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Organisational Resistance Change is resisted at the organisational level, which is referred to as organisational resistance. Some organisations are built in such a way that they oppose new ideas; this is especially true with conservative organisations. Even if there is a need for change in their services, government agencies want to keep doing what they have been doing for years. The majority of educational institutions continue to use essentially the same instructional technologies as they did fifty years ago. The majority of companies are also averse to change. The following are the primary causes of organisational resistance: 1. Threat to Power: Change is typically viewed as a danger to top management’s power and influence in the organisation, and as a result, change will be opposed. The introduction of participatory decision making or self-managed work teams is the type of change that middle and upper management often sees as worrisome. Furthermore, they will never support measures that boost the position of labour unions. 2. Group Inertia: Individuals may resist change as a result of the group to which they belong resisting it. The degree and force of resistance will be determined by one’s loyalty to the group and the effectiveness with which the group rejects the change. Members of a group are generally impacted by the group’s codes, practises, and attitudes. In India, labour’s collective resistance to rationalisation is an example of group resistance. 3. Organisational Structure: Change is sometimes resisted by bureaucratic systems, which have strictly defined roles, clearly defined lines of power, and a strong emphasis on information flow from top to bottom. Furthermore, because organisations are made up of a number of interrelated subsystems, one system’s modification will have an impact on the others. 4. Threat to Specialisations: Changes in organisational structure may jeopardise specialised groups’ expertise. Giving computer training to all employees and providing personal computers, for example, was viewed as a danger by professionals in the organisation’s computer department. 5. Resource Constraints: Organisations require sufficient financial resources to train change agents and reward Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 101

individuals who support the change process. Change is typically resisted by an organisation that lacks the resources to accomplish it. 6. Sunk Costs: Top management often opposes the shift since it often results in the problem of sunk costs. If the modification is implemented, the substantial capital that has already been invested in fixed assets or the amount that has already been spent on personnel training will be wasted. Resistance to Organisational Change If the change is believed or perceived to be a threat to the individual or the group, resistance to change can have the following negative consequences: a. Implicit defensive behaviour, such as a loss of business loyalty, a lack of motivation to work, a consistent decline in productivity, excessive absenteeism, sullen anger, an increase in errors, and so on. b. Overt acts of defiance, such as civil disobedience, strikes, work slowdowns, or forceful unionism. Due to these indicators of resistance, management will need to take an active and constructive role in persuading all employees that the change will be beneficial to all parties involved. Overcoming Resistance to Change Problem of overcoming resistance to change can be handled at two levels: i. At the individual level. ii. At the group level through group dynamics. As every individual is a member of some organisation, both at the formal and informal levels, both of these efforts are complementary, and they may overlap at times. Efforts at the Individual Level The following tactics can be used by management to overcome people’s reluctance to change and successfully implement it: 1. Participation and Involvement: Individuals will have a hard time resisting the changes in which they were involved. All those who will be affected by the change can be included in the decision-making process prior to making a change. To get their participation, their Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 102

doubts and objections must be overcome. Getting people’s thoughts out in the open so they may be considered and analysed is a vital step toward creating trust. Workers’ participation can help overcome opposition, gain personal commitment, and improve the quality of change decisions. However, this procedure may consume a significant amount of time and may result in suboptimal results. 2. Effective Communication: Inadequate or incorrect information might contribute to change aversion. This reluctance can be overcome with the help of a good communication programme. Training classes, workshops, and conferences can provide workers with the necessary understanding about the change, its process, and how it works. The reasons for the change must be stated in a clear and unambiguous manner. Fear of unknown components can be alleviated by communication. Management should also ensure that there is two-way communication between management and workers, so that the former is informed of the latter’s reactions immediately. All of this will aid in persuading employees of the importance of change, and if convinced, they may actively desire the change. 3. Facilitation and Support: To overcome opposition, change agents might provide facilitation and supportive efforts. Facilitative support entails removing physical barriers to change implementation through the provision of proper training, equipment, and machinery, among other things. Listening, providing instruction, allowing time off after a difficult period, and providing emotional support are all examples of supportive efforts. During times of stress and pressure, emotional support is supplied through expressing personal concern for the personnel. The disadvantage of this strategy is that it takes time and money to implement, and there is no guarantee that it will work. 4. Leadership: In order to overcome resistance to change, leadership is critical. A capable leader can reinforce a physical milieu of change support. The stronger the influence of the individual serving as a change agent on the employees involved in the change process, the larger the prestige and credibility of the person functioning as a change agent. On accomplish the necessary change, a strong and effective leader might apply emotional pressure to his subordinates. The majority of the time, there is no resistance from the subordinates, and if there is, the leader uses the leadership process to overcome the resistance. 5. Negotiation and Agreement: When costs and benefits must be balanced for the advantage of all parties involved, the negotiation and agreement process is utilised. If persons or groups stand to lose anything significant as a result of the change, and Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 103

if they have the power to effectively reject it. Negotiations prior to implementation can make the transition go much more smoothly, even if challenges develop later on and the negotiated agreement is introduced. 6. Manipulation and Cooptation: When other techniques aren’t working or aren’t available, this approach is employed. To overcome resistance, managers might use information, resources, and favours to their advantage. They can also use cooptation, which entails enlisting the help of an individual, possibly a crucial member of a group, by assigning him a desirable position in the design or implementation of the change process. This method is questionable in terms of ethics, and it may also backfire in some circumstances. 7. Coercion: If all other approaches fail or are unacceptable for any reason, managers may resort to coercion. Threats of job termination, lack of promotion, and other forms of coercion may be made explicitly or implicitly. Employees that resist change are occasionally fired or transferred by their bosses. Coercion can have a negative impact on employee attitudes and have long-term implications. 8. Timing of Change: The order in which a change is implemented can have a significant impact on resistance. When the timing is ripe, there will be less resistance. As a result, management must exercise extreme caution when deciding when the organisational climate is most conducive to change. A good illustration of the proper moment is just after a significant improvement in working circumstances. Efforts at the Group Level A group is a collection of people who are linked together by mutual interests over time. Members of the group engage with one another and establish a sense of group cohesion. That is why, while individual transformation is possible, it is more impactful when done in a social setting. As a result, management should focus on the group rather than the person as the fundamental unit of change. In this aspect, group dynamics can be useful. Darwin Cartwright has identified the following characteristics of group as a means of overcoming resistance to change: • If both the change agent and the people target for change belong to the same group, the role of group is more effective. • If the people have more cohesiveness and strong belonging to the group, change is easier to achieve. • The more attractive the group is to the members, the greater is the influence of the group to accept or resist a change. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 104

• Group can exert more pressure on those factors of the members which are responsible for the group being attractive to the members. Normally attitudes, values and behaviour are more common factors determining the group attractiveness. • The degree of prestige of a group, as interpreted by the members will determine the degree of influence the group has over its members. • If any attempt is made to change any individual or some individuals which deviates the group norms there is likelihood of the change attempt being resisted by the group. As a result, management should view the group as the fundamental unit of change. Group interactions should be promoted, and management should supply complete information. The management should also explain the rationale for the change and strive to persuade the group members that their interests will not be harmed. Group dynamics also aid in the development of various change acceptance and implementation training programmes. 7.6 Change Process Any organisational change, whether it is implemented through a new structural design, new technology, or a new training programme, aims to modify employees’ behaviour. It is, since unless the members’ behaviour patterns change, the adjustment will have little impact on the organisation’s effectiveness. It is unlikely that behavioural changes will occur overnight. These are the most challenging and time-consuming exercises. Kurt Lewin proposed a three-phase procedure for bringing about change in people, which he described as “unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.” Lewin’s model is a useful tool for comprehending the organisation’s change process. 1. Unfreezing The term “unfreezing” refers to the process of discarding outdated ideas and attitudes in order to make room for new ones. It refers to informing people that their current behaviour is incorrect, irrelevant, and insufficient, and hence unsuited for the changing demands of the current scenario. The organisation’s management fosters an environment in which people are self-motivated to engage in new discourses and practises. According to Edgar Schien the following elements are necessary during this unfreezing phase: • The physical removal of the individuals, being changed, from their accustomed routines, sources of information and social relationships. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 105

• The undermining and destruction of social support. • Demeaning and humiliating experience to help individuals, being changed, to see their old attitudes or behaviour as unworthy and think to be motivated to change. • The consistent linking of reward with willingness to change and of punishment with unwillingness to change. • Unfreezing entails abandoning orthodox and conventional tactics in favour of adopting dynamic, situation-appropriate behaviour. By abandoning the old method of doing things. People are forced to accept new options. 2. Changing Unlike unfreezing, changing does not involve uprooting old beliefs; rather, old ideas and habits are progressively replaced by new ones. It’s the stage when you’re learning something new. It is not enough to recognise that one’s current behaviour is ineffective in order to change. To fill the vacuum caused by the unfreezing period, numerous behaviour alternatives must be made available. Individuals learn to behave in new ways throughout the shifting phase, and they are given a variety of options from which to choose the best one. This changing phase is explained by Kelman in terms of the following factors. • Compliance: Compliance occurs when individuals are forced to change either by rewards or by punishment. • Internalisation: Internalisation occurs when individuals are forced to encounter a situation and calls for new behaviour. • Identification: Identification occurs when individuals recognize one among various models provided in the environment that is most suitable to their personality. 3. Refreezing Refreezing is a common occurrence on the job. Old ideas are completely abandoned, while new ones are enthusiastically adopted. Attitudes, skills, and knowledge are reinforced. Individuals internalise the new beliefs, feelings, and behaviours learnt during the change phase during this phase. He practises and explores with the new way of behaving and notices that it gels in well with his existing habits. It is critical for the worried management to picture that the new behaviour would not fade away quickly. Ferster and Skinner introduced the two basic reinforcement schedules, continuous and intermittent reinforcements, in this context. Individuals acquire new behaviours quickly when Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 106

