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POLICY REVIEW the complex land mutation further additional evidence REFERENCES processes that the plot owners for better understanding. As are supposed to undergo with well illustrated in this paper, Das, A., & Mukherjee, A. (2018). the Revenue Administration. land among the poor is valued Demystifying Urban Land This is a welcome step to more for its “use value” Tenure Issues: The Curious integrate the urban poor rather than transactional Case of Small Cities in India. in the land and housing value. The owner does not GIZ. market. However, this effort have compelling reasons to Das, A., & Sanan, D. (2021). still does not address the keep the de jure ownership Unravelling the Interface gaps in the engagement of papers updated. There is a between Land Administration the urban poor with the need to institute a differential Systems and Spatial Planning Revenue Administration. mechanism at the Revenue Processes: The Case of Odisha, There is no mechanisms or Administer that encourages India. GIZ. interface through which the the urban poor to update Kapur, D., Somanathan, T., urban poor can engage with their land records. This will & Subramanian, A. (2014). the Revenue Administration also facilitate maintaining Ideas for India. Retrieved from and make their ownership the land records in a robust https://www.ideasforindia. clear in the revenue records. manner. Considering that in/topics/macroeconomics/ The administrative processes modernization of urban land-shackled.html remain cumbersome and the land records is high on the Kotal, M. (2021). India Housing gap between the common national agenda, there is an Report . Retrieved from citizen and the Revenue opportunity that these efforts https://indiahousingreport. Administration remains as may contribute to untangling in/outputs/opinion/land-vs- wide as ever. Such a large- the ownership maze at least housing-how-effective-are- scale land tenure programme, in the smaller and medium tenurial-measures-to-house- as rolled out by Odisha, towns. Modernisation of the-urban-poor/ should be complemented Urban land records can be a Maitra, A. K. (2020). What is it by sustained reforms in the way forward to resolve the that ails our informal sector? revenue administration over housing needs of the urban Retrieved from https://www. the long term. The objective of poor. newindianexpress.com/ the reform will be to bring RA opinions/2020/may/30/what- closer to people while making As a way ahead, housing is-it-that-ails-our-informal- the processes people friendly. policies and programmes sector-2149869.html#:~:text= needs to recognise the They%20effectively%20 This paper also suggests that difference in the ownership constitute%2090%25%20 land ownership patterns patterns in small and of,50%25%20of%20the%20 in the small and medium medium towns and large total%20GDP. towns are distinctly different metropolises and design Meinzen-Dick, R. (2009, from the larger metropolises. these accordingly. The focus December). Property Rights for In smaller and medium of these programmes should Poverty Reduction? towns urban poor may be more towards resolving Ministry of Finance. (2017-18). not be the encroachers but structural and administrative Economic Survey . are falling out because of bottlenecks and institutional administrative deficiencies. Niti Ayog. (2018). Strategy for This hypothesis requires reforms.   New India @75. April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 49

CASE STUDIES ADDRESSING HOUSING SHORTAGE AMONG URBAN POOR THROUGH BLC LEARNINGS FROM IMPLEMENTATION MR. SHUBHAGATO Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana agenda in the medium to long DASGUPTA (PMAY-Urban) was launched term. MS. ANINDITA in 2015 to address the housing MUKHERJEE requirements of the urban poor, BACKGROUND MS. BAISAKHI having four verticals to channel SARKAR DHAR its subsidies. Among them, Decent shelter and a healthy Beneficiary- Led Individual habitat ensure the safety and “Along with the ease House Construction (BLC) has security of the urban poor of implementation of emerged as the most successful, and contribute to enhancing BLC, resulting from the with a large proportion of productivity (Habitat for availability of land rights, housing being sanctioned under Humanity, 2020). With this vertical also attained the same. To understand the continuing urbanisation, one significant traction from process of BLC implementation of the key challenges faced the innovative approaches and the innovative interventions by the cities today is the adopted by various state by states, primary surveys were provision of a safe habitat and governments to expedite conducted across Odisha, Kerala adequate housing at scale. the disbursal of the BLC and Tamil Nadu, accounting for The Government of India subsidy.” 1 in every 10th BLC sanctions (GoI) has been assessing these in the country. This paper aims problems for decades. It has Keywords: Slum Upgradation, to document the various aspects formulated housing policies land tenure, institutional financing, of BLC house construction and programmes from time to Beneficiary- Led Individual House associated with land, finance, time to benefit the urban poor Construction/Enhancement (BLC), and access to basic services. It by enabling them to dwell and PMAY (U), urban poor further draws out learnings live in healthier environments necessary for PMAY (U) that with basic civic facilities. Mr. Shubhagato Dasgupta is Senior underscores the importance of Through Valmiki Ambedkar Fellow; Ms. Anindita Mukherjee BLC/self-built housing schemes Awas Yojana (VAMBAY) ([email protected]) is Associate to answer the critical demand- launched in 2001 to Rajiv Fellow (corresponding author); supply gap that is often widened Awas Yojana (RAY) in 2009 and Baisakhi Sarkar Dhar is Senior by a dysfunctional real estate and a host of different housing Research Associate at Centre for Policy market, especially for the EWS. schemes during this period, Research (CPR), New Delhi. Finally, it identifies three successive governments primary enablers – access to made attempts to improve land, holistic city planning, and basic services, provide tenure access to institutional finances security, upgrade existing – to be leveraged for achieving infrastructure and create the national ‘Housing for All’ new housing units with a vision of creating a ‘Slum 50 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Free India’. The Jawaharlal b) Credit Linked Subsidy Figure 2: Progress under various Nehru National Urban Scheme (CLSS); c) Affordable PMAY verticals Renewal Mission (JNNURM) Housing in Partnership 2). The BLC vertical focuses launched in 2005 was a step (AHP); and d) Beneficiary- on improving housing towards urban development Led Individual House conditions of the urban and was used as an Construction/Enhancement poor by providing financial incentive fund to bridge the (BLC) of individual houses. assistance to individual investment gap in affordable It is a multi-faceted program eligible families belonging housing through two sub- offering a variety of options to the EWS category to missions – Basic Services and products to the wide either construct new houses for Urban Poor (BSUP) and socio-economic sections or expand existing houses, Integrated Housing and Slum of the population, and subject to owning a land Development Programme the construction of new parcel in the city. This vertical (IHSDP). However, these houses under PMAY-U has has made substantial progress programmes failed to achieve accelerated in recent years. because land provisioning the desired outcome for It has sanctioned housing remains the responsibility various reasons, including units about ten times and of the household (HH). The deficiency in preparation and completed almost five times progress under other verticals appraisal of detailed projects, than the past programmes has been relatively modest non-availability of land, combined, as shown in Figure due to the lack of affordability escalation in costs, change in 11. among the poor, low level of design and scope, ambiguity private sector participation, in defining tenability, However, among the four and the reluctance of the different interpretations of verticals, it is observed that the private players to adhere “infrastructure for public BLC component of PMAY(U) to various stipulations, as purpose” etc. (Kundu, 2013). has been the most successful, envisaged under the PMAY- To address the housing with almost 75 percent uptake Urban (PMAY-U) (Kumar & requirements of the urban across 35 states/UTs (Figure Kundu, 2018). Although AHP poor, including slum emerged as the second most dwellers, the Pradhan Mantri Figure 1: Progress under preferred vertical (27 per Awas Yojana (PMAY-Urban), different housing programmes cent), experience has revealed or the mission of ‘Housing for that private sector investment All by 2022’, was launched in affordable housing was by the Hon’ble Prime feasible only in centrally- Minister in 2015. The current located slums, where land programme brought forth by prices were high. Private the Government of India has investments in the peripheral four verticals to channelise areas were unviable, as its subsidies: a) In-Situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR) using land as a resource; 1 https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/17(5).pdf https://pmay-urban.gov.in/uploads/progress-pdfs/6243ea311a29b-National.pdf https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/RAY_Progress(1).pdf April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 51

