ and the full-scale cur- rent Ifs ϭ 100 mA. Solution: We apply Eq. (2.60) and assume that R1, R2, R3, and R4 correspond with ranges 0–1 V, 0–5 V, 0–50 V, and 0–100 V, respectively. (a) For range 0–1 V, R1 ϭ 100 1 10Ϫ6 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 10,000 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 8 k⍀ ϫ (b) For range 0–5 V, 5 R2 ϭ 100 ϫ 10Ϫ6 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 50,000 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 48 k⍀ (c) For range 0–50 V, R3 ϭ 100 50 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 500,000 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 498 k⍀ ϫ 10Ϫ6 (d) For range 0–100 V, 100 V R4 ϭ 100 ϫ 10Ϫ6 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 1,000,000 Ϫ 2000 ϭ 998 k⍀ Note that the ratio of the total resistance (Rn ϩ Rm) to the full-scale voltage Vfs is constant and equal to 1͞Ifs for the four ranges. This ratio (given in ohms per volt, or ⍀/V) is known as the sensitivity of the voltmeter. The larger the sensitivity, the better the voltmeter.Practice Problem 2.17 Following the ammeter setup of Fig. 2.61, design an ammeter for the following multiple ranges: (a) 0–1 A (b) 0–100 mA (c) 0–10 mA Take the full-scale meter current as Im ϭ 1 mA and the internal resist- ance of the ammeter as Rm ϭ 50 ⍀. Answer: Shunt resistors: 50 m⍀, 505 m⍀, 5.556 ⍀. 2.9 Summary 1. A resistor is a passive element in which the voltage v across it is directly proportional to the current i through it. That is, a resistor is a device that obeys Ohm’s law, v ϭ iR where R is the resistance of the resistor.

2.9 Summary 652. A short circuit is a resistor (a perfectly, conducting wire) with zero resistance (R ϭ 0). An open circuit is a resistor with infinite resis- tance (R ϭ ϱ).3. The conductance G of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance: Gϭ 1 R4. A branch is a single two-terminal element in an electric circuit. A node is the point of connection between two or more branches. A loop is a closed path in a circuit. The number of branches b, the number of nodes n, and the number of independent loops l in a network are related as bϭlϩnϪ15. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the currents at any node algebraically sum to zero. In other words, the sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the node.6. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the voltages around a closed path algebraically sum to zero. In other words, the sum of voltage rises equals the sum of voltage drops.7. Two elements are in series when they are connected sequentially, end to end. When elements are in series, the same current flows through them (i1 ϭ i2). They are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes. Elements in parallel always have the same voltage across them (v1 ϭ v2).8. When two resistors R1 (ϭ1͞G1) and R2 (ϭ1͞G2) are in series, their equivalent resistance Req and equivalent conductance Geq are Req ϭ R1 ϩ R2, Geq ϭ G1G2 G1 ϩ G29. When two resistors R1 (ϭ1͞G1) and R2 (ϭ1͞G2) are in parallel, their equivalent resistance Req and equivalent conductance Geq are Req ϭ R1R2 , Geq ϭ G1 ϩ G2 R1 ϩ R210. The voltage division principle for two resistors in series is v1 ϭ R1 R1 R2 v, v2 ϭ R1 R2 R2 v ϩ ϩ11. The current division principle for two resistors in parallel is i1 ϭ R1 R2 R2 i, i2 ϭ R1 R1 R2 i ϩ ϩ12. The formulas for a delta-to-wye transformation areR1 ϭ Ra Rb Rc , R2 ϭ Ra Rc Ra Rc ϩ Rb ϩ Rc ϩ Rb ϩ R3 ϭ Ra Ra Rb Rc ϩ Rb ϩ

66 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 13. The formulas for a wye-to-delta transformation are Ra ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1, Rb ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 R1 R2 Rc ϭ R1 R2 ϩ R2 R3 ϩ R3 R1 R3 14. The basic laws covered in this chapter can be applied to the prob- lems of electrical lighting and design of dc meters.Review Questions2.1 The reciprocal of resistance is: 2.7 The current Io of Fig. 2.64 is: (a) Ϫ4 A (b) Ϫ2 A (c) 4 A(a) voltage (b) current (d) 16 A(c) conductance (d) coulombs (d) 6 V2.2 An electric heater draws 10 A from a 120-V line. The resistance of the heater is:(a) 1200 ⍀ (b) 120 ⍀ 10 A(c) 12 ⍀ (d) 1.2 ⍀ 2A 4A2.3 The voltage drop across a 1.5-kW toaster that draws 12 A of current is:(a) 18 kV (b) 125 V(c) 120 V (d) 10.42 V2.4 The maximum current that a 2W, 80 k⍀ resistor can Io safely conduct is:(a) 160 kA (b) 40 kA Figure 2.64(c) 5 mA (d) 25 mA For Review Question 2.7.2.5 A network has 12 branches and 8 independent 2.8 In the circuit in Fig. 2.65, V is: loops. How many nodes are there in the (a) 30 V (b) 14 V (c) 10 V network?(a) 19 (b) 17 (c) 5 (d) 42.6 The current I in the circuit of Fig. 2.63 is:(a) Ϫ0.8 A (b) Ϫ0.2 A(c) 0.2 A (d) 0.8 A 10 V +− 4Ω I 12 V +− +− 8 V +− 5 V3 V +− 6Ω +− VFigure 2.63 Figure 2.65For Review Question 2.6. For Review Question 2.8.

Problems 672.9 Which of the circuits in Fig. 2.66 will give you 2.10 In the circuit of Fig. 2.67, a decrease in R3 leads to a Vab ϭ 7 V? decrease of, select all that apply: 5V 5V (a) current through R3 +− a −+ a (b) voltage across R3 (c) voltage across R13 V +− 3 V +− (d) power dissipated in R2 (e) none of the above +− b +− b 1V 1V R1 (a) (b) Vs + R2 R3 5V − +− a 5V −+ a3 V +− 3 V +− Figure 2.67 For Review Question 2.10. −+ b −+ b 1V Answers: 2.1c, 2.2c, 2.3b, 2.4c, 2.5c, 2.6b, 2.7a, 2.8d, 1V 2.9d, 2.10b, d. (d) (c)Figure 2.66For Review Question 2.9.ProblemsSection 2.2 Ohm’s Law2.1 Design a problem, complete with a solution, to help Figure 2.69 students to better understand Ohm’s Law. Use at For Prob. 2.5. least two resistors and one voltage source. Hint, you could use both resistors at once or one at a time, it is 2.6 In the network graph shown in Fig. 2.70, determine up to you. Be creative. the number of branches and nodes.2.2 Find the hot resistance of a light bulb rated 60 W, 120 V.2.3 A bar of silicon is 4 cm long with a circular cross sec- tion. If the resistance of the bar is 240 ⍀ at room tem- perature, what is the cross-sectional radius of the bar?2.4 (a) Calculate current i in Fig. 2.68 when the switch is in position 1. (b) Find the current when the switch is in position 2. 12100 Ω i 250 Ω +− 40 VFigure 2.68 Figure 2.70For Prob. 2.4. For Prob. 2.6.Section 2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops 2.5 For the network graph in Fig. 2.69, find the number of nodes, branches, and loops.

68 Chapter 2 Basic Laws2.7 Determine the number of branches and nodes in the 2.11 In the circuit of Fig. 2.75, calculate V1 and V2. circuit of Fig. 2.71. 1V 2V 1Ω 4Ω +− +−12 V +− 8Ω 5Ω 2A + ++ V1 5 V V2 −− −Figure 2.71 Figure 2.75For Prob. 2.7. For Prob. 2.11.Section 2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws 2.12 In the circuit in Fig. 2.76, obtain v1, v2, and v3. + 30 V – 2.8 Design a problem, complete with a solution, to help other students better understand Kirchhoff’s Current – 50 V + + 20 V – + v2 – Law. Design the problem by specifying values of ia, ib, and ic, shown in Fig. 2.72, and asking them to + + + solve for values of i1, i2, and i3. Be careful to specify 40 V v1 v3 realistic currents. – – − ia i1 Figure 2.76 ib For Prob. 2.12. i2 i3 2.13 For the circuit in Fig. 2.77, use KCL to find the ic branch currents I1 to I4.Figure 2.72 2AFor Prob. 2.8. 2.9 Find i1, i2, and i3 in Fig. 2.73. 4A I2 7 A I4 1A i2 i3 B5A A I1 3 A I3 4A i1 6 A 7A 2A C Figure 2.77 For Prob. 2.13.Figure 2.73For Prob. 2.9. 2.14 Given the circuit in Fig. 2.78, use KVL to find the branch voltages V1 to V4.2.10 Determine i1 and i2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.74. –8 A 4A + + – + i2 3V V1 V2 5VFigure 2.74 i1 +2V – + –For Prob. 2.10. – – –6 A + – +– V4 4V V3 – + Figure 2.78 For Prob. 2.14.