they get consistent reinforcement. However, one big risk of reinforcement is that the new behaviour would fade away quickly. Intermittent reinforcement, on the other hand, takes a long time to complete but has the greatest benefit of assuring long-term improvement. 7.7 Change Agents Every organisation requires change agents to plan for change. These are the people in charge of initiating and managing organisational transformation. Change agents act as catalysts for change. They are experts in the philosophy and practise of change management. Change agents may also assist management in recognising and defining the problem or need for change, as well as developing and evaluating potential action plans. A member of the organisation or an outsider, such as a consultant, can act as a change agent. Internal change agents are likely to be familiar with the organisation’s people, jobs, and political situations, which can help evaluate data and comprehend the system. They have the capacity, expertise, and experience to lead others through changes and growth. However, an insider may be too close to a situation to see it objectively at times. In addition, a regular employee will be relieved of his duties in order to focus on the changeover. The external change agent may see the organisation in need of change from a complete systems perspective and is less influenced by organisational norms. He’ll most likely have easy access to the company’s upper executives. As the consultant was hired at the request of upper management. Consultants with specialised expertise of change theory and practises are hired by top executives. Insiders may not be able to provide a more objective perspective than consultants. Experts from outside the organisation, on the other hand, are unfamiliar with the internal context. As a result, they are unable to properly manage the changes. Because external experts are unaware of the employees’ desires and attitudes, the changes they propose are resisted by the employees. Unless the change agent is a member of top management, the power to effect change must come from somewhere other than the organisation’s hierarchical position and legitimate authority. Although senior management support is critical, it is insufficient. For the change agent, Michael Beer recommends five sources of power: • Members of the client organisation give the change agent a high status because they believe the change agent is similar to them in terms of behaviour, language, values, and so on. • Having faith in the change agent is based on his consistent handling of information and ability to play a proper role in the organisation. • Expertise in the field of organisational change management. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 107

• Credibility was established based on previous client experience and previous projects with the client organisation. • Internal dissatisfied constituencies who regard change agents as the best opportunity to transform the organisation to satisfy their requirements. 7.8 Change Options What is it that a change agent can affect? The change agents have the ability to alter four subject areas. Structure, technology, people, and the physical environment are the four elements. The following points are covered in greater depth: i. Structure The way tasks are explicitly divided, categorised, and coordinated defines an organisation’s structure. Modifications in the environment necessitate structural changes. As a result, the change agent may need to alter the structure of the organisation. Attitude change, plant layout changes, and new techniques can only succeed if the structure is adjusted to match the changing environment. Changes in authority, responsibility, functions, and performance are made in response to the changing needs. The adjustments are absorbed using a matrix design. Change agents can change one or more essential parts of an organisation’s design, or they might make significant changes to the structure itself. They might think about reorganising their occupations or work schedules. Another alternative is to change the company’s pay scheme. ii. Technology Technological transformation is also managed under change management. Technological innovation is the introduction of new equipment and work processes. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, automation and computerization have become commonplace change processes. New tools and strategies are introduced by change agents. Technology invented efficient equipment and machine handling. In the twenty-first century, computerization has altered work culture. As a result, major technical shifts entail the introduction of new equipment, tools, or processes, as well as automation and computerization. iii. People Communication, decision-making, and problem-solving processes are used to change the Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 108

attitudes and behaviour of organisational members in this area. Individuals and groups inside the organisation can operate more successfully together with the support of change agents. They motivate people to change in order to adapt to the changing environment. If employees establish a positive attitude and behaviour to make the changes a success, the adjustments will be fruitful. The change agents will not be able to ensure the change process unless the employees approve it. There is stress or tension when there is a lack of consensus among the workforce. iv. Physical Setting Under the physical setting, change agents decide on space layouts, interior design, equipment placement, plan layout, and tool organisation. When implementing such modifications, management carefully analyses job demands, formal contact requirements, and social needs. The improvements made in these circumstances are beneficial to the growth of the organisation. Information, flow process, flow, and outcome are all considered in the physical setting. The effectiveness of modifications is enhanced by the fluidity of the flow. To mobilise the effectiveness of the settings, working environments are adjusted, designed, and redesigned. Regardless of whether the change agents are internal or external, the basic objectives of change agents are to promote effectiveness, individual performance, and satisfaction. Change agents act as a researcher, counsellor, case analyst, and professionally qualified buddy. The organisation, under the supervision of the change agents, implements the change using Lewin’s unfreeze, change, and refreeze method. The change agent and the top management group examine the degree to which the change is having the desired effect in the final step, evaluation and control. That is, progress toward the change’s goals is tracked, and if necessary, adjustments are made. Action Research Another perspective on the organisational change process is action research. It is an organisational transformation process based on a research model, specifically one that contributes to the improvement of the sponsoring organisation as well as the progress of organisational knowledge in general. The change agent in Action Research is typically an outsider who is involved in the entire change process, from diagnosis through evaluation. The conventional change agent is called in to make a specific change, whereas this person frequently contracts with the sponsoring organisation to conduct organisational study. Action Research is a scientific strategy for Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 109

managing change that is well-intentioned. The five steps of the Action Research process are outlined below: i. Diagnosis: The change agent begins by gathering information from members of the organisation regarding problems, worries, and desired adjustments. Questions are asked, interviews are conducted, records are reviewed, and personnel are listened to. The diagnostic will assist the agent in determining what is causing the organisation’s problems. ii. Analysis: In this stage, the data acquired in the previous step is analysed. The constancy of problem types and patterns are investigated. This data is broken down into primary issues, problem areas, and potential solutions. iii. Feedback: The change agent will discuss what they discovered in steps one and two with the staff in this step. Employees will be actively involved in any change programme as a result of this. In determining the nature of the problem and how to solve it. The change agent, in collaboration with the workforce, creates action plans for implementing any necessary changes. iv. Action: In this step, the action plans agreed in the previous step are put into action. Employees and the change agent carry out the precise steps required to address the identified issues. v. Evaluation: The change agent examines the effectiveness of the action plans in the final step, as action research provides a scientific framework for managing planned change. Any subsequent adjustments can be compared and assessed using the initial data as a standard. Action research is a crucial part of the Image Source: www.freepik.com transformation process. It’s a problem-solving approach. The change agent seeks out issues and decides on a course of action based on those issues. Employees’ aversion to change is minimised when they are actively participating in the change process. Both the organisation and the researcher can benefit from an evaluation of the organisation and any modifications made to improve it during a period of change. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 110

7.9 Human Reactions to Change The human reaction to a change is not always logical. In general, it relies on how a change will impact one’s demands and pleasure at work. We can conclude that attitudes play a significant role in determining change resistance since an employee’s view of the anticipated impact of change is influenced by his attitudes. As we all know, attitudes are not usually based on reasoning, but rather on something altogether else. Therefore, there is a very close relationship between change and human attitudes. The reactions to change may occur in any of the following forms: 1. Acceptance: Not all changes are met with resistance. When an employee believes that a change will benefit him, he will accept it. For example, if workers must stand in front of a machine for the whole of their shift, they will appreciate the arrival of a new machine that allows them to sit while working. As a result, their reluctance to change is counterbalanced by their desire for better working conditions. People sometimes want change and fresh experiences because they are tired of the same old routines and procedures. 2. Resistance: When a person believes that the impacts of change will be unfavourable to him, even if this is not the case, he will attempt to protect himself by resisting the change. The term “resistance” refers to a person’s objection to change Human resistance to change can take many different forms: a. Hostility or aggression is a person’s first reaction to change. Hostility can be communicated verbally, but when aggression and hostility are mixed, the result is a more intense character that can assume physical manifestations. b. The individual may get dissatisfied with his work. As long as the individual’s interest is aligned with the group’s, materials will deteriorate, time will be wasted, and performance will suffer. c. Lateness and absenteeism, as well as signals of resistance. d. An increase in employee worry and tension is a strong symptom of resistance. As a result, the employee feels uneasy, unstable, and nervous while performing his duties Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 111

e. There are further symptoms of resistance at the group level. Strikes and showdowns are common signs of group opposition. “Restriction of output” is another tactic for group opposition. In some circumstances, resistance to change is logical and appropriate. People may not be opposed to change per se, but they may be opposed to the agent of change or the mechanism of implementation. 3. Indifference: Two extreme reactions to change are acceptance and resistance. Employees may fail to see the impact of change, or some individuals may believe that they would be unaffected by the change. They will be unconcerned about change in each of these circumstances. 4. Forced acceptance: People can oppose change in the early phases, but if change forces outnumber resistance forces, people must embrace the change. This is referred to as forced acceptance, or when people are forced to accept a change. The reactions described above are not rare. Any alteration that has the potential to throw a person’s adjusted alignment with the environment off. That was noticed by Keith Davis. “People form a system of relationships with their surroundings. They learn how to communicate with one another, how to accomplish their duties, and what to expect next. Equilibrium exists; individuals adjust when change occurs; yet, as the organisation seeks a new equilibrium, individuals must make fresh adjustments. The organisation is in a state of disequilibrium when employees are unable to make adequate adaptations to changes that occur. The overarching human relations goal of management in the face of change is to establish and maintain the group equilibrium and personal adjustment that change disrupts.” To sum up, an organisation may be forced to change, or it may change in reaction to the environment or a need within the organisation. Because the actual world is tumultuous, organisations and their members must undergo dynamic change if they are to function at competitive levels, adjustments must be effectively planned and members must be properly prepared to accept these changes joyfully. Job Redesign: Quality of Work Life and Job Enrichment Many issues arose as a result of traditional employment design. There was an overreliance on rules, regulations, and hierarchy, as well as an excessive division of labour. Because their highly specialised employment eroded their community of interest in the entire product, Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 112

workers became socially alienated from their coworkers. Workers who were confined to their desks lost pride in their work and became dissatisfied with their jobs. Higher-order (social and growth) requirements were not met. As a result, there was more turnover and absenteeism, worse quality, and disgruntled employees. As workers attempted to better their working circumstances and organisations failed to respond effectively, conflict developed frequently. As a result of this circumstance, management tightened controls, increased oversight, and organised more tightly. Despite the fact that these steps were intended to ameliorate the situation, they really worsened it by further dehumanising the task. Management made a frequent mistake of treating symptoms rather than recognising and addressing the root causes of the issues. The true reason for this was that many jobs were just unsatisfactory. For some employees, a strange condition arose in which the more they worked, the less satisfied they became. As a result, the motivation to labour has waned. The fact that the workers themselves were changing was one factor contributing to the situation. They became more educated, prosperous (due in part to the effectiveness of traditional job design), and self-sufficient. They began to look for higher-order wants, something more than just a way to make a living. Classical design may be effective for a poor, uneducated, and sometimes illiterate work force, but it is less fit for the emerging work force in educated and industrialised countries. Job and organisational design had fallen behind sweeping shifts in worker goals and attitudes. Employers now had two reasons for redesigning jobs and organisations for a better QWL. • Classical design originally gave inadequate attention to human needs. • The needs and aspirations of workers themselves were changing. Options Available Several options for solving these problems were available to management: • Leave the job alone and hire only those who enjoy the rigid setting and routine specialisation of traditional design. Not all workers dislike this type of employment; in fact, some may enjoy it because of the added security and task assistance it gives. • Leave the job alone, but pay the workers more to make them more accepting of the situation. Because traditional design frequently generates a profit, management can afford to split the profit with employees. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 113