CASE STUDIES observed in the case of the key enablers for housing: Against this background, to Ahmedabad (Mahadevia, land, planning, and financing. understand the process of Bhatia, & Bhatt, 2018). BLC implementation and This paper is based on the LEARNINGS FROM BLC the innovative interventions learnings from the states IMPLEMENTATION by states that stimulated of Odisha, Kerala, and TN, Along with the ease of larger uptake, household conducted during 2018- implementation of BLC, surveys were conducted 19, to understand the BLC resulting from the availability across three states: Odisha, implementation processes of land rights, this vertical Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, and the beneficiaries’ also attained significant during 2018 -2019 by Scaling experiences in leveraging traction from the innovative City Institutions for India the subsidy. This paper is approaches adopted by (SCI FI) Initiative at Centre structured into six sections. various state governments for Policy Research (CPR) in The first section provides to expedite the disbursal partnership with Deutsche the context for the study, of the BLC subsidy. These Gesellschaft für Internationale followed by the objectives and innovations have enabled Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), methodology in the paper’s the states to facilitate house India. 250 HHs were taken second section. The next three construction among the urban up for survey in each state at sections elaborate on the poor through the provision 90 per cent of the confidence study’s key findings across the of land rights, increased interval and 5 per cent margin facilitation of land transfer for subsidies, and financial of error. These were further enabling BLC subsidy, access assistance. A disaggregated distributed across three to institutional finance, and analysis of BLC uptake across select cities; each arrived access to basic infrastructure. three Indian states – Odisha, in consultation with the The last section of the paper Kerala, and Tamil Nadu (TN) respective state governments. culls the learnings from the – reveals that there is higher Stratified purposive sampling findings for an overview of traction of BLC in smaller was followed to select HHs in cities (Figure 3). each of the cities. The state- Figure 3: City class-wise distribution of BLC houses sanctioned Source: (Census 2011), MoHUA website 52 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES wise study locations were Figure 4: Location of the study areas (Figure 4): Source: (Dasgupta, Das, Mukherjee, & Dhar, 2020) • Odisha: Dhenkanal, Gopalpur, and Behrampur • Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), Kochi, and Mukkam • TN: Chennai, Coimbatore, and Uthiramerur The cities selected have specific characteristics (Table 1) concerning the scheme that helped analyse the performance across the different administrative structures of local governing bodies, different project progress status, and overlapping and non- overlapping schemes. Table 1: Profile of the studied cities States Cities Odisha Dhenkanal Gopalpur Behrampur • Dhenkanal is a class II • Coastal town and a NAC • A city and a municipal headquarters town and a in Ganjam district. corporation in Ganjam municipality in the Dhenkanal • No. of wards - 11 district. district. • Total population (Census • Total population (Census • No. of wards - 23 2011) - 7,221 & 1,480 2011) - 356,598 & 74,720 HHs. HHs. • Total population (Census 2011) - 67,414 • No of slums - 4 • No of slums - 175 • Slum population -7,821. • LRC distribution in the • Slum population -91,813 • No of slums - 43 city under Odisha Land • Not covered under • Covered under the Odisha Rights to Slum Dwellers Odisha Land Rights Land Rights to Slum Dwellers Ordinance, 2017, stands to Slum Dwellers Ordinance, 2017, complete. Ordinance, 2017 April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 53

CASE STUDIES States Cities Kerala Trivandrum Kochi Mukkam Tamil Nadu • Capital city and • Municipal Corporation in • Municipality town in the Municipal Corporation in Thiruvananthapuram district. Ernakulam district Kozhikode district • No. of wards - 100 • Population (Census 2011) • Population (Census • Total population (Census 6,01,574, 2011) 40,670 2011) - 752,490 & 191,446 HHs • The slum population constitutes only • 100 wards 0.86 percent of the population. • No of slums - 82 Coimbatore Uthiramerur Chennai • Coimbatore is the • Panchayat town in • Capital city and municipal second-largest city in Kancheepuram district corporation Tamil Nadu • Population of 25,194 • The state’s largest city in area • Administered by the and population as well Coimbatore Municipal • The town is divided into Corporation 18 wards • Total population (Census 2011) - 7,088,000 • Total population (Census 2011) - 1,584,719 • A total of 29per cent of Chennai’s population resided • No of slums - 319 in slums as of 2011 • Slum HHs-46650 Limitation: Owing to the study based on the opinions/ the BLC subsidy. However, focus of the study on BLC responses expressed by the slum dwellers in the smaller beneficiaries, the sampling respondents, at times on cities continued falling out was designed based on behalf of the BLC beneficiary of the purview of the scheme specific inclusion criteria. in the household. due to the lack of appropriate This prevented the study land ownership documents. from delving into the category Key findings emerging States which had provided with neither land nor BLC, from the analysis of the the slum dwellers with patta which remained excluded. implementation practices in the past appeared to be the Additionally, the responses of BLC in three states: forerunners in the scheme of the HHs in stating the Odisha, Kerala, and TN, are implementation. The state nature of the settlement highlighted below: such as Tamil Nadu, which (slum/unauthorised had a history of providing colony/authorised colony/ Facilitated land transfers land at no cost for the poor to resettlement colony) in enabled improved access to construct houses in the past, which they reside may not BLC subsidies could approve the highest be entirely reliable, given the number of applications under complexity of administrative As per the PMAY-Urban the BLC as of 2018 (Figure 5). classification. Therefore, the guideline, submission of land Under this scheme, free pattas inferences were drawn for the ownership documents is the were given to individuals critical first step for availing 54 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Figure 5: Comparison of BLC Implementation across States: Source: CSMC, 2018 as presented in (Das , et al., 2018) who earn less than INR 30,000 The state of Kerala has also Given that proof of land in rural areas and below been planning to extend ownership is a prerequisite INR 50,000 in urban areas subsidies to people to buy land for availing the subsidy, annually. through state support under some states went ahead with LIFE (Livelihood Inclusion programmes and schemes The state of Kerala initiated Financial Empowerment) to provide land ownership Mission initiated in 2012, in its or streamline the land its land transfer facilitation third phase. In Kerala, nearly ownership documents to 73 per cent of the respondents facilitate the same, like in for urban development, had inherited the land, of Odisha. In the case of Odisha, which only one was not a progress in the scheme was including that for the urban BLC beneficiary (Figure 6). noticeably delayed because Another 20 per cent bought of a lack of land rights. Thus, poor, in 2007. It began land the land. Only a handful, i.e., the Odisha government 7 per cent, got the land from resorted to granting land acquisition processes in the the government in the recent rights transfers to expedite past. This indicates that land the BLC process. In Odisha, it urban fringes with public and transfer facilitation in the past is seen that while bigger cities had been effective in Kerala could leverage the subsidy private initiatives providing for availing BLC subsidies because of land ownership, (Das, et al., 2020). smaller cities like Dhenkanal appropriate statutory support. The state recognised that there were over 330,000 families who were landless and houseless, and the government attempted to provide land for the landless to take up housing initiatives. Figure 6: Land ownership Figure 7: City-wise BLC -LRC beneficiaries in Odisha pattern in Kerala April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 55