Problems 692.15 Calculate v and ix in the circuit of Fig. 2.79. 2.19 From the circuit in Fig. 2.83, find I, the power dissipated by the resistor, and the power supplied by each source.10 V +− 12 Ω + 16 V – 10 V I ix +− 3Ω +v– + +− 3ix 4V – 12 V +−Figure 2.79 +−For Prob. 2.15. –8 V2.16 Determine Vo in the circuit in Fig. 2.80. Figure 2.83 For Prob. 2.19. 16 Ω 14 Ω 2.20 Determine io in the circuit of Fig. 2.84. io 22 Ω +10 V +− Vo +− 25 V – 54 V +− +− 5ioFigure 2.80 Figure 2.84For Prob. 2.16. For Prob. 2.20.2.17 Obtain v1 through v3 in the circuit of Fig. 2.81. 2.21 Find Vx in the circuit of Fig. 2.85. + v1 − 1 Ω 2 Vx + + 5 Ω Vx − 2Ω v2 −+− + + −24 V +− v3 +− 10 V 15 V +− − Figure 2.85 −+ For Prob. 2.21. 12 VFigure 2.81For Prob. 2.17.2.18 Find I and Vab in the circuit of Fig. 2.82. 2.22 Find Vo in the circuit in Fig. 2.86 and the power absorbed by the dependent source. 3Ω 10 V a 5Ω 10 Ω 30 V +− +I + Vo −Figure 2.82For Prob. 2.18. Vab +− 8 V 10 Ω 25 A 2 Vo − b Figure 2.86 For Prob. 2.22.

70 Chapter 2 Basic Laws2.23 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.87, determine vx and 2.27 Calculate Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.91. the power absorbed by the 12-⍀ resistor. 1Ω 1.2 Ω 8Ω + vx – Io 4Ω20 A 2Ω 8 Ω 12 Ω 10 V +− 3Ω 6Ω 3Ω 6Ω Figure 2.91 For Prob. 2.27.Figure 2.87For Prob. 2.23.2.24 For the circuit in Fig. 2.88, find Vo͞Vs in terms of 2.28 Design a problem, using Fig. 2.92, to help other a, R1, R2, R3, and R4. If R1 ϭ R2 ϭ R3 ϭ R4, what students better understand series and parallel value of a will produce |Vo͞Vs| ϭ 10? circuits. Io R1 R1Vs +− R2 ␣Io + Vs +− + v1 − R2 + + v3 R3 R3 R4 Vo − − v2 −Figure 2.88 Figure 2.92For Prob. 2.24. For Prob. 2.28.2.25 For the network in Fig. 2.89, find the current, 2.29 All resistors in Fig. 2.93 are 5 ⍀ each. Find Req. voltage, and power associated with the 20-k⍀ resistor.5 mA 10 kΩ + 0.01Vo 5 kΩ 20 kΩ Vo − ReqFigure 2.89For Prob. 2.25. Figure 2.93 For Prob. 2.29.Sections 2.5 and 2.6 Series and Parallel Resistors 2.30 Find Req for the circuit in Fig. 2.94.2.26 For the circuit in Fig. 2.90, io ϭ 3 A. Calculate ix and the total power absorbed by the entire circuit.ix 10 Ω io 25 Ω 180 Ω 60 Ω 8Ω 4Ω 2Ω 16 Ω Req 60 ΩFigure 2.90 Figure 2.94For Prob. 2.26. For Prob. 2.30.

Problems 712.31 For the circuit in Fig. 2.95, determine i1 to i5. 2.35 Calculate Vo and Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.99.200 V +− 3 Ω i1 i3 i5 200 V +− 70 Ω Io 30 Ω i4 2 Ω 20 Ω i2 Figure 2.99 + 4Ω 1Ω For Prob. 2.35. Vo 5 Ω −Figure 2.95 2.36 Find i and Vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.100.For Prob. 2.31.2.32 Find i1 through i4 in the circuit in Fig. 2.96. i 80 Ω 24 Ω 50 Ω 60 Ω i4 i2 200 Ω 25 Ω 20 Ω 40 Ω 50 Ω 20 V +− 30 Ω + i1 60 Ω 20 Ω −Vo i3 16 AFigure 2.96 Figure 2.100For Prob. 2.32. For Prob. 2.36. 2.37 Find R for the circuit in Fig. 2.101.2.33 Obtain v and i in the circuit of Fig. 2.97. R 10 Ω + 10 V − i 4S 6S + 20 V +− − 30 V +9A v 1S − 2S 3SFigure 2.97 Figure 2.101For Prob. 2.33. For Prob. 2.37.2.34 Using series/parallel resistance combination, find the 2.38 Find Req and io in the circuit of Fig. 2.102. equivalent resistance seen by the source in the circuit 60 Ω of Fig. 2.98. Find the overall absorbed power by the resistor network. 12 Ω 20 Ω 28 Ω 60 Ω io 2.5 Ω 6Ω 80 Ω200 V −+ 160 Ω 160 Ω 80 Ω 35 V +− 15 Ω 20 Ω 52 Ω 20 Ω ReqFigure 2.98 Figure 2.102For Prob. 2.34. For Prob. 2.38.

72 Chapter 2 Basic Laws2.39 Evaluate Req for each of the circuits shown in 2Ω 4Ω 5Ω Fig. 2.103. 10 Ω 4Ω b 5Ω 3Ω 6 kΩ2 kΩ 8Ω (b) 1 kΩ 4 kΩ 12 kΩ2 kΩ 1 kΩ 12 kΩ Figure 2.106 For Prob. 2.42. (a) (b)Figure 2.103 2.43 Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab at terminalsFor Prob. 2.39. a-b for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.107.2.40 For the ladder network in Fig. 2.104, find I and Req. 5Ω I 8Ω 2Ω 1Ω a 20 Ω 10 Ω 40 Ω15 V +− 4Ω 6Ω 2Ω b (a) ReqFigure 2.104 a 10 ΩFor Prob. 2.40. 80 Ω 60 Ω2.41 If Req ϭ 50 ⍀ in the circuit of Fig. 2.105, find R. b (b) 20 Ω 30 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω R Figure 2.107Req 12 Ω 12 Ω For Prob. 2.43. 60 Ω 12 ΩFigure 2.105 2.44 For the circuits in Fig. 2.108, obtain the equivalentFor Prob. 2.41. resistance at terminals a-b. 2.42 Reduce each of the circuits in Fig. 2.106 to a single resistor at terminals a-b. 5Ω b 5 Ω 20 Ω a a 8 Ω 20 Ω 2Ω 3Ω 30 Ω b (a) Figure 2.108 For Prob. 2.44.

Problems 732.45 Find the equivalent resistance at terminals a-b of 2.47 Find the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit of each circuit in Fig. 2.109. Fig. 2.111. 10 Ω c 5Ω 6Ω 40 Ω 20 Ω 10 Ω 8Ω a d ab e 30 Ω 5Ω 50 Ω 20 Ω 3Ω b f Figure 2.111 (a) For Prob. 2.47. 30 Ω 12 Ω Section 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 5 Ω 20 Ω 2.48 Convert the circuits in Fig. 2.112 from Y to ¢. 25 Ω 60 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω 20 Ω 10 Ω a a 15 Ω b b (b)Figure 2.109 10 Ω 50 ΩFor Prob. 2.45. c c (b) (a) Figure 2.112 For Prob. 2.48. 2.49 Transform the circuits in Fig. 2.113 from ¢ to Y.2.46 Find I in the circuit of Fig. 2.110. 12 Ω 60 Ω 20 Ω 15 Ω a ba b 5Ω I 12 Ω 15 Ω 12 Ω 12 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω 15 Ω80 V + 5Ω − 24 Ω 8Ω c c (b) (a)Figure 2.110For Prob. 2.46. Figure 2.113 For Prob. 2.49.