• Automate and mechanise regular jobs so that people who are dissatisfied with their specialised jobs are no longer required. Allow industrial robots to handle the mundane tasks. • Redesign employment to include the qualities that people want, and restructure organisations to include the environment that people want. This strategy aims to improve QWL. While any of the four options may be effective in some circumstances, the last option has piqued the interest of both employers and employees. There is a need to provide workers with more of a challenge, a complete assignment, and more opportunities to use their creativity. A more humanised work atmosphere can be achieved by paying close attention to QWL. It tries to meet workers’ higher-order requirements as well as their more basic needs. It aims to employ workers with greater talents and to provide an environment that encourages them to improve their abilities. Human resources should be developed rather than just utilised, according to the theory. Furthermore, the work environment should not be overly hostile. It should not place unnecessary strain on employees. It should not harm or diminish their humanity. It should not be menacing or hazardous in any way. Finally, it should enhance, or at the very least not harm, the worker’s ability to perform other life responsibilities such as citizen, husband, and parent. Quality of Work Life The phrase “work quality” refers to how well something is done. By humanising labour, individualising organisations, and transforming structural and management systems, Life strives to change the overall organisational climate. It takes into account the employees’ socio-psychological requirements. It aims to instil in organisations a work-commitment culture that will result in increased productivity and job happiness for employees. The suitability or unsuitability of an organisation’s work environment for its employees is referred to as quality of work life. It is a broad phrase that encompasses a person’s feelings about all aspects of his or her employment, including financial incentives and rewards, job security, working conditions, organisational and interpersonal relationships, and so on. For different people, the term QWL means different things. The following are some key definitions of QWL: Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 114

According to Harrison “QWL is the degree to which work in an organisation contributes to material and psychological well being of its members.” According to D.S.Cohan “QWL is a process of joint decision making, collaborations and building mutual respect between management and employees.” According to the American Society of Training and Development “QWL is a process of work organisation which enables its members at all levels to participate actively and effectively in shaping the organisations’ environment, methods and outcomes. It is a value based process which is aimed towards meeting the twin goals of enhanced effectiveness of the organisation and improved quality of life at work for the employees”. Employee productivity is influenced by QWL. Researchers have found that good QWL leads to happier, healthier employees on both a psychological and physical level. To abridge, QWL is the extent to which an organisation’s employees are able to meet their personal requirements as a result of their work experience. Its fundamental goal is to establish a work atmosphere in which employees collaborate and contribute to the organisation’s goals. Scope of QWL Workplace quality is a multifaceted concept. Organisations must meet the following needs, according to the workers: 1. Compensation: Work should be rewarded in a way that is both above and equal to the minimum level of living. Between effort and reward, there should be a just and equitable balance. 2. Health and Safety: The working environment Image Source: www.freepik.com should be free of all dangers that endanger the employees’ health and safety. Reasonable work hours, cleanliness, a pollution-free workplace, and risk-free employment are all important aspects of a suitable physical environment for work. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 115

3. Job Security: Job security should be provided by the company. Employees should not have to worry about their employment and income security in the future. 4. Job Design: Job design should be capable of serving the needs of both the organisation and the individual in terms of gratifying and fascinating employment. The quality of life at work can be increased if the job gives you enough autonomy and control, gives you timely feedback on your performance, and requires you to employ a diverse set of talents. 5. Social Integration: Workers should be able to acquire a sense of self-esteem and a sense of belonging to the organisation. This includes eliminating discrimination and individualism while supporting the formation of teams and social groups. 6. Social Relevance of Work: Work should be a source of not only material and psychological fulfilment, but also of social wellbeing. The quality of work life can be improved by an organisation that is more concerned with social issues. 7. Scope for Better Career Opportunities: Employees should have access to facilities that allow them to improve their academic and non-academic skills. Human resources should constantly be considered by management as a means of expanding and developing the organisation. Principles of QWL According to N.Q.Herrick and M.Maccoby there are four basic principles, which will humanise work and improve the QWL: 1. The Principle of Security: Employees’ quality of work cannot be improved unless they are free of anxiety, fear, and the threat of losing their jobs in the future. Working conditions must be safe, and the threat of economic hardship must be removed. The humanisation of work necessitates job stability and protection from occupational dangers. 2. The Principle of Equity: The relationship between effort and reward should be direct and positive. Discrimination of any kind between those doing similar job and performing at the same level must be eradicated. Equity also necessitates a split of the company’s revenues. 3. The Principle of individualism: Employees differ in terms of attitudes, abilities, and potential. As a result, every individual should be given the chance to develop his or her individuality and potential. Employees must be permitted to choose their own speed and Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 116

design of work operations as part of the humanisation of work. 4. The Principle of Democracy: Employees will have more authority and responsibility as a result of this. Participating in the decision-making process in a meaningful way improves the quality of one’s work life. Techniques for Improving QWL The work-life balance movement is very new and has a long way to go. To improve the quality of life for the country’s millions of employees, both individual and collective actions are required. The following are some of the approaches tried to improve the QWL: 1. Flexible Work Schedules: Employees should be able to adjust their work schedules as needed. Employees may have alternative work schedules such as flexi time, staggered hours, reduced work week, and so on. Flexi time refers to a system of flexible working hours in which distinct groups of employees start and finish work at different times. A compressed work week is working longer hours per day on fewer days per week. 2. Job Redesign: The quality of occupations can be improved by revamping or enriching them. It aims to give people with employment that is engaging, intriguing, stimulating, and demanding. It aids in meeting the needs of employees at a greater level. 3. Opportunity for Development: For ambitious and goal-oriented professionals, career advancement is critical. Employees will be highly motivated and their devotion to the organisation will grow if they are given possibilities for advancement and growth. 4. Autonomous Work Groups: Self-managed work teams are another name for autonomous work groups. Employees in such groupings are allowed to make their own decisions. They are in charge of planning, organising, and directing the activities of their respective groups. The success or failure of the groupings is also their responsibility. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 117

5. Employee’s Participation in Management: People in the company should be able to have a say in management choices that influence their life. Quality circles, management by objectives, suggestion systems, and other types of employee involvement in management all contribute to increase QWL. 6. Job Security: Employees seek employment security. Employees’ QWL will be greatly improved if they have adequate work stability. 7. Equitable Justice: Discipline, grievance procedures, promotions, transfers, and job assignments should all follow the notion of equitable administrative justice. At any point, partiality and bias can demotivate workers and negatively impact QWL. Job Enrichment In his two-factor approach, Fredrick Herzberg placed a higher focus on work enrichment. In order to encourage employees, he considered that the job should be created to provide possibilities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, promotion, and growth. This method comprises enhancing the project in order to incorporate these aspects. Adding a few more motivators to a work to make it more gratifying is all it takes. When the nature of the job is made more exciting, difficult, and creative, or when the job holder is given greater decision-making, planning, and controlling powers, the job is enriched. “Job enrichment” is a motivating method that highlights the need for hard and exciting work, according to Beatty and Schneider. It proposes that jobs be redesigned so that doing the job provides intrinsic satisfaction. In the best cases, it results in a vertically enhanced work by incorporating functions from different organisational levels, increasing variety and challenge while also providing autonomy and dignity to the person.” As a result, job enrichment is an important strategy for addressing “whole man” needs. It is a relatively new and widely used non-monetary motivator strategy. It refers to improving a job so that it has more motivators than before while yet maintaining a certain level of maintenance elements. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 118