CASE STUDIES and Gopalpur could only to procedural bottlenecks, households relied on multiple benefit after the government thus keeping many otherwise decided to provide Land eligible beneficiaries outside sources of borrowing instead Right Certificates (LRCs) to the purview of the scheme. the slum dwellers (Box 1). As Therefore, if the process of one, whether a combination per Figure 7, it was observed of land transfer is not that in Gopalpur, among streamlined for the slum of formal and informal or the beneficiaries who had dwellers, they will keep received LRC, 97 per cent of falling out of the purview of a combination of multiple them had applied for BLC. these housing schemes, which In Dhenkanal, however, it in turn has the potential to informal sources. It is well is seen that only 4 percent hinder achieving the target of the total LRC recipients of housing for all in the states known that informal credit had applied for BLC. This as well as for the national can be explained by the fact government as a whole. markets often display patterns that in Dhenkanal, the LRC distribution has just begun. Disproportionate reliance and features that are not The field survey also revealed on informal borrowings to the willingness among the finance construction commonly found in informal beneficiaries to apply for BLC and the requirement BLC beneficiaries had to structures. These include of reapplication in some borrow to finance their house cases, as the applications had construction, albeit they the advancement of loans initially been rejected because borrowed from informal of the lack of land ownership sources in most cases. Only based on oral agreements evidence (Das, et al., 2020). Odisha had a relatively lower level of borrowings, at 49 per rather than written contracts, cent. The remaining half of the beneficiaries in the states with limited to no collateral, complemented the subsidies with their income and savings. long-term exclusive Interestingly, in the majority of the cases across the states, relationships, and repeat Figure 8: Sources of borrowing lending with significant inter- linkages with other markets such as material, labour, transportation, etc. However, such informality is often associated with significantly high-interest rates because of the high risk associated with this sort of lending. BLC Further, in smaller cities, beneficiaries reported not the slum dwellers are not borrowing from the banks necessarily encroachers due to excessive documentary (Das & Mukherjee, 2018). and collateral requirements, However, as various unserved perceived high-interest rates, rural pockets get in-situ and inability to pay the urbanised, many informal settlers reside on their own land with/without services, in dilapidated housing Relative/Friends 40% Money lender conditions, and without Bank 28% 17% adequate documentation. Micro Fin Institution Other Moreover, given that India’s 6% Cooperative Bank 4% land and property records Employer NBFC 3% are in a dismal state, slum- 2% 1% dwellers do not possess valid legal documents due 56 HUDCO-HSMI Publication Informal Loans Formal Loans 80 70 60

Money lender 28% Bank 17% Micro Fin Institution 6% Other 4% Cooperative Bank 3% CASE STUDIES Employer 2% and the beneficiary, and the verification of the vacant site NBFC 1% is done. Odisha also revised the programme structure Figure 9: Rates of Interest of formal and informal loans and facilitated the release of the first instalment of state 80 Informal Loans Formal Loans share immediately after the 70 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% excavation, initiated with the 60 beneficiary contribution. On 50 the other hand, TN releases 40 the first instalments only after 30 completing the foundation 20 with the beneficiary’s 10 share. While, on the one hand, facilitated large-scale 0 grounding of houses in Kerala 0% and Odisha (85 percent of sanctioned) in TN, it resulted equated monthly instalments Cost escalations generally in 24 percent of sanctioned as over the loan term. Relatives/ demand urgent funds. non-started houses. friends – with whom trust- Informal loans usually fulfill based lending/repeat lending such urgent demand for funds Unavailability of basic civic is easier – emerged as the as they enable easy and timely infrastructure access in major source of informal access to finances compared newly constructed houses borrowings among the BLC to formal sources. On the beneficiaries (Figure 8). other hand, accessing formal The PMAY-Urban programme Moreover, while the majority institutional credits involves guideline directs the ULBs in Kerala reported zero significant documentation, to ensure that individual interest rates when borrowing making it time-consuming. houses under BLC have from relatives/friends, in adequate provision for basic Odisha, charging interest on Additionally, the civic infrastructure such as such loans remained high water, sanitation, sewerage, (Figure 9). unavailability of public road, electricity, etc. Further, all houses built or expanded The urban poor, often subsidy upfront resulted under the Mission shall have employed in the informal a toilet facility. Accordingly, sector, do not possess in many approved but the programme guideline documented income proofs defines an EWS house as and therefore remain unable uninitiated houses, owing not ‘an all-weather single unit to borrow from formal or a unit in a multi-storeyed financial institutions, which only to the unavailability of superstructure having carpet perceive the urban poor area of up to 30 sq. m. with as a high-risk, unbankable funds but also to the limited adequate basic civic services segment. Interestingly, the and infrastructure services poorer BLC beneficiaries faith in receiving the public reported a higher dependence on informal borrowing than subsidy after the demolition their better-off counterparts. of the existing house. This has emerged as one of the critical impediments in BLC house construction. States like Kerala have gone around this provision by releasing the state share of the subsidy immediately after signing the agreement between the ULB April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 57