74 Chapter 2 Basic Laws2.50 Design a problem to help other students better *2.53 Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab in each of the understand wye-delta transformations using circuits of Fig. 2.117. In (b), all resistors have a Fig. 2.114. value of 30 ⍀. RR 30 Ω 40 Ω R 9 mA 20 Ω 10 Ω RR a 60 Ω 50 Ω 80 Ω bFigure 2.114 a (a)For Prob. 2.50. 30 Ω 2.51 Obtain the equivalent resistance at the terminals a-b for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.115.a 10 Ω 20 Ω b 30 Ω 10 Ω Figure 2.117 (b)b For Prob. 2.53. 10 Ω 20 Ω (a) 2.54 Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.118. Find the 30 Ω equivalent resistance at terminals: (a) a-b, (b) c-d. 25 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ωa 50 Ω 150 Ω 60 Ω a 5Ω 15 Ω c (b) b d 100 Ω 100 Ω Figure 2.118 b For Prob. 2.54. 150 ΩFigure 2.115For Prob. 2.51.*2.52 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.116, find the equivalent resistance. All resistors are 3 ⍀. 2.55 Calculate Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.119. Io 20 Ω 60 Ω 40 Ω 24 V +− Req 10 Ω 50 Ω Figure 2.119 20 ΩFigure 2.116 For Prob. 2.55.For Prob. 2.52.* An asterisk indicates a challenging problem.

Problems 75 30 W 40 W 50 W2.56 Determine V in the circuit of Fig. 2.120. I 30 Ω 120 V +− 16 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω100 V +− + 12 Ω 20 Ω Figure 2.123 For Prob. 2.59. V 35 Ω −Figure 2.120 2.60 If the three bulbs of Prob. 2.59 are connected inFor Prob. 2.56. parallel to the 120-V source, calculate the current through each bulb.*2.57 Find Req and I in the circuit of Fig. 2.121. 2.61 As a design engineer, you are asked to design a lighting system consisting of a 70-W power supply I 4Ω 2Ω and two light bulbs as shown in Fig. 2.124. You must select the two bulbs from the following three 6Ω 1Ω available bulbs. 12 Ω R1 ϭ 80 ⍀, cost ϭ $0.60 (standard size) R2 ϭ 90 ⍀, cost ϭ $0.90 (standard size) R3 ϭ 100 ⍀, cost ϭ $0.75 (nonstandard size) The system should be designed for minimum cost such that lies within the range I ϭ 1.2 A Ϯ 5 percent.20 V +− 8Ω 2Ω I 4Ω 10 Ω 3Ω + Rx Ry 70-W 5Ω Power Supply Req −Figure 2.121 Figure 2.124For Prob. 2.57. For Prob. 2.61.Section 2.8 Applications 2.62 A three-wire system supplies two loads A and B as shown in Fig. 2.125. Load A consists of a motor 2.58 The 60 W light bulb in Fig. 2.122 is rated at 120 volts. drawing a current of 8 A, while load B is a PC Calculate Vs to make the light bulb operate at the rated drawing 2 A. Assuming 10 h/day of use for 365 days conditions. and 6 cents/kWh, calculate the annual energy cost of the system. 40 Ω + AVs +− 110 V – Bulb 80 ΩFigure 2.122 110 V + BFor Prob. 2.58. – 2.59 Three light bulbs are connected in series to a 120-V Figure 2.125 source as shown in Fig. 2.123. Find the current I For Prob. 2.62. through the bulbs. Each bulb is rated at 120 volts. How much power is each bulb absorbing? Do they 2.63 If an ammeter with an internal resistance of 100 ⍀ generate much light? and a current capacity of 2 mA is to measure 5 A, determine the value of the resistance needed.

76 Chapter 2 Basic Laws Calculate the power dissipated in the shunt 2.68 (a) Find the current I in the circuit of Fig. 2.128(a). resistor. (b) An ammeter with an internal resistance of 1 ⍀ is inserted in the network to measure I¿ as shown in2.64 The potentiometer (adjustable resistor) Rx in Fig. 2.126 Fig. 2.128(b). What is I¿? is to be designed to adjust current ix from 1 A to 10 A. Calculate the values of R and Rx to achieve this. (c) Calculate the percent error introduced by the meter as ix R ` I Ϫ I¿ ` ϫ 100% I 110 V +− Rx ixFigure 2.126 I 16 ΩFor Prob. 2.64. 4 V +− 40 Ω 60 Ω2.65 A d’Arsonval meter with an internal resistance of (a) 1 k⍀ requires 10 mA to produce full-scale deflection. Ammeter Calculate the value of a series resistance needed to I' 16 Ω measure 50 V of full scale. 4 V +− 40 Ω 60 Ω2.66 A 20-k⍀/V voltmeter reads 10 V full scale. (b) (a) What series resistance is required to make the meter read 50 V full scale? Figure 2.128 For Prob. 2.68. (b) What power will the series resistor dissipate when the meter reads full scale? 2.69 A voltmeter is used to measure Vo in the circuit in Fig. 2.129. The voltmeter model consists of an ideal2.67 (a) Obtain the voltage Vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.127(a). voltmeter in parallel with a 100-k⍀ resistor. Let (b) Determine the voltage Vo¿ measured when a Vs ϭ 40 V, Rs ϭ 10 k⍀, and R1 ϭ 20 k⍀. Calculate voltmeter with 6-k⍀ internal resistance is Vo with and without the voltmeter when connected as shown in Fig. 2.127(b). (c) The finite resistance of the meter introduces an error into the measurement. Calculate the percent error as ` Vo Ϫ Vo¿ ` ϫ 100% Vo (d) Find the percent error if the internal resistance were 36 k⍀. 1 kΩ (a) R2 ϭ 1 k⍀ (b) R2 ϭ 10 k⍀ (c) R2 ϭ 100 k⍀ +2 mA 5 kΩ 4 kΩ Vo − (a) Rs 1 kΩ2 mA 5 kΩ 4 kΩ + Voltmeter Vs +− R1 R2 Vo + − Vo 100 kΩ V (b) −Figure 2.127 Figure 2.129For Prob. 2.67. For Prob. 2.69.

Problems 772.70 (a) Consider the Wheatstone bridge shown in 20 Ω Ammeter Fig. 2.130. Calculate va, vb, and vab. A model (b) Rework part (a) if the ground is placed at a instead of o. 8 kΩ 15 kΩ IR25 V + ab Rx – o 12 kΩ 10 kΩFigure 2.130 Figure 2.133For Prob. 2.70. For Prob. 2.73.2.71 Figure 2.131 represents a model of a solar 2.74 The circuit in Fig. 2.134 is to control the speed of a motor such that the motor draws currents 5 A, 3 A, photovoltaic panel. Given that Vs ϭ 30 V, and 1 A when the switch is at high, medium, and low R1 ϭ 20 ⍀, and iL ϭ 1 A, find RL. positions, respectively. The motor can be modeled as a load resistance of 20 m⍀. Determine the series dropping resistances R1, R2, and R3. R1 iL Low RL Vs + 10-A, 0.01-Ω fuse R1 − R2Figure 2.131 MediumFor Prob. 2.71. High 6V2.72 Find Vo in the two-way power divider circuit in R3 Fig. 2.132. Motor 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω Figure 2.13410 V +− Vo 2 Ω For Prob. 2.74. 1Ω 1Ω 2.75 Find Rab in the four-way power divider circuit in Fig. 2.135. Assume each element is 1 ⍀. 11Figure 2.132 11For Prob. 2.72. 11 2.73 An ammeter model consists of an ideal ammeter 1 11 1 in series with a 20-⍀ resistor. It is connected a with a current source and an unknown resistor 11 Rx as shown in Fig. 2.133. The ammeter reading b 11 is noted. When a potentiometer R is added and adjusted until the ammeter reading drops to one Figure 2.135 half its previous reading, then R ϭ 65 ⍀. What For Prob. 2.75. is the value of Rx?

78 Chapter 2 Basic Laws Comprehensive Problems 2.79 An electric pencil sharpener rated 240 mW, 6 V is connected to a 9-V battery as shown in Fig. 2.138.2.76 Repeat Prob. 2.75 for the eight-way divider shown in Calculate the value of the series-dropping resistor Rx Fig. 2.136. needed to power the sharpener. 11 11 Switch Rx 11 9V 11 1 Figure 2.138 1 1 1 For Prob. 2.79.a 1 11 1 11 1 11 2.80 A loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier as shown 11 in Fig. 2.139. If a 10-⍀ loudspeaker draws the b maximum power of 12 W from the amplifier, 11 1 determine the maximum power a 4-⍀ loudspeakerFigure 2.136 will draw.For Prob. 2.76. 11 11 Amplifier2.77 Suppose your circuit laboratory has the following Loudspeaker standard commercially available resistors in large quantities: Figure 2.139 For Prob. 2.80.1.8 ⍀ 20 ⍀ 300 ⍀ 24 k⍀ 56 k⍀Using series and parallel combinations and a 2.81 In a certain application, the circuit in Fig. 2.140minimum number of available resistors, how would must be designed to meet these two criteria:you obtain the following resistances for an electroniccircuit design? (a) Vo͞Vs ϭ 0.05 (b) Req ϭ 40 k⍀(a) 5 ⍀ (b) 311.8 ⍀ If the load resistor 5 k⍀ is fixed, find R1 and R2 to(c) 40 k⍀ (d) 52.32 k⍀ meet the criteria.2.78 In the circuit in Fig. 2.137, the wiper divides the R1 potentiometer resistance between aR and (1 Ϫ a)R, R2 0 Յ a Յ 1. Find vo͞vs. Req R + + Vo 5 kΩ vs +− R vo Vs +− − ␣R Figure 2.140 − For Prob. 2.81.Figure 2.137For Prob. 2.78.