Characteristics of an Enriched Job According to Herzberg, an enriched job has eight characteristics. These characteristics are as explained below: 1. Direct Feed Back: The employee’s performance should be directly evaluated. Employees should have instant access to information about the outcomes they are achieving. A supervisor can deliver a job evaluation or it might be embedded within the work. 2. Client Relationships: An employee’s job is enriched when he or she directly serves a client or customer. The client can be from outside or inside the company. 3. New Learning: An enriched work allows the individual to gain more knowledge. He should get the impression that he is developing mentally. An employee who does some intellectual work has a more rewarding job. 4. Scheduling Own Work: Enrichment comes from having the freedom to schedule one’s own job. Self-scheduling is when you decide when to tackle whatever assignment. Employees who do creative work have greater flexibility in scheduling their assignments than employees who do conventional labour. 5. Unique Experience: In comparison to other employment, an enriched work has some distinct aspects or characteristics. 6. Control Over Resources: One method of work enrichment is for each employee to be in charge of his or her own resources and expenses. 7. Direct Communication Authority: Employees with enriched jobs will be able to communicate directly with others who have benefited from their work. 8. Personal Accountability: An enhanced work keeps the employee accountable for the outcomes. He gets praised for excellent work and chastised for bad effort. Based on the characteristics of job enrichment listed above, we infer that management should take the following steps to enrich the job: a. Give sufficient freedom to the employees in deciding about work methods, pace, sequence etc. b. Increase responsibility c. Encourage participation Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 119

d. Provide feedback to the employees. e. Make the personnel understand how tasks contribute to a finished product of the enterprise. f. Give adequate benefits to the employees. Management should provide extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to the employees depending upon their motivational patterns. g. Management should provide adequate welfare measures to the employees. People should perceive that management is sincere and caring about them. Advantages of Job Enrichment Employee motivation can be aided by job enrichment. The following are some benefits of job enrichment: a. Employees regard routine jobs to be tedious and dull. In most cases, there are a large number of such employees. These employees’ frustrations can be alleviated by enlivening their work. b. Job enrichment lowers employee turnover and absence rates. c. Employees are naturally motivated by job enrichment because it provides chances for growth and self-realization. d. Job enrichment facilitates task enforcement and improves worker skills. e. Employees are more satisfied with their jobs since they are enriched. f. Job enrichment benefits the organisation since it improves both the quality and quantity of output while also increasing employee satisfaction. g. Employees are more creative when they work in a stimulating environment with complicated and hard tasks. Limitations of Job Enrichment Since job enrichment is based on Herzberg’s two-factor theory, the same criticisms that apply to the two-factor theory also apply to it. When job enrichment is implemented in practise, Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 120

some issues arise. Furthermore, it does not produce the expected results. The following are the constraints of job enrichment: 1. The first fundamental issue is that the majority of workers do not want the types of changes that job enrichment entails. They don’t seek tough work because it’s in their nature to avoid responsibilities. Wages and job security are prioritised by workers. 2. Job enrichment is primarily limited to jobs that are unskilled or semiskilled. Many demanding components already exist in the jobs of highly competent individuals. As a result, there is no way to apply work enrichment in their situation. 3. It is possible that technological advancements will not allow for the enrichment of all jobs. It may not be able to make the occupations particularly meaningful with specialised machinery, activities, and processes. 4. Job enrichment is an expensive endeavour. In the vast majority of cases, the costs outweigh the gains in productivity. 5. Employees may desire work enrichment, but they may lack the requisite competencies and qualifications to face the new demands. 6. Job enrichment may have negative consequences in the short term. It’s not uncommon for businesses to see a dip in production after a shift in job responsibilities, as employees adjust to the new processes. However, in the long run, there will be an increase in production. 7. If people are bored in their current work, it is likely that they will be bored in their upgraded jobs as well. As a result, enrichment may become stagnant over time, necessitating additional enrichment. 8. Management has a tendency to push job enrichment on employees rather than implementing it with their cooperation; this will have a detrimental influence on the employees. 9. Top managers and individuals frequently apply their own scale of difficulty and accomplishment to other people’s personalities, eliciting greater resistance from employees. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 121

Despite these drawbacks, work enrichment is a powerful motivational tool, but it must be used with caution and due consideration for the many human and situational aspects. Job enrichment, according to Robert N. Ford and many others, is the solution to all behavioural problems that modern management faces. Although this form of generalisation does not appear to be totally justified, the relevance of job enrichment as a motivational tool cannot be discounted. Those developing job enrichment programmes should consider the following issues about employee needs and attitudes: • Can the employee tolerate (and welcome) responsibility? • How strong are the employee’s growth and achievement needs? • What is the employee’s attitude and experience regarding group work? • Can the employee intellectually and emotionally handle more complexity? • How strong are the employee’s drives for security and stability? • Will the employees view the job changes as significant enough to justify the costs? • Can a job be over enriched? When considering job enrichment as a QWL technique, there are numerous contingency factors to consider. Employee attitudes as well as their ability to manage expanded jobs are both critical. While it’s easy to think of job enrichment as “good,” it’s better in line with human values to acknowledge and appreciate individual diversity among employees. Socio-Technical Systems Specialization tends to expand as technology advances. Integration is required to put smaller pieces of work back together to form a complete product, an entire company, and a complete society. Because high technology tends to make a system more complicated and its pieces more interdependent, this integration is far more challenging in a high-technology society than in a low-technology society. The flow of technology is a succession of bursts of new innovations rather than a continuous stream. As a result, the price that technology demands in exchange for the advancement it offers is that people must adjust to unanticipated developments. A social revolution follows the technological revolution, maybe with a time lag. Technology advances at such a rapid pace that it causes social problems before society can develop remedies. In order to absorb technology, new forms of organisation, new means of supervision, new reward structures, and a slew of other changes are required in the workplace. More mobility—economic as well as social, occupational as well as geographic, managerial as well as employee—is required for technology adaptation. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 122

Technology and Occupations Jobs change as technology advances. To keep the system running, technology tends to necessitate more professional, scientific, and other white-collar personnel. The proportion of white-collar to blue-collar workers has risen in the most advanced facilities. Humans are not efficient machines by nature, so it appears reasonable to replace regular activities with automated systems that can do the job faster and better, freeing up people to undertake more advanced work, which is typically white-collar work. The complete work force’s skill and intellectual requirements are generally upgraded as a result of technological advancements. Information Technology Information technology is a key instrument for increasing white-collar productivity and communication. This encompasses a wide range of applications that make use of computers, software, and telecommunications. Customer orders can be filled more quickly, budget evaluations can be performed more correctly, complex manufacturing processes can be regulated with fewer variances, and orders to suppliers can be sent out more quickly. Computers are used by Benetton, an international marketer of colourful apparel, to develop electronic connectivity between its manufacturing plants, salespeople, warehouse workers, and retailers. As a result, the time it takes to produce new items has decreased substantially, while the pace at which it can fill client orders has increased. Organisations can get enormous benefits from information technology. It can save human labour in automated processes, bring enormous volumes of precise data to bear on choices, transfer data at high rates between networked users, and make product flow tracking easier (such as Federal Express does with the package it transport). It’s been used to build electronic mail systems, speed up brainstorming sessions, and let employees all around the world to hold virtual meetings or collaborate on creative projects. All of these apps require their human users to adjust in new ways, such as not working face to face with people, sitting at a computer and screen for lengthy periods of time, and utilising their minds rather than their hands directly. Because of the present demand for Image Source: www.freepik.com better abilities, education is valued highly in the work market. To avoid a surplus of underdeveloped individuals and a scarcity of highly developed people, more education and training is required. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 123

Multi-professional Employees The demand for multi-professional employees has increased as the necessity for an educated workforce with high-level abilities has grown. People who have received training in two or more professions or intellectual subjects, such as engineering and law or accounting and science, are considered multi-disciplined. These individuals can accomplish part of the integrative work demanded by current work systems since they are skilled in multiple disciplines. Multi-professional managers who are qualified in a technical speciality in addition to management are in particularly high demand, as they can better handle technical tasks. A Knowledge Society In the United States, the continual improvement of technology has resulted in the establishment of a knowledge society. A knowledge society is one in which the use of information and knowledge dominates work and employs the majority of the workforce. A knowledge society is distinguished by its emphasis on intellectual activity rather than manual labour—the mind rather than the hands. News editors, accountants, computer programmers, and instructors are all examples of knowledge employment. Even the surgeon, who must use dexterous manual skills, works primarily from a knowledge or intellectual foundation. Mental activity necessitates a different level of motivation than muscular labour. Normally, a person can be convinced to dig a ditch by the use of authority. The threat of a penalty is usually sufficient to elicit action. However, more sophisticated motivation is required to motivate someone to conduct research or develop unique advertisement copy. Internal motivation and a more pleasant motivational atmosphere are required for intellectual activity. Knowledge workers will function less effectively if their employers do not provide this type of setting. Work Systems and People There are two fundamental methods for organising tasks. As previously established, the first refers to the flow of authority and is known as organisational structure of merely organisation. The second is procedure, which is concerned with the flow of work from one operation to the next. “Method,” “system,” and “work flow” are some of the other terms for it. People are normally aware of the human side of an organisational structure because of the superior- subordinate connection it establishes, but they frequently neglect or dismiss the human side of work flow. They consider work flow to be a separate engineering issue from human aspects. Work flow, on the other hand, has a wide range of behavioural effects since it forces people to engage while they work. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 124

Initiation of Action One of the most significant aspects of a work system is that it decides who will “initiate” and “receive” an activity. A person transfers content to the next person who will work on it at each step in the work flow. Staff professionals provide guidance along the route. This procedure of delegating labour and/or instructions to someone else is a form of action taken against that person. Because they may receive an initiation from someone who “simply shouldn’t be shoving them around,” recipients of an initiation may feel psychologically inferior. When an initiation has an impact on “sensitive” areas like how much work employees do (as in time study) and their pay rates, difficulties occur (as in job evaluation). In general, we can conclude that initiating actions that put a recipient under job or personal pressure are issue spots. System Design for Better Teamwork Another aspect of procedure is that it necessitates collaboration among individuals. Teamwork can be manufactured out of a workplace by separating employees with layouts and job assignments that make it difficult for them to work together, even if the work flow needs it. Two interdependent employees were allocated to separate shifts unnecessarily in one case, preventing them from coordinating their work. In another case, one operator fed components to two competing lines, with each line claiming that the operator favoured one over the other on a regular basis. To build a productive system in the textile mill, it was necessary to integrate technology, structure, and human elements. When only one of the elements is altered, a mismatch is likely to occur. Management must maintain regular contact with employees in order to understand their requirements and avoid making costly changes with unintended consequences. Communication Patterns It is commonly recognised that plant structure and work flow have a significant impact on people’s ability to communicate with one another. The location of workstations in an insurance office, for example, was such that those who needed to interact to coordinate their work were separated by a wide aisle. Employees responded to the problem by shouting across the aisle, but this had to be stopped due to the disruption. As a result, there was a lack of communication. Another company had its sewing machines placed in such a way that chatting was discouraged, but management soon realised that a different arrangement that allowed for conversation resulted in increased production. Talking, it appears, helped to break up the boredom of normal job. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 125