CASE STUDIES like toilet, water, electricity, sources-piped (30 per cent) Nadu and 40 per cent in etc.’. The study reveals and a borewell with a storage Odisha. On the other hand, newly built houses with tank (23 per cent). In Odisha, in Kerala, an open well is the limited access to basic civic 30 per cent of the beneficiaries major water source outside infrastructure. have piped water within the premises on which 29 per premises, while in Tamil cent of the beneficiaries rely. As per Figure 10, access to Nadu, handpump is the 70 per cent of the BLC houses metered electricity is high major source of water within in Kerala did not have any in all three states. 90 per premises with a share of 21 solid waste service in place, cent of houses had metered per cent, followed by piped while it is about 16 percent in electricity in Odisha, while water (11 per cent). The share the case of Odisha. The door- the access was at 83 per cent of beneficiaries with water to-door collection was scarce, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. outside the premises is much with only 20 percent of BLC The primary source of water larger in the case of Odisha houses in Odisha and 13 per supply showed inter-state and Tamil Nadu. In both the cent in Kerala reporting Door- variations. Kerala exhibited states, reliance on public tap to-Door solid waste collection. a high share of water within is high, 57 per cent in Tamil 64 percent of the beneficiaries premises, mainly from two in Odisha dumped their solid waste at a nearby collection Figure 10: Access to basic services point or vacant land. Around 80 percent of the beneficiaries in each state had access to a pucca road. However, 7 percent of the beneficiaries in Tamil Nadu reported having no road in front of their BLC houses. More than 80 percent HHs in Kerala have no drains, while 12 percent have pucca- covered drains and 5 percent have pucca uncovered drains. On the other hand, 46 percent of the HHs in Odisha have uncovered pucca drains, 38 percent have no drains and 13 percent have pucca-covered drains. Further, the share of HHs with access to three basic services viz. piped water, metered electricity and pucca road was 24 per cent in Odisha where as it was 21 58 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Figure 11: Access to piped water, to all the households with for the newly built houses metered electricity, and pucca makes it a non-essential item road: basic services despite efforts for the states. Given that smaller cities are the primary per cent in Kerala and 7 per to converge with the Atal recipients of these newly cent in Tamil Nadu (Figure built houses, their limited 11). The study highlights Mission for Rejuvenation capacity to raise additional that amenities like water finances for infrastructure supply and electricity, which and Urban Transformation improvement may result in require HHs to approach the improved houses, but without authorities, are still relatively (AMRUT); and even with the necessary infrastructure accessible, but the extent access. The unavailability of of public infrastructure is the help of reforms for city-level planning tools may deficient because of the lack of further entrench this gap. appropriate habitat planning. earmarking ULB share States have not been able WAY FORWARD to provide adequate access for laying infrastructure. Affordable housing is taking Inadequate focus on holistic center stage internationally and on the national agenda. spatial planning and With housing recognised as a basic need, governments at ensuring access to basic every level discuss ways and means to provide this service civic infrastructure as part of to every citizen, particularly the urban poor. Housing has PMAY (U) could potentially three key enablers: access to land, holistic city planning, put the opportunity for and access to institutional finance (Figure 12). These habitat improvement at risk. are crucial aspects that the The housing for all plan of action (HfAPoA) mandated under PMAY-Urban does not provide for spatial planning and also ignores holistic city- level planning. This results in a house-only approach rather than neighbourhood habitat development. Further, the absence of any financial contribution from the central government towards improving the last- mile basic civic infrastructure Box 1: Slum upgradation and delisting under JAGA Mission in Odisha With the launch of the Odisha Land Rights to Slum Dwellers Act and Jaga Mission during 2017-18, the government recognised the collective responsibility of improving the quality of life of the slum dwellers by ensuring integrated and planned growth of the cities with adequate infrastructure and services. While in the first phase of the Jaga mission, the government was committed to securing land rights for the urban poor, in its second phase, it prioritised ‘Slum Upgradation and Delisting’ through the creation of necessary basic civic infrastructures like access to water supply, pucca roads, pucca stormwater drainage, street lights, access to toilet facilities and in-house electricity along with the community Centre called ‘Parichaya,’ creation of open space and child-friendly parks and bringing the tenable slums at par with the rest of the city. April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 59

CASE STUDIES Figure 12: Key enablers for metropolitans and Class I poverty. In such a scenario, housing cities, the land is unaffordable the convergence of PMAY- for the urban poor, owing to Urban with available housing government needs to focus extremely high real estate finance schemes for the urban on to accomplish the vision of rates. Further, ownership- poor must be addressed in the Housing for All. based housing may not be a broader policy guideline. preference for these sections The BLC vertical under due to the unaffordability of Moreover, while the PMAY-Urban has emerged land and housing and mobility as the most successful among and migratory practices. construction of new houses the four verticals in the last Moreover, the excessive focus five years since the launch of on house ownership excludes under PMAY-Urban has the scheme. It is evident that many from accessing safe and the success of this vertical sanitary affordable housing accelerated in recent years, is based on the existence of in such a scenario. Therefore, land ownership among the the PMAY must account for limited attention has been urban poor, especially in a range of tenurial options, smaller cities. Recognising the including rental housing, to given to neighbourhood- relevance of land ownership address this situation. in disseminating the subsidy, level habitat development. states are dovetailing their Despite subsidies from land-related schemes and the local and the state The deficient focus on holistic providing the urban poor government, there is a with land ownership to considerable financial share to spatial planning results in the enable them to access the be borne by the beneficiaries BLC subsidy. Consequently, for house construction, which construction of houses without the convergence of land they may have to mobilise titles (e.g. Box 1) with the through lifelong savings the allied basic infrastructure, BLC-PMAY subsidy is a or borrowings; in most crucial enabler for states to cases, the latter is utilised thus negatively impacting leverage the subsidy and for this purpose. Despite has scope for incorporation measures adopted by the the lives and livelihood of in the national guideline for states to institutionalise PMAY. However, in many credit for construction, high the recipients. Apart from the dependence on informal sources persists. The high- lack of emphasis on a habitat interest rates for informal borrowing deter potential approach in the PMAY-Urban beneficiaries from availing of the BLC scheme and have the scheme, the limited financial potential to push beneficiaries who take recourse to it into capacity of the governing a vicious cycle of debt and agencies of smaller cities deters them from investing in basic infrastructure improvements for the beneficiaries in their jurisdiction. Therefore, unless supplemented with holistic city planning, mere house construction to provide housing for all will create unsustainable and non-resilient cities. While the PMAY-Urban guideline directs the ULBs to ensure that individual houses constructed under BLC have adequate provision for basic infrastructure (including water, sanitation, sewerage, 60 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES road, electricity, etc.), the Systematic and holistic city of Learnings from BLC realisation of this objective planning approaches are more Implementation in Odisha. has been limited. Although likely to improve the lives the convergence of PMAY- of the urban poor than the Das, A., Mukherjee, A., Dhar, Urban with AMRUT and piecemeal response. Going B. S., Chaterjee, S., Gupta, A., SBM has been expedited in forward, the BLC vertical has & Jain, A. (2020). Improving some states, there remains the potential to be redesigned Housing for the Urban considerable scope for to allow the upgrading of Poor: Learnings from BLC improvement. Despite the urban poor settlements, Implementation in Kerala. strides during the first five including slums, to ensure years of SBM, the construction the overall development of Dasgupta, S., Das, A., of BLC houses without such settlements. The urban Mukherjee, A., & Dhar, B. S. adequate sanitation facilities poor settlements like slums, (2020). Homes: Beneficiary-Led will prove to be a setback squatters, etc., should be Individual House Construction for the country as a whole. accorded due recognition - An Analysis from Odisha, Infrastructure improvement by making them an integral Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. is especially required in part of city planning and the the country’s slums and development process to build Habitat for Humanity. squatter settlements, which sustainable and inclusive (2020). Press room. Retrieved continue to be marked by cities. from habitat for humanity: unsanitary conditions and h t t p s : / / w w w. h a b i t a t . o r g / overcrowding. A dwelling REFERENCES ap/newsroom/2020/habitat- unit without access to basic serves-more-59-million- allied infrastructure would (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// people-globally-2020 not only trigger adverse socio- pmay-urban.gov.in/uploads/ economic impacts for the progress-pdfs/6243ea311a29b- Kumar, A., & Kundu, A. beneficiaries but would also National.pdf (2018). Cost-benefit analysis of hinder the broader objective housing vertical interventions of their integration into the Das , A., Jose, M., Jacob, R., for urban poor in large cities of cityscape. Additionally, the Chatri, A. K., Alexander, A., Rajasthan. ResearchGate. focus on standalone housing & Mahalingam, K. (2018). under BLC has perpetually Documentation of learnings Kundu, A. (2013). Making excluded slums and squatter from Beneficiary Led Individual Indian Cities Slum-Free: settlements from availing of House Construcction (BLC) Vision and Operationalisation. the subsidy due to precarious Implementation in Tamil Nadu. Economic & Political Weekly. land tenure status. Further, the slump in the real estate sector Das, A., & Mukherjee, A. Mahadevia, D., Bhatia, N., & has discouraged the scope for (2018). Demystifing Urban Bhatt, B. (2018). Private Sector private sector investment in Land Tenure Issues. Deutsche in Affordable Housing? Case of these settlements, reinforcing Gesellschaft für Internationale Slum Rehabilitation Scheme in the role of the public sector in Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. Ahmedabad, India. Sage . such investments. Das, A., Mukherjee, A., Dhar, PMAY. (2022). pmay-urban. B. S., Chaterjee, S., Gupta, A., & Retrieved from https:// Jain, A. (2020). Documentation pmay-urban.gov.in/uploads/ progress-pdfs/6243ea311a29b- National.pdf April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 61