Comprehensive Problems 792.82 The pin diagram of a resistance array is shown in 2.83 Two delicate devices are rated as shown in Fig. 2.142. Fig. 2.141. Find the equivalent resistance between the following: Find the values of the resistors R1 and R2 needed to power the devices using a 24-V battery. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 60-mA, 2-Ω fuse (c) 1 and 4 R1 24 V, 480 mW 43 R2 Device 2 20 Ω 20 Ω 24 V Device 1 9 V, 45 mW 10 Ω 40 Ω 10 Ω Figure 2.142 For Prob. 2.83.80 Ω 12Figure 2.141For Prob. 2.82.



Methods of chapterAnalysis 3No great work is ever done in a hurry. To develop a great scientificdiscovery, to print a great picture, to write an immortal poem, tobecome a minister, or a famous general—to do anything great requirestime, patience, and perseverance. These things are done by degrees,“little by little.” —W. J. Wilmont BuxtonEnhancing Your Career Troubleshooting an electronic circuit board.Career in Electronics © BrandX Pictures/PunchstockOne area of application for electric circuit analysis is electronics. Theterm electronics was originally used to distinguish circuits of very lowcurrent levels. This distinction no longer holds, as power semiconduc-tor devices operate at high levels of current. Today, electronics isregarded as the science of the motion of charges in a gas, vacuum, orsemiconductor. Modern electronics involves transistors and transistorcircuits. The earlier electronic circuits were assembled from compo-nents. Many electronic circuits are now produced as integrated circuits,fabricated in a semiconductor substrate or chip. Electronic circuits find applications in many areas, such as automa-tion, broadcasting, computers, and instrumentation. The range of devicesthat use electronic circuits is enormous and is limited only by our imag-ination. Radio, television, computers, and stereo systems are but a few. An electrical engineer usually performs diverse functions and is likelyto use, design, or construct systems that incorporate some form of elec-tronic circuits. Therefore, an understanding of the operation and analysisof electronics is essential to the electrical engineer. Electronics hasbecome a specialty distinct from other disciplines within electrical engi-neering. Because the field of electronics is ever advancing, an electronicsengineer must update his/her knowledge from time to time. The best wayto do this is by being a member of a professional organization such asthe Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). With a mem-bership of over 300,000, the IEEE is the largest professional organizationin the world. Members benefit immensely from the numerous magazines,journals, transactions, and conference/symposium proceedings publishedyearly by IEEE. You should consider becoming an IEEE member. 81

82 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis 3.1 Introduction Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws), we are now prepared to apply these laws to develop two powerful techniques for circuit analysis: nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and mesh analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL). The two techniques are so impor- tant that this chapter should be regarded as the most important in the book. Students are therefore encouraged to pay careful attention. With the two techniques to be developed in this chapter, we can ana- lyze any linear circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations that are then solved to obtain the required values of current or voltage. One method of solving simultaneous equations involves Cramer’s rule, which allows us to calculate circuit variables as a quotient of determinants. The examples in the chapter will illustrate this method; Appendix A also briefly summarizes the essentials the reader needs to know for applying Cramer’s rule. Another method of solving simultaneous equations is to use MATLAB, a computer software discussed in Appendix E. Also in this chapter, we introduce the use of PSpice for Windows, a circuit simulation computer software program that we will use throughout the text. Finally, we apply the techniques learned in this chapter to analyze transistor circuits.Nodal analysis is also known as the 3.2 Nodal Analysisnode-voltage method. Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables. Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously. To simplify matters, we shall assume in this section that circuits do not contain voltage sources. Circuits that contain voltage sources will be analyzed in the next section. In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analy- sis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps. Steps to Determine Node Voltages: 1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, p , vnϪ1 to the remaining n Ϫ 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node. 2. Apply KCL to each of the n Ϫ 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages. 3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages. We shall now explain and apply these three steps. The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference or datum node. The reference node is commonly called the ground

3.2 Nodal Analysis 83since it is assumed to have zero potential. A reference node is indicated The number of nonreference nodes isby any of the three symbols in Fig. 3.1. The type of ground in Fig. 3.1(c) equal to the number of independentis called a chassis ground and is used in devices where the case, enclo- equations that we will derive.sure, or chassis acts as a reference point for all circuits. When thepotential of the earth is used as reference, we use the earth ground in (a) (b) (c)Fig. 3.1(a) or (b). We shall always use the symbol in Fig. 3.1(b). Figure 3.1 Once we have selected a reference node, we assign voltage desig-nations to nonreference nodes. Consider, for example, the circuit in Common symbols for indicating aFig. 3.2(a). Node 0 is the reference node (v ϭ 0), while nodes 1 and2 are assigned voltages v1 and v2, respectively. Keep in mind that the reference node, (a) common ground,node voltages are defined with respect to the reference node. As illus-trated in Fig. 3.2(a), each node voltage is the voltage rise from the ref- (b) ground, (c) chassis ground.erence node to the corresponding nonreference node or simply thevoltage of that node with respect to the reference node. As the second step, we apply KCL to each nonreference node inthe circuit. To avoid putting too much information on the same circuit,the circuit in Fig. 3.2(a) is redrawn in Fig. 3.2(b), where we now addi1, i2, and i3 as the currents through resistors R1, R2, and R3, respec-tively. At node 1, applying KCL gives I1 ϭ I2 ϩ i1 ϩ i2 (3.1)At node 2, I2 I2 ϩ i2 ϭ i3 (3.2)We now apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2, and 1 R2 2i3 in terms of node voltages. The key idea to bear in mind is that, sinceresistance is a passive element, by the passive sign convention, current ++must always flow from a higher potential to a lower potential. I1 v1 R1 v2 R3 −− 0Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.We can express this principle as (a) i ϭ vhigher Ϫ vlower I2 R (3.3) i2 R2 i2 v1 v2 i3Note that this principle is in agreement with the way we defined resist- i1ance in Chapter 2 (see Fig. 2.1). With this in mind, we obtain fromFig. 3.2(b), I1 R1 R3 i1 ϭ v1 Ϫ 0 or i1 ϭ G1v1 R1 (b) i2 ϭ v1 Ϫ v2 or i2 ϭ G2 (v1 Ϫ v2) (3.4) R2 Figure 3.2 Typical circuit for nodal analysis. i3 ϭ v2 Ϫ 0 or i3 ϭ G3v2 R3Substituting Eq. (3.4) in Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) results, respectively, in I1 ϭ I2 ϩ v1 ϩ v1 Ϫ v2 (3.5) R1 R2 (3.6) I2 ϩ v1 Ϫ v2 ϭ v2 R2 R3