Alienation Poor socio-technical system design can lead to alienation. Because work systems are planned by someone other than the operators, the operators frequently have no idea why the system performs in the way it does. Furthermore, because the division of labour allows each operator to complete only a little percentage of the entire work, jobs lose their social value and become meaningless. Workers have lost sight of their place in the larger scheme of things, as well as the worth of their work. When these sentiments become overwhelming, an employee may experience alienation, which is defined as a sense of powerlessness, a loss of meaning, loneliness, disorientation, and disconnection from one’s workplace, work group, or organisation. When employees are given a minor assignment, are frustrated by red tape, are cut off from communication with others, are unable to operate in a team, and are subjected to the start of action by others, alienation is inevitable. The connection between alienation and technology is simply a broad one. Employees may appreciate mass production in some cases because it minimises physical labour, improves working conditions, and gives new equipment. In some cases, even professionals may find joy in rigid work schedules. In a research of both professional and nonprofessional personnel, the relationship between organisational formalisation (standard practises, job descriptions, and rules) and alienation was investigated. Surprisingly, a higher level of formalisation seems to minimise employee alienation. Enhanced rules at processes, it appears, reduced position uncertainty and increased employee loyalty to the organisation. When alienation threatens to become a significant problem, management must act quickly, but with caution, because alienation can have a variety of consequences. The link between alienation and technology is merely speculative. In some circumstances, employees may value mass manufacturing because it reduces physical labour, improves working conditions, and provides new equipment. Even pros may find pleasure in following strict work schedules in some instances. Effects of Work System It is undeniable that work systems have a significant impact on human behaviour. They accomplish this via: 1. Identifying who initiates action against whom and some of the circumstances in which this occurs. 2. Having an impact on how well employees executing interdependent tasks can collaborate as a team. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 126

3. Having an impact on staff communication patterns. 4. Creating opportunities for superfluous procedures, often known as red tape. 5. Assigning chores that appear insignificant and powerless, resulting in alienation. The overall conclusion is that relationships among workers in a system might be just as significant as work-related relationships. It is foolish to spend all of one’s effort preparing work relationships while ignoring worker relationships while designing a system. Three conclusions can be drawn from the limitations and difficulties of job enrichment. First, both human and performance needs make work enrichment and QWL programmes attractive. They benefit both the employees and the company. Second, there is a link of contingency. In some cases, QWL improves work letters more than in others. A final conclusion is that QWL initiatives have both costs and benefits, and both must be considered when deciding whether or not to make a change. The crucial question is whether the net benefits are positive. With so many variables in job enrichment, the best technique is to thoroughly research the demand for it and then test it in the most appropriate spots first. As additional apps are developed, there can be a progressive increase in the number of applications. A company that suddenly becomes sold on job enrichment and then approaches it in a broad manner is likely to create more difficulties than it can handle. Enriched Work Systems The Socio-Technical Model The traditional approach to job design was to build them around the technological imperative, that is, to create them around the needs of technology and efficiency while paying little consideration to other factors. By examining how jobs could be altered to make them more motivating and gratifying, job enrichment took a big step toward stressing the human (social) side. A more comprehensive strategy would be to strike a careful balance between the human and technology imperatives. Workplaces and the professions that go with them must accommodate both people and technology. The socio-technical systems approach takes into account not just how inputs are turned into outputs, but also how employees and organisations can build interpersonal and social interactions for mutual benefit. Both technological and social systems are given top attention, and they are controlled at the same time to ensure the finest possible integration. This is a new set of ideals and a new style of thinking that goes beyond the pursuit of great work-life quality. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 127

The basic assumptions of socio-technical systems include the following: • Employees are resources that can be developed and should be. • Employee self-control and self-regulation are desirable and attainable. • When organisational levels and status inequalities are minimised, collaborative partnerships are easier to form. • Individuals should be given many jobs and broad responsibilities, and related tasks should be grouped together. • Employee feedback is encouraged, valued, and rewarded. • The organisation and its jobs are evaluated and changed on a regular basis. Socio-technically designed organisations seek to find a “best fit” among workers, jobs, technology, and the environment. Accordingly, the best design will be different to fit different arrangements of these variables. Since the design must fit the present situation, socio- technical systems must be regularly readjusted among the factors in order to maintain the best fit. Consequently, socio-technical organisations often seem to be in a constant stage of change. Two specific approaches to finding a better socio-technical fit are the use of natural work teams and flexible work schedules, which are discussed next. Then we will provide an overview of some major organisational experiments will enriched work systems. Organisations with a socio-technical design attempt to find the “optimal fit” between workers, employment, technology, and the environment. As a result, the ideal design will vary depending on how these factors are arranged. Because the design must adapt to the current situation, socio-technical systems must be readjusted on a frequent basis to retain the optimal fit. As a result, socio-technical organisations frequently appear to be in a state of flux. The utilisation of natural work teams and flexible work schedules, which are explored next, are two specific techniques to establishing a better socio-technical match. Then we’ll go over some important organisational experiments that have improved work systems. Natural Work Teams The next step above enriched jobs is to focus on work teams. When jobs have been designed so that a person performs an entire sequence of tasks to make a whole product or a subunit of it, then that person is performing a natural work module. The work flows naturally from start to finish and gives an individual a sense of skill variety, task identity, and task significance. In a similar manner several employees may be arranged into a natural Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 128

work team that performs an entire unit of work with considerable autonomy. In this way employees whose task requires them to work together are better able to learn one another’s needs and to develop team work. Natural work teams even allow those who are performing routine work to develop a greater feeling of task significance, because they are attached to a larger team that performs a major task. It is surprising how our desire to develop specialization often leads to separation of people who are needed to make natural work teams. Above enriched positions, the next phase is to concentrate on work groups. A natural work module is created when a job is planned so that a person accomplishes an entire sequence of tasks to create a whole product or a component of it. From start to finish, the job flows naturally, giving an individual a sense of skill variety, task identity, and task relevance. Similarly, numerous employees can be organised into a natural work team that can accomplish a whole unit of work with significant autonomy. Employees whose jobs demand them to collaborate are better equipped to learn about one another’s requirements and create teamwork this way. Because they are part of a bigger team that executes a major task, natural work teams even help those who conduct ordinary tasks to gain a better sense of task relevance. Our ambition to create specialisation often results in the isolation of people who are needed to form natural work teams. Consider a telephone company’s service-order department’s experience. Originally, service agents and typists who prepared service orders worked in separate areas of the office and took orders in rotation. Then, for each geographical region, separate teams of representatives were allocated, and a few typists were assigned to work exclusively on their service orders. The personnel had evolved into a natural work team capable of completing a task as a whole. As a result, the percentage of orders typed on time went from 27% to 90–100%, and service-order accuracy exceeded the required norm. Enriched socio-technical work systems are the next step Image Source: www.freepik.com up from enriched jobs and natural work teams, in which an entire company or a significant section of it is formed into a balanced human-technical system. The goal is to achieve comprehensive job enrichment. This necessitates significant modifications, especially in production that has been designed along specialised lines. To accommodate human requirements, the entire production process may need to be reengineered, and layouts may need to be changed to allow for teamwork. The main goal is to create a complete work system that meets both people’s demands and production requirements. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 129

Flexible Work Schedules Flexible working time, commonly referred to as “flexitime” or “flextime,” is a type of job enrichment. It allows workers more autonomy, but not in the same way that job enrichment does. Employees who work flextime enjoy some control over their work environment — a factor other than the job design – to match their own lifestyles or satisfy uncommon demands, such as a visit to the doctor. Employees are expected to work the full number of hours each day, regardless of start and stop times. Employees must always work inside the organisation’s business hours, and if a job demands teamwork, all members of a team must flex their work together. An office is a good example. The office is open from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m., and employees are free to work their eight hours whenever they want throughout that time. One employee is a morning person who like to arrive at work at 7 a.m. and leave at 3.30 p.m. to go shopping or participate in sports. Another employee is a night owl who prefers to arrive at work at 10 a.m. and leave at 6.30 p.m. Another employee schedules her shift to coincide with the commuter train schedule. Another employee loves to take two hours for lunch and shopping every now and then. Each employee creates a schedule that meets their individual needs. In order to meet the public, a certain number of employees must be present at the office during specified core hours, but their schedules are otherwise relatively open. The employer benefits since the employee works the whole number of hours regardless of arrival time, which eliminates tardiness. Employees take fewer one-day absences for these reasons because they can schedule outside activities such as appointments during their working day. Perhaps the most important benefit is that more autonomy leads to higher job satisfaction, and productivity sometimes rises as well.” Image Source: www.freepik.com Page 130 Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management

8. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT Organisation development is an effort (1) planned, (2) organisation wide, and (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organisation effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organisation’s “processes,” using behavioural-science knowledge – Richard Beckhand Organisation development (OD) is a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organisations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets and challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself. – Warren H. Benmis Organisation renewal is the process of initiating, creating and confronting needed changes so as to make it possible for organisations to become or remain viable, to adapt to new conditions, to solve problems, to learn from experiences, and to move toward greater organisational maturity. OD can be defined as a planned and sustained effort to apply behavioral science for system improvement, using reflexive, self-analytic methods. –Richard schmuch & Milles Organisation development is a process of planned change – change of and organiza- tion’s culture from one which avoids and examination of social processes (especially deci- sion making, planning, and communication) to one which institutionalizes and legitimizes these examinations. –Warner Burke et al In the behavioral science, organisation development is a long-range effort to improve an organisation’s problem-solving and renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative management of organisation culture-with special emphasis on the culture of formal work teams-with the assistance a change agent, or catalyst, and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science including action research. – Wendell L.french & cecil H. Bell. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 131