CASE STUDIES CITYWIDE SLUM REHABILITATION STRATEGIES FOR THE URBAN POOR IN KOLHAPUR AR. PRATIMA JOSHI Kolhapur is a tier-2 in judicious utilisation of land and AR. ISHA JOSHI Maharashtra and is spread inclusivity of the urban poor. over 7685 Sq.m. with a BACKGROUND “Shelter Associates population density of 3,876,001. Shelter Associates (SA) (368-kolhapur.html 1). With had undertaken a research intervened at the behest of increasing urbanisation, a project within the Kolhapur growing demand for housing Municipal Corporation (KMC) the community with multi- within the Kolhapur city has that aimed at leveraging a data led to formation of slum pockets driven, inclusive approach to stakeholders, for an inclusive spread across the city. There develop holistic solutions for are 57 slums in the city with a social housing. The research approach that would ensure population of 59,971 having project aimed at providing a no security of tenure. (https:// framework for implementing a balance of the top-down shelter-associates.org2) Through social housing projects across the research project undertaken 44 slums on the government and bottom-up approach. Shelter Associates(SA) in land. collaboration with Pramiti SA follows three core Throughout the project all the foundation and funded by principles for sensitive ATE CF aimed to provide a planning: (1) the importance stakeholders were involved framework for implementing of a data driven process; (2) social housing projects across the importance of a holistic in each step of the process, 44 slums in the government. approach at the citywide level; The research project follows the and (3) the importance of an ensuring participation, core principles of (1) data driven inclusive multi stakeholder approach (2) holistic citywide approach. SA had prepared feedback from all concerned approach and (3) inclusive multi a spatial database for all 57 stakeholder approach towards informal settlements in the city parties.” planning. Furthermore, SA that was leveraged to identify aimed to highlight the on-ground the vulnerable settlements on Keywords: Slum Upgradation, scenario for affordable housing government land in order to land tenure, institutional financing, and gauge the hurdles faced prioritise and focus resources Beneficiary- Led Individual House during implementation. The for their redevelopment. The Construction/Enhancement (BLC), article highlights the findings solutions for these settlements PMAY (U), urban poor from the research project that were developed through Ar. Pratima Joshi (pratima@shelter- provides an insight to the top rapid design development associates.org) is Executive Director, down approach of social housing Shelter Associates; Ar.Isha Joshi is projects resulting in lack of Architect, Shelter Associates 62 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES and dialogue with concerned composed where the cause departments within the ULB would be the proposed stakeholders such as potential intervention and the effect (including the TP department, would be the desired outcome beneficiaries, Pradhan to provide security of tenure. slum rehabilitation A citywide database provides Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) a detailed understanding department, and all land of (1) Land Ownership (2) department and concerned Dwelling Densities (3) Land records departments) (2) Reservation (4) Land Rates (5) Urban Local Body (ULB) Tenable and Untenable Slums the community. This (6) Potential Extra Housing officials. During data Stock. The information approach established a collated and analysed collection and iteration of provides a holistic view of level of familiarity with the city that can be leveraged solutions for the vulnerable for judicious planning of land the concerned officials that use. settlements structured proved imperative for smooth The inclusive approach for the interviews were undertaken project ensures that through implementation stages of the (1) socio-economic surveys, with PMAY officials, local (2) group discussions and project. dialogue with the community authorities, developers, the aspirations of the urban poor and their expectations and beneficiaries to identify from a housing scheme are The information generated taken into consideration through data collection and the current scenario for while proposing solutions. surveys to identify vulnerable In order to gauge data on slums was leveraged, in housing. It helped identify slum demographics such order to propose solutions as family size, occupation, that ensure judicious use hurdles encountered during financial condition (such as of land. The vulnerability income, expenditure, and matrix was prepared by implementation and gave loans), tenancy arrangement, placing settlements in rows plot ownership, proof of and pre-decided parameters an insight to the top down land ownership, willingness pertinent to vulnerability in to participate in a housing columns. Within this matrix approach towards affordable programme family level data scores of 1 to 4 were awarded for all mapped dwellings was to each category for each housing schemes that lacked collected. settlement. The total of all the scores then provided a final an inclusive approach and The different stakeholders vulnerability score. The score involved were (1) the different 1 indicated least vulnerability judicious utilisation of land. while the score 4 indicated highest vulnerability. The METHODOLOGY FOR vulnerability matrix enabled PROPOSING SOCIAL the available resources to HOUSING SOLUTIONS be focussed on the most vulnerable slums. Solutions SA’s core principles advocate are first proposed for the most vulnerable slums that ensure the preparation of a they are first considered for rehabilitation. citywide database that can be leveraged to develop holistic solutions for the informal settlement. Slum level data is methodically collected, meticulously organised, and presented using a coordinating base map. This ensures that an accurate profile of the surveyed area, whether a city, a neighbourhood, or an individual slum, is generated. With an up-to-date and accurate profile valid theories This stage included (1) understanding methods of of cause and effect can be April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 63

CASE STUDIES rehabilitation (2) carrying out development. plots reserved for slum rapid design development to rehabilitation, relocation propose solutions. 3. Part redevelopment: can be proposed either However in cases where on an open plot of land or FIVE WAYS IDENTIFIED the slum cannot be nearby slums with extra FOR REDEVELOPMENT completely rehabilitated housing stock proposed. OF A SLUM due to multiple reasons 5. Creating extra housing such as issues with stock / relocation 1. In-situ Rehabilitation: land ownership, land of untenable slums: In case of a tenable high reservation, etc then part In cases where the density slum with no redevelopment has been dwelling density was possibility of any extra proposed. lower then the slum housing stock the slum has the potential to is considered for in-situ 4. Relocation to an open accommodate additional rehabilitation. plot: In the case of dwellings. Extra housing untenable slums, due stock can be generated 2. Complete redevelop- to factors such as thus making the slums ment: as it ensures reservation, topographic receiving pockets for challenges, etc., and other untenable slums. equitable distribution without receiving and judicious use of pocket or any alternative land to ensure holistic Figure 1: Ways of Redevelopment Based on collected data - Identify Tenable Untenable Relocating untenable slums Identifying tenable slums within 2 - 2.5km No extra Housing Stock If they have Extra Housing Stock capacity If they have no extra housing stock In- situ Complete Redevelopment capacity Look for alternative open plots of land 64 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES The importance of the residents of vulnerable ideas developed for probable 2-2.5km distance for the slums on untenable land are solutions were viable. relocation of untenable accommodated on tenable Once the slums that had slums: slums, within 2-2.5km, where potential for redevelopment proposed housing projects were identified, it was As observed from past can be implemented. necessary to undertake experiences, residents have Rapid design development rapid design development to a mobility range wherein was a critical stage to ensure understand the exact extent all required facilities were that the projects envisaged/ of housing stock that can be available within 2-2.5km be accommodated. it their social requirements, places of worship, place Figure 2: Identifying 2km radius around vulnerable slums of education, place of occupation or healthcare The solutions developed at a citywide level: facilities. In order to ensure that the lifestyle will not be disrupted by relocating residents of vulnerable slums on untenable land to locations where their required facilities are not available, relocation strategies are limited to 2-2.5km. Thus tenable slums within 2-2.5km of the vulnerable slums on untenable land were identified as potential receiving pockets and feasibility studies were conducted of each potential receiving pocket to determine maximum housing capacity. In instances where no tenable slums with extra house potential were within 2-2.5km, open plots were to be considered as potential receiving pockets for absorbing the untenable slums. This information was presented on a citywide plan to enable housing relocation strategies to be formulated where the April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 65