84 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis Appendix A discusses how to use In terms of the conductances, Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6) become Cramer’s rule. I1 ϭ I2 ϩ G1v1 ϩ G2(v1 Ϫ v2) (3.7) I2 ϩ G2(v1 Ϫ v2) ϭ G3v2 (3.8) The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages. If we apply KCL to n Ϫ 1 nonreference nodes, we obtain n Ϫ 1 simul- taneous equations such as Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6) or (3.7) and (3.8). For the circuit of Fig. 3.2, we solve Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6) or (3.7) and (3.8) to obtain the node voltages v1 and v2 using any standard method, such as the substitution method, the elimination method, Cramer’s rule, or matrix inversion. To use either of the last two methods, one must cast the simultaneous equations in matrix form. For example, Eqs. (3.7) and (3.8) can be cast in matrix form as c G1 ϩ G 2 ϪG 2 d c v1 d ϭ c I1 Ϫ I2 d (3.9) ϪG 2 G 2 ϩ G 3 v2 I2 which can be solved to get v1 and v2. Equation 3.9 will be generalized in Section 3.6. The simultaneous equations may also be solved using calculators or with software packages such as MATLAB, Mathcad, Maple, and Quattro Pro.Example 3.1 Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3(a). 5A Solution: 4Ω 2 Consider Fig. 3.3(b), where the circuit in Fig. 3.3(a) has been prepared 1 for nodal analysis. Notice how the currents are selected for the 2 Ω 6 Ω 10 A application of KCL. Except for the branches with current sources, the labeling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent. (By consistent, we mean that if, for example, we assume that i2 enters the 4-⍀ resistor from the left-hand side, i2 must leave the resistor from the right-hand side.) The reference node is selected, and the node voltages v1 and v2 are now to be determined. At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives i1 ϭ i2 ϩ i3 1 5 ϭ v1 Ϫ v2 ϩ v1 Ϫ 0 42 (a) 5A Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain i1 = 5 i1 = 5 20 ϭ v1 Ϫ v2 ϩ 2v1 i2 4 Ω v2 i4 = 10 or v1 3v1 Ϫ v2 ϭ 20 (3.1.1)2Ω At node 2, we do the same thing and get i3 i2 i5 6Ω 10 A v1 Ϫ v2 ϩ 10 ϭ 5 ϩ v2 Ϫ 0 46 i2 ϩ i4 ϭ i1 ϩ i5 1 Multiplying each term by 12 results in (b) 3v1 Ϫ 3v2 ϩ 120 ϭ 60 ϩ 2v2 orFigure 3.3For Example 3.1: (a) original circuit, Ϫ3v1 ϩ 5v2 ϭ 60 (3.1.2)(b) circuit for analysis.

3.2 Nodal Analysis 85Now we have two simultaneous Eqs. (3.1.1) and (3.1.2). We can solvethe equations using any method and obtain the values of v1 and v2.■ METHOD 1 Using the elimination technique, we add Eqs. (3.1.1)and (3.1.2). 4v2 ϭ 80 1 v2 ϭ 20 VSubstituting v2 ϭ 20 in Eq. (3.1.1) gives 40 3v1 Ϫ 20 ϭ 20 1 v1 ϭ 3 ϭ 13.333 V■ METHOD 2 To use Cramer’s rule, we need to put Eqs. (3.1.1)and (3.1.2) in matrix form as c 3 Ϫ1 d c v1 d ϭ 20 (3.1.3) cd Ϫ3 5 v2 60The determinant of the matrix is 3 Ϫ1 ` ϭ 15 Ϫ 3 ϭ 12 ¢ ϭ ` Ϫ3 5We now obtain v1 and v2 as 20 Ϫ1 ``v1 ϭ ¢1 ϭ 60 5 ϭ 100 ϩ 60 ϭ 13.333 V ¢ ¢ 12 3 20 ` Ϫ3 `v2 ϭ ¢2 ϭ 60 ϭ 180 ϩ 60 ϭ 20 V ¢ 12 ¢giving us the same result as did the elimination method. If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from thevalues of the nodal voltages.i1 ϭ 5 A, i2 ϭ v1 Ϫ v2 ϭ Ϫ1.6668 A, i3 ϭ v1 ϭ 6.666 A 4 2 i4 ϭ 10 A, i5 ϭ v2 ϭ 3.333 A 6The fact that i2 is negative shows that the current flows in the directionopposite to the one assumed.Obtain the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 3.4. Practice Problem 3.1Answer: v1 ϭ Ϫ6 V, v2 ϭ Ϫ42 V. 1 6Ω 2 3A 2Ω 7Ω 12 A Figure 3.4 For Practice Prob. 3.1.

86 Chapter 3 Methods of AnalysisExample 3.2 Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. 3.5(a). Solution: The circuit in this example has three nonreference nodes, unlike the pre- vious example which has two nonreference nodes. We assign voltages to the three nodes as shown in Fig. 3.5(b) and label the currents. 4Ω 4Ω ix 2Ω 2 8Ω v1 i1 2 Ω v2 i2 8 Ω i2 i1 1 4Ω 3A ix v3 3 3A ix i33A 2ix 4Ω 2ix 0 (a) (b)Figure 3.5For Example 3.2: (a) original circuit, (b) circuit for analysis. At node 1, 3 ϭ i1 ϩ ix 1 3 ϭ v1 Ϫ v3 ϩ v1 Ϫ v2 42 Multiplying by 4 and rearranging terms, we get 3v1 Ϫ 2v2 Ϫ v3 ϭ 12 (3.2.1) At node 2, 1 v1 Ϫ v2 ϭ v2 Ϫ v3 ϩ v2 Ϫ 0 ix ϭ i2 ϩ i3 2 84 Multiplying by 8 and rearranging terms, we get Ϫ4v1 ϩ 7v2 Ϫ v3 ϭ 0 (3.2.2) At node 3, 1 v1 Ϫ v3 ϩ v2 Ϫ v3 ϭ 2(v1 Ϫ v2) i1 ϩ i2 ϭ 2ix 48 2 Multiplying by 8, rearranging terms, and dividing by 3, we get 2v1 Ϫ 3v2 ϩ v3 ϭ 0 (3.2.3) We have three simultaneous equations to solve to get the node voltages v1, v2, and v3. We shall solve the equations in three ways. ■ METHOD 1 Using the elimination technique, we add Eqs. (3.2.1) and (3.2.3). 5v1 Ϫ 5v2 ϭ 12 or 12 (3.2.4) v1 Ϫ v2 ϭ 5 ϭ 2.4 Adding Eqs. (3.2.2) and (3.2.3) gives Ϫ2v1 ϩ 4v2 ϭ 0 1 v1 ϭ 2v2 (3.2.5)

3.2 Nodal Analysis 87Substituting Eq. (3.2.5) into Eq. (3.2.4) yields 2v2 Ϫ v2 ϭ 2.4 1 v2 ϭ 2.4, v1 ϭ 2v2 ϭ 4.8 VFrom Eq. (3.2.3), we get v3 ϭ 3v2 Ϫ 2v1 ϭ 3v2 Ϫ 4v2 ϭ Ϫv2 ϭ Ϫ2.4 VThus, v1 ϭ 4.8 V, v2 ϭ 2.4 V, v3 ϭ Ϫ2.4 V■ METHOD 2 To use Cramer’s rule, we put Eqs. (3.2.1) to (3.2.3)in matrix form. 3 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 v1 12 £ Ϫ4 7 Ϫ1 § £ v2 § ϭ £ 0 § (3.2.6) 2 Ϫ3 1 v3 0From this, we obtain v1 ϭ ¢1, v2 ϭ ¢2, v3 ϭ ¢3 ¢ ¢ ¢where ¢, ¢1, ¢2, and ¢3 are the determinants to be calculated asfollows. As explained in Appendix A, to calculate the determinant ofa 3 by 3 matrix, we repeat the first two rows and cross multiply. 3 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 3 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 Ϫ4 7 Ϫ1 ¢ ϭ 3 Ϫ4 7 Ϫ1 3 ϭ 5 2 Ϫ3 1 5 2 Ϫ3 1 Ϫ 3 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 ϩ ϩ Ϫ Ϫ4 7 Ϫ1 ϩ Ϫ ϭ 21 Ϫ 12 ϩ 4 ϩ 14 Ϫ 9 Ϫ 8 ϭ 10Similarly, we obtain¢1 ϭ 12 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 ϭ 84 ϩ 0 ϩ 0 Ϫ 0 Ϫ 36 Ϫ 0 ϭ 48 Ϫ 0 7 Ϫ1 ϩ Ϫ 5 0 Ϫ3 1 5 ϩ Ϫ 12 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 ϩ 0 7 Ϫ1¢2 ϭ ϭ 0 ϩ 0 Ϫ 24 Ϫ 0 Ϫ 0 ϩ 48 ϭ 24 Ϫ 3 12 Ϫ1 ϩ Ϫ Ϫ4 0 Ϫ1 ϩ Ϫ 5 2 0 15 ϩ¢3 ϭ 3 12 Ϫ1 ϭ 0 ϩ 144 ϩ 0 Ϫ 168 Ϫ 0 Ϫ 0 ϭ Ϫ24 Ϫ Ϫ4 0 Ϫ1 ϩ Ϫ ϩ Ϫ 3 Ϫ2 12 ϩ Ϫ4 7 0 5 2 Ϫ3 0 5 3 Ϫ2 12 Ϫ4 7 0