Organisation development (OD) is a prescription for a process of planned change in organisations in which the key prescriptive elements relate to: 1. The nature of the effort or program (it is a long-range, planned, system wide process); 2. The nature of the change activities (they utilize behavioral science interventions of an educational, reflexive, self-examining, learn-to-do it-yourself nature); 3. The targets of the change activities (they are directed toward the human and social processes of organisations, specifically individuals’ beliefs, attitudes, and values, the culture and processes of work groups-viewed as basic building blocks of the organisation 4. Change activities’ desired outcomes (the goals are needed changes in the target of the interventions that cause the organisation to be better able to adapt, cope, solve its problems, and renew itself). Organisation development is thus a one-of-a-kind technique for system change, one that is mostly based on behavioural science theory and research and has a strong prescriptive component. There are eight characteristics of organisation development interventions from more traditional interventions: i. An emphasis, although not exclusively so, on group and organisational processes in contrast to substantive content. ii. An emphasis on the work team as the key unit for learning more effective modes of organisational behavior. iii. An emphasis on the collaborative management of work-team culture. iv. An emphasis on the management of the culture of the total system. v. Attention to the management of system ramifications. vi. The use of the action research model. vii. The use of a behavioral scientist-change agent sometimes referred to as a “catalyst” or “facilitator.” viii. A view of the change effort as an ongoing process. Another trait, which places a strong Image Source: www.freepik.com emphasis on human and social interactions, does not necessarily distinguish OD from other change attempts, but it is nonetheless significant. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 132

8.1 Emerging Concept: Organisation Transformation (OT) OD has evolved and matured over time, defining its principles, theories, techniques, and interventions while also adding new values, theories, and interventions. The term “organisation transformation” or “organisational transformation” was coined to describe these paradigm- shifting developments. Some authors feel OT is a subset of occupational therapy, while others consider it is a distinct discipline in its own right. Organisational transformation is too early to categorise; for now, we consider it as an extension of organisational development. It is possible to identify some of the factors that contributed to the emergence of OT. Organisational transformations can happen as a result of or in anticipation of significant changes in the organisation’s environment or technology. Furthermore, these changes are frequently linked to significant shifts in a company’s business strategy, which may necessitate changes to corporate culture as well as internal structures and processes to support the new direction. A new paradigm for organising and managing organisations is required as a result of such significant transformation. In organisations, it entails qualitatively distinct methods of perceiving, thinking, and acting. 8.2 History of Organisation Development To adopt the analogy of a mangrove tree, systematic organisation development initiatives have a recent history and at least four important trunk stems. Innovations in applying laboratory training insights to large organisations make up one trunk stem. Survey research and feedback methodology are a second main stem. A third stem, the emergence of action research, is interwoven with both branches. The emergence of the (Tavistock) socio-technical and socio-clinical methods is the fourth stem. The primary players in these stems interact with one another and are influenced by a wide range of events and notions. The Laboratory Training Stem Participants learn from their own activities in laboratory training, which is essentially unstructured small-group circumstances. It arose in 1946 from a series of trials involving the use of discussion groups to modify behaviour in back-home contexts. The formation of laboratory training was influenced by an Inter-Group Relations workshop held at the State Teachers College in New Britain, Connecticut, in the summer of 1946. The Connecticut Interracial Commission and the Research Center for Group Dynamics, then at MIT, sponsored this workshop. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 133

Survey Research and Feedback The second significant phase in the history of organisation development is survey research and feedback, which is a specialised form of action research. It is based on methodologies and approaches developed over several years by staff members at the University of Michigan’s Survey Research Center (SRC). The findings of this experiment support the notion that an intense, group discussion approach for utilising the results of an employee questionnaire survey can be a useful tool for bringing positive change to a company. It addresses the entire system of human interactions (superiors and subordinates can both change), as well as each manager, supervisor, and employee in the context of his or her own job, difficulties, and work relationships. Action Research Stem In OD, the most common method is participant action research. In the history of OD, the laboratory training stem has a strong component of action research; the survey feedback stem is the history of a specialised form of action research; and Tavistock projects have had a strong action research thrust. William F.Whyte and Edith L.Hamilton used action research in their work with Chicago’s Tremont Hotel in 1945 publication; Kurt Lewin and his students conducted numerous action research projects in the mid-1940s and early 1950s. In the evolution of OD, the work of these and other scholars and practitioners in designing and implementing action research was crucial. Socio-technical and Socio-clinical Stem The evolution of socio-clinical and socio-technical ways to assisting groups and organisations is a fourth stem in the history of OD. The clinic opened as an outpatient facility in 1920 to provide psychotherapy and lessons learned from the treatment of war neurosis during World War I. Tavistock’s work began with a group focus in the framework of family therapy, in which both the kid and the parent were treated at the same time. At Tavistock, the action research paradigm arose in an attempt to provide practical assistance to families, organisations, and communities. Second-Generation OD Emerging concepts, interventions, and areas of application that could be referred to as second-generation OD are receiving considerable attention from practitioners and scholars. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 134

Each one overlaps with one or more of the others to some extent. The aim of second- generation OD, in particular, is organisational transformation. OD professionals are increasingly distinguishing between modest, or evolutionary, efforts toward organisational transformation and huge, and in some ways revolutionary, initiatives. Smith and Wilemon distinguish between “incremental” and “fundamental” change tactics. Organisational change is thought to necessitate increased demands on top leadership, more visioning, more experimenting, more time, and the simultaneous management of a slew of other variables. Teams that are managed and cross-functional teams get started. Supervisors and middle managers have also employed team-building tactics inside their own ranks to assist re-conceptualize their own responsibilities, since self-managed teams have assumed many functions traditionally performed by management. 8.3 Foundations of Organisation Development Knowledge of how organisations work, knowledge of how change occurs, knowledge of how to intervene in organisations to produce desired changes, and knowledge of how to diagnose and solve problems are all required of OD practitioners and leaders who want to create problem-solving, self-renewing organisations. The majority of our understanding of how organisations work stems from fundamental behavioural science research and theory. It necessitates a grasp of individual, group, and goal-oriented social systems dynamics. Understanding the processes of change and change requires knowledge of how change occurs. Gaining this knowledge is challenging in the case of organisational growth since the phenomena are so complex and change as they are researched. Knowledge of how to intervene in organisations is related to transformation, but it also investigates consultation and “helping” processes. What is the definition of a successful intervention? What are the essential elements of a successful client-consultant relationship? When is it beneficial to seek assistance? Education, psychotherapy, social work, and management are examples of applied fields that have contributed insights that are employed in OD. Organisations are the OD action arena. Planned change is the name of the game. Organisational improvement projects necessitate a grasp of change processes as well as an awareness of the nature of organisations. Kurt Lewin was a remarkable practical theorist whose action and research projects laid a lot of the groundwork for understanding social change processes. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 135

Lewin’s second idea examines what must happen in order for permanent transformation to occur. He described transformation as a three-step process that includes unfreezing old behaviour, transitioning to a new level of behaviour, and then freezing the behaviour at the new level. This is a useful model for determining how to move and maintain an equilibrium point at a new, desired level. Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and Bruce Westley later refined Lewin’s three phases into a seven-phase model of the change process as follows: Phase 1. The development of a need for change. This phase corresponds to Lewin’s unfreezing phase. Phase 2. The establishment of a change relationship. This is a crucial phase in which a client system in need of help and a “change agent” from outside the system establishes a working relationship with each other. Phase 3. The clarification or diagnosis of the client system’s problem. Phase 4. The examination of alternative routes and goals; establishing goals and intentions of action. Phase 5. The transformation of intentions into actual change efforts. Phase 3, 4, and 5 correspond to Lewin’s moving phase. Phase 6. The generalization and stabilization of change. This corresponds to Lewin’s freezing phase. Phase 7. Achieving a terminal relationship. The following are the principles of organisational change 1. To change a subsystem or any part of a subsystem, relevant aspects of the environment must also be changed. 2. To change behavior on any one level of a hierarchical organisation, it is necessary to achieve complementary and reinforcing changes in organisation levels above and below that level. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 136

3. The place to begin change is at those points in the system where some stress and strain exist. Stress may give rise to dissatisfaction with the status quo and thus become a motivating factor for change in the system. 4. If thoroughgoing changes in a hierarchical structure are desirable or necessary, change should ordinarily start with the policy-making body. 5. Both the formal and the informal organisation of an institution must be considered in planning any process of change. 6. The effectiveness of a planned change is often directly related to the degree to which members at all levels of an institutional hierarchy take part in the fact-finding and the diagnosing of needed changes and in the formulating and reality testing of goals and programs of change. 1. Changing a subsystem or any portion of a subsystem necessitates changing relevant aspects of the environment. 2. In order to change behaviour at any level of a hierarchical organisation, complementary and reinforcing changes must be made at levels above and below that level. 3. Change should start at the locations in the system where there is some stress and strain. Stress can lead to dissatisfaction with the status quo, which can function as a motivator for system change. 4. If major modifications to a hierarchical organisation are desired or required, they should usually begin with the policy-making body. 5. Any reform process must take into account both the formal and informal organisation of an institution. 6. The degree to which individuals at Image Source: www.freepik.com all levels of an institutional hierarchy participate in fact-finding and diagnosing essential adjustments, as well as creating and reality-testing goals and change programmes, is typically directly related to the effectiveness of a planned change. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 137

8.4 Culture and Group This subject of planned change, or any “social engineering,” is the same as the question of what “conditions” must be modified to achieve a specific result, and how can these conditions be changed with the tools at hand. The current position, or status quo, should be viewed as being preserved by particular conditions or factors. A culture, such as the eating habits of a particular population at a certain period, is a living process, similar to a river that changes but maintains a recognisable shape. In other words, we must deal with what is described in physics as a “quasi-stationary” process in both group and individual existence. A group’s eating habits, as well as phenomena like factory production speed, are the outcome of a variety of influences. Some forces are allies, while others are adversaries. Some act as motivators, while others act as restraints. The actual behaviour of a group, like the velocity of a river, is determined by the level (for example, the speed of production) at which these opposing forces achieve equilibrium. When we talk about a culture pattern, such as a group’s eating habits, we’re implying that the constellation of these forces stays the same for a period of time, or at the very least that they find their state of equilibrium at a constant level during that time. Basic Requirements The creation of valid information is one criterion that appears to be so fundamental that it could be stated as axiomatic. It would be difficult for the client to learn and the interventionist to assist without accurate information. A second, almost as basic, condition arises from our assumption that intervention activity, whatever its substantive goals and objectives, is ineffective. It should be designed and implemented in such a way that the client system retains its privacy and autonomy. As a result, a process of free, informed decision is also required in effective intervention action. Lastly, if the client system is believed to be ongoing (that is, continuing over time), the clients’ autonomy must be strengthened not only in relation to the interventionist but also in relation to other systems. This means their commitment to learning and change must be so strong that it can be transferred to relationships other than those with the interventionist, and they must be able to do so (at some point) without the interventionist’s support. The client’s internal commitment to the choices made is the third basic process for any intervention activity. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 138