CASE STUDIES Figure 3: Proposed Citywide Solutions SOLUTION 02: RELOCATING KANDALGAO TO TENABLE SLUM According to the Development Plan(DP), Kandalgao had multiple reservations in different parts of the slum such as open space, public - semi public, road widening. As a result the slum was completely untenable and would soon have to relocate to an alternative plot of land. Process of proposing solutions for Kandalgao: A 2km radius around Kandalgao was marked and slums within the area were noted. The dwelling densities and extra housing stock potential for each slum was noted. The slums that were potential receiving pockets were identified on the basis of parameters such as (1) Dwelling Densities and extra housing stock (2) reservation (3) on-ground complexities Development of Vare Vasahat as a receiving pocket to absorb Kandalgao: SOLUTION 01: KAMGAR and the residents suffered Kandalgao a slum located in CHAWL : IN-SITU from poor sanitation facilities, Administrative Ward 03, had a REHABILITATION: unhygienic living conditions, vulnerability index of 22. The narrow roads, inadequate slum was under P-SP, Open Kamgar Chawl, a slum located parking, etc. The slum was Space and road widening in Administrative Ward 02, identified for in-situ holistic reservation. The slum being had a dwelling density of 431 redevelopment that would untenable, the residents dwelling units / hectare. The ensure a well-planned would have to relocate in near slum occupied an area that mid-rise high density future. Informal discussions had inadequate infrastructure redevelopment. were undertaken with a few community members 66 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Figure 4: Proposed Solution for Kamgar Chawl while the socio-economic of government land was DESCRIPTION OF survey was taken and SA advocated. As a result OPTION 01: gleaned that people were solutions were conceptualised aware of their predicament. such that existing low density The land area, dwelling They showed willingness to tenable slums absorbed the density and location make relocate to alternate plots of untenable slums to create Vare Vasahat an ideal scenario land. SA then followed the extra housing stock. Tenable for complete redevelopment. 2km approach to search for slums with extra housing Some salient features of the alternate tenable land areas. stock potential within the first option are 2km from Kandalgao were An approach that ensures identified. 1. Mid-rise High density settlement (Stilt + 4) resourceful utilisation April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 67

CASE STUDIES Figure 5: Proposed Solution for Vare Vasahat natural light and ventilation 5. Ensures that community spirits are forged In order to have a deeper understanding of the on- ground condition to ensure that the solution proposed is viable, structured interviews of Town Planning Officials and local residents were undertaken. with adequate space for 3. Conforming to town In Vare Vasahat property parking. planning rules and cards have been issued 2. Optimum utilisation of regulations to 25% dwellings that are government land scattered across the slum. 4. Design with adequate The land was divided into State Government, Local Government. During the surveys SA came across instances wherein a few slum dwellers who resided in the locality since the times of Shahu Maharaj had been awarded property cards. As property cards were awarded to a few dwellings it had resulted in pockets of private ownership scattered throughout the slum. It was difficult to understand the exact number of slum dwellers that had been issued a property card, as the ULB did not hold aggregated data for each slum. In Vare Vasahat, residents have not participated in the PMAY due to the tedious process of seeking permissions, developing plots of land after following all town-planning norms 68 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Figure 6: Property Cards allotted in Vare Vasahat awarded a property card. In such a scenario, leveraging on spatial mapping, data collected and the information received through surveys, SA identified the slum area that had no private ownership and marked the boundary. The rehabilitation proposed included the residents within the marked boundary and residents relocated Kandalgao settlement. Along with a detailed understanding of land- ownership, discussions were undertaken with beneficiaries who have taken part in a housing scheme and site visits of current housing schemes to understand the hurdles faced during implementation. The factors that highlighted the gap between beneficiary aspirations, needs and the resulting accommodation are (1) Following Town Planning rules and regulations (2) Lack of inclusivity of slum dwellers (02.06.2021) VARE VASAHAT, WARD NO - 01, KMC. 1. Following Town Planning rules and regulations: The collated data on land and are relocated to plots Pockets of private land ownership was used to of land(as per area on the develop alternative solutions property card) after dividing ownership were scattered for redevelopment. the site in 2 parts as shown. across the city. As property cards had been Option B: Option C: allotted to only a few It is proposed that a layout The second option was dwellings, construction consisting of G+1 row houses developed in the event that and Stilt + 4 construction. In the beneficiaries refuse to as per town planning this case the beneficiaries have leave their current place of been awarded a property card dwelling which has been norms were followed by only those who had taken benefits from the scheme. Furthermore the setback April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 69

CASE STUDIES Figure 7: Alternative options for Vare Vasahat rules and regulations, resulted in built up spaces that were inadequate for adequate size of dwellings and resulted in front open spaces flanked by adjacent built up areas. It created a tethered road with adjacent nebulous open spaces that had no significant purpose. The reduced built-up areas resulted in a kutcha-pucca transformation rather than a holistic development. The following was a case study of a beneficiary who has availed benefit from the PMAY under the BLC category. Due to lack of awareness around the TP rules to be followed, the residents have left a 15Ft setback instead of the required setback. Figure 8: A family with property card has developed the plot Figure 9: A family with property card following Town Planning rules in Awachit Nagar has developed the plot following Town Planning rules in Awachit Nagar 70 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES 2. Lack of inclusivity of Figure 11: Loknagari varied mix of consumers slum dwellers Swapnapurti proved to be as it accommodated more affordable as the price affordable housing along Kolhapur had sanctioned range was comparatively with consumers from the 4887 houses under the 2 lower. Loknagari had a more open market thus blurring verticals of AHP and BLC boundaries of economic of the Pradhan Mantri differences. It was observed Awas Yojana since 2016. ( that in both affordable 3 PMAY_City_wise_for_ housing projects, beneficiaries web.pdf). In spite of the from informal settlements many housing schemes were not able to avail benefits for the EWS, MIG, and from the scheme due to lack LIG sections of the society of financial capabilities. most slum dwellers had not been able to participate 1. Interviews with in them. Case studies and beneficiaries who have interviews were conducted taken part in Beneficiary to understand on ground Led Construction under scenarios for (1) Projects PMAY in Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP) vertical In order to gauge the process of PMAY (2) Beneficiary of availing benefits from Led Construction (BLC) in PMAY Figure 12: Analysis of findings from BLC interviews 1. AHP projects visited were (1) Swapnapurti (2) Lokanagri Figure 10: Swapnapurti April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 71