88 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis Thus, we find v1 ϭ ¢1 ϭ 48 ϭ 4.8 V, v2 ϭ ¢2 ϭ 24 ϭ 2.4 V ¢ 10 ¢ 10 v3 ϭ ¢3 ϭ Ϫ24 ϭ Ϫ2.4 V ¢ 10 as we obtained with Method 1. ■ METHOD 3 We now use MATLAB to solve the matrix. Equa- tion (3.2.6) can be written as AV ϭ B 1 V ϭ AϪ1B where A is the 3 by 3 square matrix, B is the column vector, and V is a column vector comprised of v1, v2, and v3 that we want to determine. We use MATLAB to determine V as follows: ϾϾA ϭ [3 Ϫ2 Ϫ1; Ϫ4 7 Ϫ1; 2 Ϫ3 1]; ϾϾB ϭ [12 0 0]Ј; ϾϾV ϭ inv(A) * B 4.8000 V ϭ 2.4000 Ϫ2.4000 Thus, v1 ϭ 4.8 V, v2 ϭ 2.4 V, and v3 ϭ Ϫ2.4 V, as obtained previously.Practice Problem 3.2 Find the voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the circuit of Fig. 3.6. 2Ω Answer: v1 ϭ 32 V, v2 ϭ Ϫ25.6 V, v3 ϭ 62.4 V. 3 Ω 2 4ix 1 ix 34A 4Ω 6ΩFigure 3.6 3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage SourcesFor Practice Prob. 3.2. We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. We use the circuit in Fig. 3.7 for illustration. Consider the following two possibilities. ■ CASE 1 If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the non- reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In Fig. 3.7, for example, v1 ϭ 10 V (3.10) Thus, our analysis is somewhat simplified by this knowledge of the volt- age at this node. ■ CASE 2 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is con- nected between two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes

3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources 89 4Ω v1 2 Ω i1 v2 5V Supernode 10 V +− +− i4 v3 i2 8Ω i3 6Ω Figure 3.7 A supernode may be regarded as a A circuit with a supernode. closed surface enclosing the voltage source and its two nodes.form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL and KVLto determine the node voltages. A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.In Fig. 3.7, nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode. (We could have morethan two nodes forming a single supernode. For example, see the cir-cuit in Fig. 3.14.) We analyze a circuit with supernodes using thesame three steps mentioned in the previous section except that thesupernodes are treated differently. Why? Because an essential com-ponent of nodal analysis is applying KCL, which requires knowingthe current through each element. There is no way of knowing thecurrent through a voltage source in advance. However, KCL mustbe satisfied at a supernode like any other node. Hence, at the super-node in Fig. 3.7, i1 ϩ i4 ϭ i2 ϩ i3 (3.11a)or v1 Ϫ v2 ϩ v1 Ϫ v3 ϭ v2 Ϫ 0 ϩ v3 Ϫ 0 (3.11b) 2 4 86To apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the supernode in Fig. 3.7, we 5V +redraw the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.8. Going around the loop in the +− v3clockwise direction gives + − Ϫv2 ϩ 5 ϩ v3 ϭ 0 1 v2 Ϫ v3 ϭ 5 (3.12) v2From Eqs. (3.10), (3.11b), and (3.12), we obtain the node voltages. − Note the following properties of a supernode: Figure 3.81. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint Applying KVL to a supernode. equation needed to solve for the node voltages.2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

90 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis Example 3.3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.9, find the node voltages. 10 Ω v2 Solution: The supernode contains the 2-V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10-⍀ v1 2 V resistor. Applying KCL to the supernode as shown in Fig. 3.10(a) gives +− 2 ϭ i1 ϩ i2 ϩ 7 +−2A 2Ω 4Ω 7 A Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages +− 2 ϭ v1 Ϫ 0 ϩ v2 Ϫ 0 ϩ 7 1 8 ϭ 2v1 ϩ v2 ϩ 28 24Figure 3.9 orFor Example 3.3. v2 ϭ Ϫ20 Ϫ 2v1 (3.3.1) To get the relationship between v1 and v2, we apply KVL to the circuit in Fig. 3.10(b). Going around the loop, we obtain Ϫv1 Ϫ 2 ϩ v2 ϭ 0 1 v2 ϭ v1 ϩ 2 (3.3.2) From Eqs. (3.3.1) and (3.3.2), we write v2 ϭ v1 ϩ 2 ϭ Ϫ20 Ϫ 2v1 or 3v1 ϭ Ϫ22 1 v1 ϭ Ϫ7.333 V and v2 ϭ v1 ϩ 2 ϭ Ϫ5.333 V. Note that the 10-⍀ resistor does not make any difference because it is connected across the supernode. 1 v1 2 v2 2V 12 2 A i1 i2 7 A ++ 2A 2Ω 4Ω 7A v1 v2 −− (b) (a) Figure 3.10 Applying: (a) KCL to the supernode, (b) KVL to the loop. Practice Problem 3.3 Find v and i in the circuit of Fig. 3.11. 4Ω 6V Answer: Ϫ400 mV, 2.8 A.14 V +− + i 6Ω 2Ω 3Ω v −Figure 3.11For Practice Prob. 3.3.

3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources 91Find the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 3.12. Example 3.4 3Ω + vx − 20 V 6Ω 3 3vx 2 1 +− +− 4 1Ω 2 Ω 10 A 4Ω Figure 3.12 For Example 3.4.Solution:Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode; so do nodes 3 and 4. We apply KCLto the two supernodes as in Fig. 3.13(a). At supernode 1-2, i3 ϩ 10 ϭ i1 ϩ i2Expressing this in terms of the node voltages, v3 Ϫ v2 ϩ 10 ϭ v1 Ϫ v4 ϩ v1 6 32or 5v1 ϩ v2 Ϫ v3 Ϫ 2v4 ϭ 60 (3.4.1)At supernode 3-4, i1 ϭ i3 ϩ i4 ϩ i5 1 v1 Ϫ v4 ϭ v3 Ϫ v2 ϩ v4 ϩ v3 3 6 14or 4v1 ϩ 2v2 Ϫ 5v3 Ϫ 16v4 ϭ 0 (3.4.2) 3Ω 3Ω + vx − v2 6 Ω v3 + vx − i1 i3 i3 i5 i1 20 V Loop 3 3vx v1 10 A 4 Ω v4 i3 i2 i4 +− +− 2Ω 1Ω + + 6Ω + + v1 Loop 1 v2 v3 Loop 2 v4 −− −− (a) (b) Figure 3.13 Applying: (a) KCL to the two supernodes, (b) KVL to the loops.

92 Chapter 3 Methods of AnalysisWe now apply KVL to the branches involving the voltage sources asshown in Fig. 3.13(b). For loop 1, Ϫv1 ϩ 20 ϩ v2 ϭ 0 1 v1 Ϫ v2 ϭ 20 (3.4.3)For loop 2, Ϫv3 ϩ 3vx ϩ v4 ϭ 0But vx ϭ v1 Ϫ v4 so that 3v1 Ϫ v3 Ϫ 2v4 ϭ 0 (3.4.4)For loop 3, vx Ϫ 3vx ϩ 6i3 Ϫ 20 ϭ 0But 6i3 ϭ v3 Ϫ v2 and vx ϭ v1 Ϫ v4. Hence, Ϫ2v1 Ϫ v2 ϩ v3 ϩ 2v4 ϭ 20 (3.4.5) We need four node voltages, v1, v2, v3, and v4, and it requires onlyfour out of the five Eqs. (3.4.1) to (3.4.5) to find them. Although the fifthequation is redundant, it can be used to check results. We can solveEqs. (3.4.1) to (3.4.4) directly using MATLAB. We can eliminate onenode voltage so that we solve three simultaneous equations instead offour. From Eq. (3.4.3), v2 ϭ v1 Ϫ 20. Substituting this into Eqs. (3.4.1)and (3.4.2), respectively, gives 6v1 Ϫ v3 Ϫ 2v4 ϭ 80 (3.4.6)and 6v1 Ϫ 5v3 Ϫ 16v4 ϭ 40 (3.4.7)Equations (3.4.4), (3.4.6), and (3.4.7) can be cast in matrix form as 3 Ϫ1 Ϫ2 v1 0 £ 6 Ϫ1 Ϫ2 § £ v3 § ϭ £ 80 § 6 Ϫ5 Ϫ16 v4 40Using Cramer’s rule gives 3 Ϫ1 Ϫ2 0 Ϫ1 Ϫ2¢ ϭ † 6 Ϫ1 Ϫ2 † ϭ Ϫ18, ¢1 ϭ † 80 Ϫ1 Ϫ2 † ϭ Ϫ480, 6 Ϫ5 Ϫ16 40 Ϫ5 Ϫ16 3 0 Ϫ2 3 Ϫ1 0 ¢3 ϭ † 6 80 Ϫ2 † ϭ Ϫ3120, ¢4 ϭ † 6 Ϫ1 80 † ϭ 840 6 40 Ϫ16 6 Ϫ5 40Thus, we arrive at the node voltages asv1 ϭ ¢1 ϭ Ϫ480 ϭ 26.67 V, v3 ϭ ¢3 ϭ Ϫ3120 ϭ 173.33 V, ¢ Ϫ18 ¢ Ϫ18 v4 ϭ ¢4 ϭ 840 ϭ Ϫ46.67 V ¢ Ϫ18and v2 ϭ v1 Ϫ 20 ϭ 6.667 V. We have not used Eq. (3.4.5); it can beused to cross check results.