Intergroup Problems in Organisations The first important issue with groups is determining how to make them effective in achieving both organisational and individual goals. The second important issue is determining how to create conditions amongst groups that will increase each group’s productivity without jeopardising intergroup ties and coordination. This issue arises because, as groups become more committed to their own aims and norms, they are more likely to become competitive with one another and seek to sabotage their rivals’ efforts, posing a risk to the organisation as a whole. The fundamental difficulty is figuring out how to build collaborative intergroup interactions in instances when task dependency or the demand for unity make collaboration a must-have for organisational success. 8.5 Organisational Culture The concept of organisational culture is relatively new. Although psychologists have long utilised the terms of “group norms” and “environment,” the concept of “culture” has only been employed openly in the last few decades. In their second edition of the social psychology of organisations, Katz and Kahn (1978) mentioned roles, norms, and values, but did not mention climate or culture explicitly. Sociotechnical System Principles The socio-technical systems (STS) approach is focused to the effective integration of an organization’s technological and social systems. Because arrangements that are ideal for one may not be optional for both dual focus and joint optimization, these two characteristics must be evaluated in tandem. As employees seek more fruitful means of empowerment and their organisations strive for increased productivity and viability in more uncertain situations, the approach is more relevant than ever. 8.6 Fundamental Interventions of Organisation Development The spectrum of planned, programmed actions clients and consultants participate in during the course of an organisation development programme is referred to as OD intervention. These are mostly diagnostic and problem-solving activities that are usually done with the help of a consultant who isn’t a regular member of the system or subsystem culture. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 139

Classifications of OD Interventions Depending on the dimensions one wants to stress, there are a variety of methods to characterise OD interventions. A variety of categorization methods are predicated on the type of causal mechanism that is thought to underpin the methodology in question. For example, if feedback, which refers to acquiring new information about oneself, others, or group dynamics, is not excessively threatening, it is thought to have the potential for positive development. It is expected that techniques for increasing awareness of changing organisational norms would result in changes in behaviour, attitudes, and values. Changes in attitudes and behaviour may be influenced by increased connection and communication. For example, Homans says that increased interaction leads to happy feelings, and Murphy mentions “tunnel vision” or “autism,” which occurs in isolated individuals and groups. When handled constructively, confrontation, or the exposing and addressing of differences in views, values, attitudes, sentiments, or norms, is thought to help remove barriers to effective connection. Education is intended to improve: i. Knowledge and concepts, ii. Out-moulded beliefs and attitudes, or iii. Skills and has long been accepted as a change mechanism. Another relevant dimension for defining treatments is the depth of intervention. The degree of individualism or self-exposure involved in an intervention can be distinguished based on the data’s accessibility. A family T-group, for example, with a work group and a formal leader (“family” group), is a more intensive intervention than a task-oriented team-building (problem-solving) workshop with such a group. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton use a different approach to identifying OD interventions when they list the important interventions in terms of their underlying cause and mechanisms. They define the following intervention types: 1. A discrepancy intervention, which draws attention to a conflict in behaviour or attitudes and prompts further investigation; 2. A theory intervention in which behavioural science knowledge and theory are applied to explain current behaviour and the assumptions that underpin it; Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 140

3. A procedural intervention, which entails examining how something is done to see if the most effective approaches are being employed; 4. A relationship intervention that focuses attention on interpersonal relationships (especially those with strong negative feelings) and brings up concerns for discussion and resolution; 5. A dilemma intervention, in which an imposed or emergent dilemma is used to force a close examination of the possible choices involved and the assumptions underlying them; 6. An experimentation intervention, in which two different action plans are tested for their consequences before a final decision is made; 7. A perspective intervention, which shifts focus away from immediate actions and demands and allows for a review of historical context, context, and future objectives to determine whether or not the actions are still on track; 8. An organisational structure intervention, which calls for the examination and evaluation of structural causes for organisational effectiveness; and 9. A cultural intervention, which looks at traditions, precedents, and practices-the fabric of the organisation. These are mostly process consultation interventions that take place as part of a larger intervention, such as team building or intergroup activities. Another approach to distinguish distinct interventions is the length of time and breadth of the intervention. Some interventions, such as using a basic questionnaire, can be completed in minutes; others, such as the role analysis process (dubbed “Operation KPE” in the Dayal and Thomas paper), can take up to two hours per job incumbent. Team building of various types can be a one- to three-day session that includes a number of quick interventions. It should be noted that successful interventions will almost always be part of a larger context; even the most basic interventions require some pre-work to make the intervention acceptable to the client, as well as follow-up to maximise the chances of success. Another method to categorise OD interventions is to look at how much emphasis is placed on task versus process. Some team-building exercises, for example, may place a strong emphasis on interpersonal and group processes, such as communication quality or Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 141

the dynamics of informal leadership and influence in the group. Other tasks, such as goal formulation or redistributing responsibilities, may have a more task-oriented focus. However, because task and process are so closely linked, this distinction can be misleading. Finally, the size and complexity of the client group can be used to categorise OD therapies. For example, the client group could include: a. Individuals, b. Dyads or triads, c. A self-managed team, d. An intact work team, including the formal leader, e. Intergroup configurations (two or more interfacing units), f. All of the managers of an organisation, or g. Everybody in the total organisation. Interdependencies and the number of dimensions to be concerned about rise as we proceed from interventions with people to dyads, groups, inter-groups, and finally the entire organisation. An intervention that is successful in dealing with two groups in conflict, for example, must also be successful in dealing with the intra-group communication issues and conflict that arise. That’s why, before engaging in intergroup activities, it’s usually a good idea to help teams deal with internal issues and improve their interpersonal and group abilities. 8.7 Recent Organisation Development Strategy Interventions in organisation growth and transformation that are new or in the process of being developed and refined. All of them are built on a solid foundation of “systems” thinking. Some are difficult to explain because they are abstract. However, all of these concepts can be turned into concrete treatments, such as “appreciative inquiry” and “learning organisation.” All of them are difficult to put in place one after the other. It may be useful to review the type of intervention because some of these treatments are non-traditional and may not be immediately identified as organisation development and transformation. Successful Self-Directed Teams and Planned Change: begins with an overview of the transition from first-generation planned change (OD) to second-generation planned change (OT). They then go on to assert that self-directed teams (SDTs) are part of this Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 142

second- generation OT and are rapidly growing in popularity. Survey Guided Appreciative Inquiry: A Case Study, presents a description of an appreciative inquiry intervention that was blended with a survey feedback process. Inventing the Future: Search Strategies for Whole Systems Improvement, describes a future search conference that “brings together thirty to sixty people for two or three day. Together they do a series of structured tasks, looking at the organisation’s past, present, and preferred future.” Meeting the Global Competitive Challenge: Building Systems That Learn on a Large Scale describes “getting the whole system in the room,’’ an intervention used successfully at the Ford Motor Company and at Boeing Aerospace and Electronics division. In “Centers of Excellence,”: “a logical grouping of related skills or disciplines,” “an administration entity focused on the well-being and development of people,” and “a place where individuals learn skills and share knowledge across function boundaries.” Building a learning organisation, A learning organisation is an organisation skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights.” He cites Honda, coring, and General Electric. In “Teaching smart people how to learn,” Chris Argyris descries “single loop” and “double loop” learning and discusses how highly skilled professionals can be trapped into patterns of defensive reasoning. Implementation Guidelines and Issues The phases of OD programmes are as follows: 1. Entry 2. Contracting 3. Diagnosis 4. Feedback 5. planning change 6. Intervention 7. Evaluation Image Source: www.freepik.com Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 143

The initial interaction between the consultant and the client include investigating the circumstance that prompted the client to seek a consultant and assessing whether the client, the consultant, and the problematic scenario are a good match. Establishing mutual expectations, achieving an agreement on time, money, and resource expenditures, and generally explaining what one party expects to obtain and contribute to the other are all part of contracting. Interviews, observations, questionnaires, review of organisational documents, and other methods of fact-gathering are used to create a picture of the situation during diagnosis. This phase consists of two steps: gathering data and analysing it. Returning the studied data to the client system is referred to as feedback. In this phase, the customers investigate the data for clarity, correctness, and understanding; they own the data as their view of the situation, as well as their issues and opportunities. Clients decide what activities to take based on the facts they have just acquired when they plan change. Alternatives are considered and evaluated, and action plans are chosen and developed. Intervention entails taking a series of steps to address a problem or capitalise on an opportunity. The term “evaluation” refers to the process of determining the program’s outcomes: What modifications have taken place? Are we happy with the outcome? Cummings and Worley also look at the implementation of their ideas. They define five sets of actions that are essential for efficient OD and OT programme management: 1. Motivating change, 2. Creating a vision, 3. Developing political support, 4. Managing the transition, and 5. Sustaining momentum. Specific procedures for the consultant to take to guarantee efficient implementation are included in these tasks. Motivating change, for example, entails preparing for change and overcoming resistance to change. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 144