CASE STUDIES The following gives a brief description of the findings from the site visits and interviews. Table.1 Comparative analysis of Swapnapurti and Lokanagari Project Swapnapurti Loknagari Proposal by PMAY Ramsina Group Developers Udayraj developers Ramsina Group Site Area 0.72 acre 1.5 acres F.S.I 2.5 2.5 Type EWS + CLS EWS + CLS + Open market Flat Units Total - 213 Dwellings Total - 250 Dwellings 2BHK - 25 2BHK– 118    1BHK -188   1BHK – 132  All dwellings allotted for  50% of the total dwellings allotted for  PMAY PMAY Type of flats 55% EWS (1BHK PMAY) : 2 BHK – 29  and 1BHK – 132. 118  Dwellings 2BHK : 48.82sqm RERA carpet 1 BHK : 26 sqm (RERA 1BHK : 29.32 sqm RERA carpet carpet) 2BHK 50 sqm  (RERA carpet) Amenities * Note : After Unified 6 lifts, 2 floor parking bylaws, the proposal was revised as per increased FSI, Height relaxation, setback relaxations and 6th floor was added. 1 BHK was converted to 2 BHK as there was existing demand for 2BHK. 4 lifts with backup Amenities: Parking - 2 Amenities:  Play Area, Garden. Open Levels library Very well connected with public Access and Location Not well connected by transport. All kinds of facilities are public transport. Facilities present within 1 Km. not at a very walkable distance ` 19.6 lakhs Rate ` 16 lakhs (Extra 1.5 lakhs to be paid for 4 wheeler parking) 72 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Commencement 2019 2019 year Possession year June 2022 December 2021 Subsidy received Construction till No subsidy received till date No subsidy received till date date Customer type 6 floors 11 floors Number of PMAY Daily wage earners with No slum dwellers have taken benefit of flats sold till an income range 10,000 – the scheme 26/08/2021 12,000.  72 out of 250 Only 2 slum dwellers have availed of the scheme 95 out of 213 BLC and Ramai, structured allotted plots of land. From 1. Loss of judicious use of the total population, 9.9% land due to scattered land interviews were conducted people had taken part in the ownership : RAMAI Awas Yojana and with beneficiaries residing 2.32% from PMAY. People had constructed permanent in Ambedkar Nagar and dwellings by taking benefits Land Ownership policies: from the above schemes and Due to the haphazard Awachit Nagar. The loans from national banks or issue of property cards it micro-finance institutions. was observed that land interviews gave an insight occupied by settlements A survey of 8 beneficiaries like Vare Vasahat and on implementation, financial who have taken benefits Ambedkar Nagar had from the PMAY scheme was resulted in sub-optimum condition, subsidy received, undertaken and analysed on use of government the basis of factors such as preventing land sharing. plot area and ownership, on- setbacks followed, whether construction was as per going stages of construction, approved layout, amount of subsidy received and timet aken for completion of remaining, etc, the project, delays etc. Inferences: In Ambedkar Nagar, a From the structured Inadequate data: The majority of the families had interviews, site visits and taken part in the scheme discussions with concerned data held by ULB had in the year 2014 (44%), and officials, the following issues the rest in the years 2015, have been inferred: discrepancies in the 2016, 2017. It was observed that beneficiaries who had land ownership, land enrolled in the year 2018 or later had not received the last demarcation and property instalment. cards issued. Furthermore the plot area as occupied by the residents did not Through interviews with conform to the property residents of Ambedkar Nagar, it was revealed that 75% cards issued. This dwellings had been issued property cards for the pre has resulted in loss of opportunity for taking informed decisions for April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 73

CASE STUDIES complete redevelopment. dues or were unable to the need for SA’s citywide take necessary follow- approach to social housing 2. Issues due to lack of ups with the governing that leverages on the data holistic development : officials. Furthermore, collected to propose holistic in the opinion of many solutions for the urban poor. Beneficiaries who had residents, taking part in a The benefits of an inclusive ‘Awas Yojana’ is lengthy approach to social housing been awarded a property and time consuming. is described through the case They face many hurdles study of Bondre Nagar. card had to follow all in securing the required permissions and getting Introduction to Bondre concerned governing a plan approved from Nagar: the Town Planning norms for constructing a department. (under BLC). In 2015, Shelter Associates Furthermore there have undertook a One Home One permanent structure. The been tremendous delays Toilet initiative to facilitate under BLC - PMAY. Many home toilets to slum residents small percent of residents residents have received on a cost sharing basis. instalments of inconsistent During the implementation who had been awarded a amounts, while others of the initiative in Bondre have not received any Nagar a good rapport was property card developed subsidy. established with the families through mobilisation and the plots as per the town 4. Lack of an inclusive awareness activities. In planning approach: 2016, a pilot project of slum planning norms which has rehabilitation was proposed The ongoing Affordable for Bondre Nagar in Kolhapur resulted in a kutcha- pucca Housing in Partnership by the ULB under the Pradhan (AHP) projects in the city Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY). transformation rather than have a top-down approach It proposed generation of of development where extra housing stock to become complete redevelopment. the projects have been the saleable component of the developed at the edge of project by relocating residents Living Conditions: the city, away from the to multi-storeyed high-rise reach of slum dwellers. construction. The design Irrespective of land The large gap between was developed with a top- financial capabilities and down approach wherein the ownership all plots have the selling costs shows the requirements, and aspirations top-down, non inclusive of people were not taken a common access lane, design approach thus into consideration. Most leaving the urban poor out families in Bondre Nagar road side entrance, and of the affordable housing were farm labourers who market. were uncomfortable living even a common wall built in a high-rise building and The inferences from the the community rejected the during construction of the research project highlight proposal. house. The residents lived in similar infrastructural facilities and common amenities and there had been little difference in the living conditions of the residents. 3. Issues with financial disbursement The process of land transfer being tedious and lengthy, many residents were unable to comply with all terms and conditions for ensuring the transfer of land rights. Many were unable to pay all previous 74 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Shelter Associates intervened adequate light and ventilation the plot area had reduced at the behest of the community and has the approval of all due to road widening and with a multi-stakeholder, for concerned stakeholders. the plot had shrunk further an inclusive approach that Design as proposed by the as some houses were beyond would ensure a balance of PMAY the plot boundary on private the top-down and bottom-up The design by the ULB land. It enforced the need approach. Throughout the was developed without for complete redevelopment project all the stakeholders undertaking an official that would conform to town were involved in each step Mojani. When SA applied for planning regulations. of the process, ensuring a Mojani to mark the exact People’s efforts: participation, feedback from boundary of the plot, the The project has been unique the all concerned parties. new boundary showed that in the proactiveness shown This project set an example Figure 13: Proposed plan by Figure 14: Reduced plot area of sanitation delivery that PMAY and dwellings affected catalysed social housing facilitation due to the Design proposal Figure 16: Cluster plan by foundation of spatial data. Figure 15: Proposed site plan PMAY Along with it, socio-economic surveys and mobilisation activities undertaken gave a clarity of the on-ground reality and have thus driven decisions, benefiting all stakeholders. Undertaking various mobilisation activities, the community was engaged in an inclusive process of designing. From taking door-to-door discussions to engaging the residents in a to-scale mock-up plan, SA has given a clear understanding of the space and its functionality. SA has incorporated people’s requirements in the design at every stage of development. The people have actively participated in the design process and made collective decisions for the good of the community. The low-rise, high-density form consists of G+1 structures planned so as to provide a central courtyard, April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 75