3.4 Mesh Analysis 93Find v1, v2, and v3 in the circuit of Fig. 3.14 using nodal analysis. Practice Problem 3.4Answer: v1 ϭ 7.608 V, v2 ϭ Ϫ17.39 V, v3 ϭ 1.6305 V. 6Ω3.4 Mesh Analysis 25 V 5i+−v3 v1 + − v2 3ΩMesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing cir-cuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables. Using mesh currents i 4Ωinstead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient andreduces the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously. 2ΩRecall that a loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once.A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it. Figure 3.14 For Practice Prob. 3.4. Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a givencircuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents. Mesh analysis is also known as loopMesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is analysis or the mesh-current method.only applicable to a circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is one thatcan be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another; oth- 1Aerwise it is nonplanar. A circuit may have crossing branches and stillbe planar if it can be redrawn such that it has no crossing branches. 2ΩFor example, the circuit in Fig. 3.15(a) has two crossing branches, butit can be redrawn as in Fig. 3.15(b). Hence, the circuit in Fig. 3.15(a) 1Ω 5Ω 6Ω 3Ωis planar. However, the circuit in Fig. 3.16 is nonplanar, because there 4Ωis no way to redraw it and avoid the branches crossing. Nonplanar cir-cuits can be handled using nodal analysis, but they will not be con- 8Ω 7Ωsidered in this text. 1Ω 5Ω 7Ω 2Ω (a) 4Ω 3Ω 1A 6Ω 2Ω 13 Ω 3Ω 4Ω5 A 12 Ω 11 Ω 9Ω 8Ω 1Ω 5Ω 6Ω 10 Ω 8Ω 7ΩFigure 3.16 (b)A nonplanar circuit. Figure 3.15 To understand mesh analysis, we should first explain more about (a) A planar circuit with crossing branches,what we mean by a mesh. (b) the same circuit redrawn with no cross- ing branches.A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

94 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis a I1 R1 b I2 R2 c I3 i2 +− V2 V1 +− i1 R3 fe d Figure 3.17 A circuit with two meshes.Although path abcdefa is a loop and In Fig. 3.17, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but pathnot a mesh, KVL still holds. This is the abcdefa is not a mesh. The current through a mesh is known as meshreason for loosely using the terms current. In mesh analysis, we are interested in applying KVL to findloop analysis and mesh analysis to the mesh currents in a given circuit.mean the same thing. In this section, we will apply mesh analysis to planar circuits that do not contain current sources. In the next section, we will consider circuits with current sources. In the mesh analysis of a circuit with n meshes, we take the following three steps. Steps to Determine Mesh Currents: 1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, p , in to the n meshes. 2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents. 3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.The direction of the mesh current is To illustrate the steps, consider the circuit in Fig. 3.17. The firstarbitrary—(clockwise or counterclock- step requires that mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to meshes 1 andwise)—and does not affect the validity 2. Although a mesh current may be assigned to each mesh in an arbi-of the solution. trary direction, it is conventional to assume that each mesh current flows clockwise.The shortcut way will not apply if onemesh current is assumed clockwise As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVLand the other assumed counter- to mesh 1, we obtainclockwise, although this is permissible. ϪV1 ϩ R1i1 ϩ R3 (i1 Ϫ i2) ϭ 0 or (R1 ϩ R3) i1 Ϫ R3i2 ϭ V1 (3.13) For mesh 2, applying KVL gives R2 i2 ϩ V2 ϩ R3(i2 Ϫ i1) ϭ 0 or ϪR3 i1 ϩ (R2 ϩ R3)i2 ϭ ϪV2 (3.14) Note in Eq. (3.13) that the coefficient of i1 is the sum of the resistances in the first mesh, while the coefficient of i2 is the negative of the resis- tance common to meshes 1 and 2. Now observe that the same is true in Eq. (3.14). This can serve as a shortcut way of writing the mesh equations. We will exploit this idea in Section 3.6.

3.4 Mesh Analysis 95 The third step is to solve for the mesh currents. Putting Eqs. (3.13)and (3.14) in matrix form yieldsc R1 ϩ R3 ϪR3 d c i1 d ϭ c V1 d (3.15)ϪR3 R2 ϩ R3 i2 ϪV2which can be solved to obtain the mesh currents i1 and i2. We are atliberty to use any technique for solving the simultaneous equations.According to Eq. (2.12), if a circuit has n nodes, b branches, and l inde-pendent loops or meshes, then l ϭ b Ϫ n ϩ 1. Hence, l independentsimultaneous equations are required to solve the circuit using meshanalysis. Notice that the branch currents are different from the mesh cur-rents unless the mesh is isolated. To distinguish between the two typesof currents, we use i for a mesh current and I for a branch current. Thecurrent elements I1, I2, and I3 are algebraic sums of the mesh currents.It is evident from Fig. 3.17 thatI1 ϭ i1, I2 ϭ i2, I3 ϭ i1 Ϫ i2 (3.16)For the circuit in Fig. 3.18, find the branch currents I1, I2, and I3 using Example 3.5mesh analysis. I1 5 Ω I2 6 Ω I3Solution: 15 V +− i1 10 Ω 4ΩWe first obtain the mesh currents using KVL. For mesh 1, (3.5.1) i2 Ϫ15 ϩ 5i1 ϩ 10(i1 Ϫ i2) ϩ 10 ϭ 0 (3.5.2) +− 10 Vor Figure 3.18 3i1 Ϫ 2i2 ϭ 1 For Example 3.5.For mesh 2, 6i2 ϩ 4i2 ϩ 10(i2 Ϫ i1) Ϫ 10 ϭ 0or i1 ϭ 2i2 Ϫ 1■ METHOD 1 Using the substitution method, we substituteEq. (3.5.2) into Eq. (3.5.1), and write 6i2 Ϫ 3 Ϫ 2i2 ϭ 1 1 i2 ϭ 1 AFrom Eq. (3.5.2), i1 ϭ 2i2 Ϫ 1 ϭ 2 Ϫ 1 ϭ 1 A. Thus, I1 ϭ i1 ϭ 1 A, I2 ϭ i2 ϭ 1 A, I3 ϭ i1 Ϫ i2 ϭ 0■ METHOD 2 To use Cramer’s rule, we cast Eqs. (3.5.1) and(3.5.2) in matrix form asc 3 Ϫ2 d c i1 d ϭ c 1 dϪ1 2 i2 1

96 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis We obtain the determinants 3 Ϫ2 ` ϭ 6 Ϫ 2 ϭ 4 ¢ ϭ ` Ϫ1 2 1 Ϫ2 31 ¢1 ϭ ` ` ϭ 2 ϩ 2 ϭ 4, ¢2 ϭ ` Ϫ1 ` ϭ3ϩ1ϭ4 1 2 1 Thus, i1 ϭ ¢1 ϭ 1 A, i2 ϭ ¢2 ϭ 1 A ¢ ¢ as before.Practice Problem 3.5 Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 of the circuit of Fig. 3.19. Answer: i1 ϭ 2.5 A, i2 ϭ 0 A. 2Ω 9Ω45 V +− i1 12 Ω +− 30 V i2 4Ω 3ΩFigure 3.19For Practice Prob. 3.5.Example 3.6 Use mesh analysis to find the current Io in the circuit of Fig. 3.20. Solution: We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn. For mesh 1, Ϫ24 ϩ 10 (i1 Ϫ i2 ) ϩ 12 (i1 Ϫ i3) ϭ 0 i1 A i2 or Io 11i1 Ϫ 5i2 Ϫ 6i3 ϭ 12 (3.6.1) i2 (3.6.2) 10 Ω 24 Ω For mesh 2,24 V +− 4Ω 24i2 ϩ 4 (i2 Ϫ i3) ϩ 10 (i2 Ϫ i1) ϭ 0 i1 or 12 Ω i3 + 4Io Ϫ5i1 ϩ 19i2 Ϫ 2i3 ϭ 0 −Figure 3.20 For mesh 3,For Example 3.6. 4Io ϩ 12(i3 Ϫ i1) ϩ 4(i3 Ϫ i2) ϭ 0