Providing a picture of the future and explaining how individuals and groups will fit into that future, as well as a road map and interim goals, are all part of creating a vision. Obtaining the support of key persons and groups, as well as influencing key stakeholders to carry the change effort forward, are all part of developing political support. Managing the transition include preparing the essential transition activities, securing people and resource commitments, and establishing the appropriate structures and milestones to assist people in locomoting from “where we are” to “where we want to be.” Providing resources for the change endeavour, assisting people in developing new competencies and skills, and reinforcing the desired new behaviours are all part of maintaining momentum. When it comes to implementing organisational growth and transformation projects, these are the aspects that consultants and leaders must pay attention to. 8.8 Strategies of Organisation Development Implementation Trust Building Trust can lead to cooperative conduct among individuals, communities, and organisations, according to academics. It’s not unexpected that interest in the concept of trust, and in particular, how to develop or actualize it, is growing in an era when businesses are looking for new ways to foster cooperation between people and groups in order to increase the value they create. Many organisations, for example, have reengineered their structures to be flatter, more team-based, with authority devolved to “empowered” lower-level employees in order to enhance cooperation between people and groups. Creating Readiness for Change Readiness, like Lewin’s (1951) idea of unfreezing, is represented in organisational members’ views, attitudes, and intentions about the extent to which changes are required and the organization’s ability to achieve those changes successfully. Readiness is a cognitive prerequisite to either resisting or supporting a change effort. “The reason so many change efforts meet with resistance or outright failure is usually directly related to their failure to provide for an adequate unfreezing process before attempting a change induction,” according to Schein (1979). Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 145

9. PROCESS CONSULTATION The idea of process consultation as a mode of inquiry arose from the realisation that in order to be helpful, one needed to learn enough about the system to understand where it needed help, which necessitated a period of very low-key inquiry-oriented diagnostic interventions with minimal impact on the processes being investigated (Schein, 1988). As a theory, process consultation recognises that the consultant is not an expert on anything other than how to be helpful and begins with complete ignorance of what is actually going on in the client system. The ability to “access one’s ignorance,” to let go of the expert or doctor role and become as attuned to the client system as possible, is one of the competencies of process consulting. Only after a thorough understanding of the situation and the type of assistance required can recommendations and prescriptions be made. Even if they are first embraced, they are unlikely to match the client system’s culture and, as a result, will not be refrozen. Instead, a preferable model of assistance is to begin with the goal of forming an insider/ outsider team that will be accountable for all diagnostic and subsequent interventions. Both the validity of the diagnostic interventions and the subsequent change interventions will be considerably strengthened when the consultant and the client share ownership of the change process. As one is always intervening, the flow of a change or managed learning process is one of continual diagnosis. The consultants must be very aware of their own perceptions of what is happening and their own impact on the client system. Stage models that emphasise up front contracting fail to account for the fact that the psychological contract is always evolving, and the degree to which it needs to be formalised is highly dependent on the organization’s culture. Action research, as defined by Lewin, is crucial to any model of working with human systems, and it must be understood from a therapeutic standpoint as a collection of treatments that must be driven primarily by their expected influence on the client system. The obvious conclusion is that when educating consultants and change agents, the clinical criteria for how different treatments would influence client systems should take precedence over the canons for gathering scientifically sound data. Before they are taught all of the canons of how to gather and evaluate data, graduate members should be put into field internships as participant observers and helpers. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 146

“It’s impossible to understand a system unless you try to change it.” The idea that one should first diagnose a system before intervening to change it is prevalent in the literature. This basic paradigm perpetuates a fundamental misunderstanding, which Lewin learnt to avoid in his own transformation efforts and which led to the development of the foundational notion of “action research.” Separating the concepts of diagnosis and intervention is a common conceptual blunder. This divide stems from scientific undertakings in which there is a greater separation between the researcher and the subject of the inquiry, especially when physical processes are thought to be partly independent of psychological processes. The consulting business has helped to perpetuate this model by including a diagnostic phase in most projects, in which a large number of interviews, questionnaires, and observations are used to generate a set of recommendations for the client. Although consultants disagree about whether they should be held accountable for the recommendations’ implementation, they generally agree that the consultant’s basic duty is completed with a set of recommendations “for future intervention.” If interviews or surveys are conducted, every effort is taken to collect data in a scientifically impartial manner while interfering as little as possible with the organization’s operations during this phase. It would be impossible to provide an effective diagnosis without interfering if one could not understand an organisation without attempting to change it. Either traditional consultants are getting the wrong picture of the organisation, or they are intervening but denying it by dubbing it “simply diagnostic.” This risk demands the diagnostician to consider the nature of the “diagnostic intervention” and apply clinical criteria for what is safe rather than solely scientific criteria for the most definitive response. OD professionals must approach consulting work from a clinical viewpoint, beginning with the idea that everything involving a client system is an intervention, and that until intervened, the client system will not understand what some of the system’s basic dynamics are. Starting with that premise, criteria must be developed to balance the amount of information acquired from an intervention with the degree of risk the client faces as a result of doing that intervention. If the consultant plans to interview every member of top management, he must first determine whether the amount of information gained will be worth the risk of disrupting the system by interviewing everyone, and if the answer is “yes,” he must then determine what will be learned from the management’s reactions to being interviewed. That is, the interview process will change the system, and the nature of that change will reveal some of the most crucial information about how the system works, such as whether respondents are paranoid and suspicious, open and helpful, supportive of each other or hostile in their comments about each other, cooperative or aloof, and so on. Because the Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 147

consultant’s presence is de facto an intervention, the best information about the organization’s dynamics will come from how the consultant is treated. Yet, in many traditional consultation models, the emphasis is on the “objective data gathered in the interview,” with no mention of the interviewer’s feelings about the process or what may be deduced from how he or she was treated. ‘Human systems cannot be viewed objectively’ is an important idea that is all too frequently overlooked in the literature on change and consultation. In practise, change agents have discovered from their own experiences that “diagnostic” activities such as observations, interviews, and questionnaires are effective interventions, and that learning about a system and changing it are one and the same. This realisation has numerous implications, notably in terms of research and consulting ethics. Many academics and consultants believe they can gather data “objectively” and arrive at a diagnosis without changing the system. In fact, the way of acquiring data has an impact on the system, thus it must be carefully studied. For example, in a questionnaire, asking someone how they feel about their employer prompts the respondent to consider a topic that he or she may not have previously considered, and it may prompt them to discuss the subject with others in a way that fosters a shared attitude that did not exist previously. 9.2 Team Building In fact, the way of acquiring data has an impact on the system, thus it must be carefully studied. For example, in a questionnaire, asking someone how they feel about their employer prompts the respondent to consider a topic that he or she may not have previously considered, and it may prompt them to discuss the subject with others in a way that fosters a shared attitude that did not exist previously. Virtual team organisation is gradually becoming the gold standard for flexibility and agility in swiftly and effectively completing tasks. In the beginning, new teams usually have a defined work focus and a clear grasp of their short-term objectives. The new team members are also often technically capable, and there is usually a project challenge that will need them to use their technical skills. While a team’s early activities are obviously focused on task and job difficulties, relationship challenges arise with time, as they do in any human system. The team may be well into its activities by the time these interpersonal concerns arise. Later in the game, resolving the issues may become extremely difficult and costly. If a new team spends some time at the start of its journey examining how it will work together cooperatively, it will reap considerable benefits. Beckhard gives a tool for establishing the Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 148

best conditions for productive teamwork and high performance. As an OD intervention, team building can take numerous forms. The most common pattern is beginning with interviews and other preliminary work, followed by a one-to three-day session. The group diagnoses its function as a unit and plans modifications to its operating processes during the meeting. 9.2.1Developing Winning Teams To complete projects, every organisation employs some type of structured cooperation. Many of them form teams by giving them a hazy, imprecise strategy and sending them off on their own, hoping to win. Even if individual players are gifted and inventive, teams that have clear objectives and strategies for achieving them are more likely to succeed. Winning teams thrive on structure that is built from the ground up while being guided by strong, confident leadership from the top. A strong leader must nurture a positive team relationship. Dr. R. Meredith Belbin, based on his research at a Management College, established the following types or team roles: Overall nature of Belbin roles Description activities Well-organized and predictable. Takes basic ideas Implementer and makes them work in practice. Can be slow. Lots of energy and action, challenging others to Doing / acting Shaper move forwards. Can be insensitive. Completer/ Reliably sees things through to the end, ironing Finisher out the wrinkles and ensuring everything works well. Can worry too much and not trust others. Plant Solves difficult problems with original and creative ideas. Can be poor communicator and may ignore Thinking / Monitor/ the details. problem-solving Evaluator Solves difficult problems with original and creative ideas. Can be poor communicator and may ignore Specialist the details. Sees the big picture. Thinks carefully and Coordinator accurately about things. May lack energy or ability to inspire others. People / feelings Team worker Respected leader who helps everyone focus on oriented Resource/ their task. Can be seen as excessively controlling. investigator Cares for individuals and the team. Good listener and works to resolve social problems. Can have problems making difficult decisions. Explores new ideas and possibilities with energy and with others. Good net-worker. Can be too optimistic and lose energy after the initial flush. Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 149

Overall functions Belbin role Leading Doing Coordinator Shaper Thinking Implementer Completer/finisher Socializing Monitor/Evaluator Plant Specialist Resource/investigator Team Worker 9.2.2 Balanced Teams Teams function best when there is a balance of major duties and team members are aware of their responsibilities, working to their strengths and actively managing their limitations. To get the best balance, the following elements should be present: • One Coordinator or Shaper (not both) for leader • A Plant to stimulate ideas • A Monitor/evaluator to maintain honesty and clarity • One or more Implementer, Team worker, Resource investigator or Completer/ finisher to make things happen • Identify types when starting up teams and ensure have a good balance or handle the imbalances 9.2.3 Communication in Teams To provide timely feedback and fast updates in teams, communication, the most basic of management essentials, is required. Communication in teams is based on clarity, frequency, and responsiveness. The majority of communication is nonverbal, thus the verbal forms that are utilised must be clear and conveyed frequently. Teams require regular meetings, either in person or via conference call or other technologies. Team coordinators should post the agenda on the team’s computer in a place where everyone can see it and encourage them to add to it. They should prioritise responding to team members’ emails and phone calls. Although team members do not need to be romantically involved with one another in order to work successfully together, some form of personal interaction is necessary for team bonding. Telephone and email, instant messaging systems, collaboration software, group bulletin boards or discussion forums, and chat rooms are all beneficial for working and meeting together and can be obtained for a low or no cost. Trying out different communication Module 5 | Emerging Trends in Management Page 150