3.4 Mesh Analysis 97But at node A, Io ϭ i1 Ϫ i2, so that (3.6.3) 4(i1 Ϫ i2) ϩ 12(i3 Ϫ i1) ϩ 4(i3 Ϫ i2) ϭ 0or Ϫi1 Ϫ i2 ϩ 2i3 ϭ 0In matrix form, Eqs. (3.6.1) to (3.6.3) become 11 Ϫ5 Ϫ6 i1 12 £ Ϫ5 19 Ϫ2 § £ i2 § ϭ £ 0 § Ϫ1 Ϫ1 2 i3 0We obtain the determinants as 11 Ϫ5 Ϫ6 Ϫ5 19 Ϫ2 ¢ ϭ 5 Ϫ1 Ϫ1 2 5 Ϫ 11 Ϫ5 Ϫ6 ϩ Ϫ Ϫ5 19 Ϫ2 ϩ Ϫϩ ϭ 418 Ϫ 30 Ϫ 10 Ϫ 114 Ϫ 22 Ϫ 50 ϭ 192 12 Ϫ5 Ϫ6 0 19 Ϫ2 ¢1 ϭ 5 0 Ϫ1 2 5 ϭ 456 Ϫ 24 ϭ 432 Ϫ 12 Ϫ5 Ϫ6 ϩ Ϫ 0 19 Ϫ2 ϩ Ϫϩ 11 12 Ϫ6 Ϫ5 0 Ϫ2 ¢2 ϭ 5 Ϫ1 0 2 5 ϭ 24 ϩ 120 ϭ 144 Ϫ 11 12 Ϫ6 ϩ Ϫ Ϫ5 0 Ϫ2 ϩ Ϫϩ 11 Ϫ5 12 Ϫ5 19 0 ¢3 ϭ 5 Ϫ1 Ϫ1 0 5 ϭ 60 ϩ 228 ϭ 288 Ϫ 11 Ϫ5 12 ϩ Ϫ Ϫ5 19 0 ϩ ϪϩWe calculate the mesh currents using Cramer’s rule asi1 ϭ ¢1 ϭ 432 ϭ 2.25 A, i2 ϭ ¢2 ϭ 144 ϭ 0.75 A, ¢ 192 ¢ 192 i3 ϭ ¢3 ϭ 288 ϭ 1.5 A ¢ 192Thus, Io ϭ i1 Ϫ i2 ϭ 1.5 A.

98 Chapter 3 Methods of AnalysisPractice Problem 3.6 Using mesh analysis, find Io in the circuit of Fig. 3.21. Answer: Ϫ4 A. 6ΩIo i3 4Ω 8Ω16 V +− i1 2Ω – 10io 3.5 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources i2 + Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependentFigure 3.21 or independent) may appear complicated. But it is actually much easierFor Practice Prob. 3.6. than what we encountered in the previous section, because the presence of the current sources reduces the number of equations. Consider the following two possible cases. 4Ω 3Ω ■ CASE 1 When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider10 V +− i1 6 Ω i2 the circuit in Fig. 3.22, for example. We set i2 ϭ Ϫ5 A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is,Figure 3.22A circuit with a current source. 5A Ϫ10 ϩ 4i1 ϩ 6(i1 Ϫ i2) ϭ 0 1 i1 ϭ Ϫ2 A (3.17) ■ CASE 2 When a current source exists between two meshes: Con- sider the circuit in Fig. 3.23(a), for example. We create a supermesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it, as shown in Fig. 3.23(b). Thus, A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or inde- pendent) current source in common. 6Ω 10 Ω i2 4 Ω 6Ω 10 Ω i2 4 Ω 20 V +− i1 2Ω 20 V +− i1 6A i1 0 i2 (b) (a) Exclude these elements Figure 3.23 (a) Two meshes having a current source in common, (b) a supermesh, created by excluding the current source. As shown in Fig. 3.23(b), we create a supermesh as the periphery of the two meshes and treat it differently. (If a circuit has two or more supermeshes that intersect, they should be combined to form a larger supermesh.) Why treat the supermesh differently? Because mesh analy- sis applies KVL—which requires that we know the voltage across each branch—and we do not know the voltage across a current source in advance. However, a supermesh must satisfy KVL like any other mesh. Therefore, applying KVL to the supermesh in Fig. 3.23(b) gives Ϫ20 ϩ 6i1 ϩ 10i2 ϩ 4i2 ϭ 0

3.5 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources 99or Example 3.7 6i1 ϩ 14i2 ϭ 20 (3.18)We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes inter-sect. Applying KCL to node 0 in Fig. 3.23(a) gives i2 ϭ i1 ϩ 6 (3.19)Solving Eqs. (3.18) and (3.19), we get i1 ϭ Ϫ3.2 A, i2 ϭ 2.8 A (3.20) Note the following properties of a supermesh:1. The current source in the supermesh provides the constraint equa- tion necessary to solve for the mesh currents.2. A supermesh has no current of its own.3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.For the circuit in Fig. 3.24, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis. 2Ω i1 i1 4Ω 2Ω Io P 3Io i3 8 Ω i4 +− 10 V 5A i2 i2 6Ω Q i3 i2 Figure 3.24 For Example 3.7.Solution:Note that meshes 1 and 2 form a supermesh since they have anindependent current source in common. Also, meshes 2 and 3 formanother supermesh because they have a dependent current source incommon. The two supermeshes intersect and form a larger supermeshas shown. Applying KVL to the larger supermesh, 2i1 ϩ 4i3 ϩ 8(i3 Ϫ i4) ϩ 6i2 ϭ 0or i1 ϩ 3i2 ϩ 6i3 Ϫ 4i4 ϭ 0 (3.7.1)For the independent current source, we apply KCL to node P: i2 ϭ i1 ϩ 5 (3.7.2)For the dependent current source, we apply KCL to node Q: i2 ϭ i3 ϩ 3Io

100 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis But Io ϭ Ϫi4, hence, (3.7.3) i2 ϭ i3 Ϫ 3i4 (3.7.4) Applying KVL in mesh 4, i4 ϭ 2.143 A 2i4 ϩ 8(i4 Ϫ i3) ϩ 10 ϭ 0 or 5i4 Ϫ 4i3 ϭ Ϫ5 From Eqs. (3.7.1) to (3.7.4), i1 ϭ Ϫ7.5 A, i2 ϭ Ϫ2.5 A, i3 ϭ 3.93 A,Practice Problem 3.7 Use mesh analysis to determine i1, i2, and i3 in Fig. 3.25. Answer: i1 ϭ 4.632 A, i2 ϭ 631.6 mA, i3 ϭ 1.4736 A. 2 Ω i3 2 Ω8 V +− i1 4 A 4Ω 1 Ω i2 8 Ω 3.6 Nodal and Mesh Analyses by InspectionFigure 3.25 This section presents a generalized procedure for nodal or mesh analy-For Practice Prob. 3.7. sis. It is a shortcut approach based on mere inspection of a circuit. I2 When all sources in a circuit are independent current sources, we v1 G2 v2 do not need to apply KCL to each node to obtain the node-voltage I1 G1 G3 equations as we did in Section 3.2. We can obtain the equations by mere inspection of the circuit. As an example, let us reexamine the cir- cuit in Fig. 3.2, shown again in Fig. 3.26(a) for convenience. The circuit has two nonreference nodes and the node equations were derived in Section 3.2 as c G1 ϩ G2 ϪG2 d c v1 d ϭ c I1 Ϫ I2 d (3.21) ϪG2 G2 ϩ G3 v2 I2 (a) Observe that each of the diagonal terms is the sum of the conductances R1 R2 connected directly to node 1 or 2, while the off-diagonal terms are the negatives of the conductances connected between the nodes. Also, eachV1 +− i1 R3 i3 +− V2 term on the right-hand side of Eq. (3.21) is the algebraic sum of the currents entering the node. In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N non- reference nodes, the node-voltage equations can be written in terms of the conductances as G11 G12 p G1N v1 i1 (b) ≥ G21 G22 p G2N ¥ ≥ v2 ¥ ϭ ≥ i2 ¥ (3.22)Figure 3.26 o oo o o o(a) The circuit in Fig. 3.2, (b) the circuitin Fig. 3.17. GN1 GN2 p GNN vN iN