CASE STUDIES by people of Bondre Nagar. CONCLUSION the context within which they The people have formed a co- are situated. operative society and shown The current housing scenario readiness to take a loan. They highlights the existing SA advocates a balance of the have taken responsibility for condition and implications their transit accommodation. of the identified issues that top-down and the bottom- are detrimental to holistic Way forward: development for the urban up approach; facilitators of In September 2021 the Project poor. It enforces the need for proposal was submitted citywide approach to social slum rehabilitation projects to the State government housing that leverages on for approvals and after the data collected to propose should be working at all continuous efforts, an holistic solutions for the urban important milestone of poor. The article provides a scales concurrently to adopt land transfer in the name of detailed on-ground scenario the beneficiaries has been for affordable housing in an informed and neutral achieved. Once approvals the city of Kolhapur and from the State and Central highlights the issues (1) Loss position. Informed decisions government are secured the of judicious use of land (2) construction of the project Issues due to lack of holistic based on the principles of will commence. The Bondre development (3) Lack of an Nagar slum rehabilitation inclusive planning approach. (1) data driven (2) inclusive project is on track to become The lack of comprehensive a precedent for other data available with the ULB approach (3) holistic rehabilitation projects. It makes it difficult to take a has the potential to give an holistic view of the entire development facilitate impetus to the citywide action urban area. This can lead to plan and transform the lives of piecemeal slum rehabilitation impactful projects where the the urban poor for the better. projects which represent a The vulnerable settlements suboptimal use of the limited interests of the stakeholders identified through the resources, such as tenable research project can leverage land, and fail to leverage have been balanced. the learnings from Bondre an economy of scale. It can Nagar. also lead to hesitancy by the The citywide approach will ULB in undertaking slum ensure optimum utilisation redevelopment projects due of government land and an to complexities and conflicts inclusive planning approach that may arise during beneficial for all concerned planning. The top-down stakeholders. The proposed and non-inclusive approach solutions have the potential implemented is ineffective to be replicated in similar and slum rehabilitation 2-tier and 3-tier cities willing projects are often conceived to implement social housing from a remote position programs. without any understanding of REFERENCES (368-kolhapur.html ) : Census data for land area and population https://shelter-associates.org : Shelter Associates Website presenting spatial data at citywide level h t t p s : / / p m a y - u r b a n . g o v. in/uploads/progress-pdfs/ PMAY_City_wise_for_web. pdf : Data on number of projects sanctioned under PMAY 76 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES HOUSING SOLUTIONS FOR LOW INCOME SETTLEMENTS CASE OF UNAUTHORIZED COLONIES IN DELHI DR. RUCHITA GUPTA The term low income settlements percent or about two-thirds MS. ANWESHA broadly refers to all kind of of the world’s population CHANDRA settlements which lack basic will be living in urban areas amenities and infrastructure to (United Nations, 2019). It “Due to lack of resources support its inhabitants and are has also been observed that and technical know-how, the marked by low or no security in the recent decades the dwellings that are constructed of tenure and unhealthy living pace of urbanization has are unsafe. Government of conditions. The paper provides been faster in developing the local body should set- an overview of the evolution countries, especially in the up Housing Dispensaries of unauthorized settlements Asian and African countries at a certain population and policy timelines that have as compared to those in the level. Such dispensaries will impacted the living and housing developed world. provide technical knowhow conditions of the residents in about construction practices, Delhi. Through undertaking With a vision towards masonry etc. and would also a study in four unauthorized sustainable development, have plumbers, electricians, colonies spread across North, cities are working towards structural engineers and South, East and West of Delhi, this managing their urban growth architects for helping the paper focuses on analyzing these to be in tandem with the residents. ” colonies at the settlement and the Sustainable Development household level to identify the Goals, especially SDG-11 Key-words: Low income settlements, issues that plague the residents which aims at making cities Unauthorised colonies, Housing and highlights the heterogeneity and human settlements more typologies, construction techniques, and resourcefulness exhibited by inclusive, safe, resilient and building materials them in their daily survival. It sustainable. However there provides possible solutions that are challenging urban issues Dr. Ruchita Gupta (ruchita.gupta@ can be adopted to improve the that accompany urbanization spa.ac.in) is Associate Professor, current scenario. like inequality, climate change, Department of Housing, School of informality, insecurity, and Planning and Architecture, New Delhi. INTRODUCTION the unsustainable forms Ms. Anwesha Chandra (anweshac91@ of urban expansion (UN gmail.com) is Practicing Architect and Countries across the world Habitat, 2016). One of the former Research Associate, Department are experiencing rapid major issues among these of Housing, School of Planning and urbanization with about 55.3 is the increased residency Architecture, New Delhi. percent of the population in slums and informal (or 4.1 billion people) living settlements. An estimated 25 in urban areas at present. By percent of the world’s urban 2050, it is projected that 68 population live in informal April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 77

CASE STUDIES settlements, with 213 million of urbanisation increased are in complete defiance of informal settlement residents from 88.72 per cent to 97.50 planning regulations and being added to the global per cent during this period. legislations. The Informal population since 1990 (Avis, As per 2011 census Delhi’s settlements (or unauthorised 2016). The extent of irregular population grew by about colonies) are residential housing varies from country 21.20 percent over a period areas where the inhabitants to country, comprising 20 to of ten years from 2001-2011. often have no security of 80 percent of urban growth Today Delhi’s population tenure, neighbourhoods and affecting 15 to 70 percent stands at 19 million spread usually lack basic services of the urban population of over an area of 1483 sq. km. and infrastructure, and the developing countries. Such However the city has failed housing may not comply problems are more acute in to provide decent, affordable with the existing planning the larger metropolitan areas and legal housing to this vast and building regulations, (Durand-Lasserve and Clerc, populace. and are mostly located 1996). in geographically and India is one of the fastest The Delhi Development environmentally sensitive growing economies in Asia Authority (DDA) established areas (UN Habitat, 2015). with an urbanisation rate of in 1957 was in charge of about 31.2 percent as per the the city’s development as a UNDERSTANDING THE 2011 census. However, due to whole including provision SETTLEMENT AND ITS lack of access to decent and of public housing at an MAGNITUDE affordable housing one in affordable rate but it has every six urban Indian lives not been able to meet the The Delhi Urban Shelter in slums and they constitute rising demand for affordable Improvement Board (DUSIB) around 17.4 percent of total housing. Since 1969, the DDA recognizes unauthorized urban population of the has constructed 413,883 flats, Colonies as one of the country (National Building building an average of 8,622 several informal/unplanned Organization, 2015). flats per year. The number settlements in Delhi as evident Delhi, being the capital city of houses built by it in the from Table 1. About one-third and the second largest urban last 48 years is a little more of Delhi lives in sub-standard agglomeration after Mumbai, than the number of people housing, which includes 695 attracts millions of migrants added to Delhi’s population slums and JJ Clusters, 1797 everyday who come in search each year (Gupta, 2017). In unauthorized colonies, old of job and better livelihood. contrast, Delhi’s population dilapidated areas and 362 The population of Delhi has has increased by 1.56 crore villages (Economic Survey of grown exponentially in the with an average annual rate Delhi 2021-22). These areas past decades far outstripping of 3.26 lakh people in the often lack safe, adequate the infrastructure and same period. Hence, lack of housing and basic services housing that the city can adequate developed land at and infrastructure. According provide. Its urban population affordable prices to different to the projections of Master has registered a sharp categories of residents Plan of Delhi-2021 (MPD- increase from 2.36 million in and continuous in-flow of 2021), Delhi needs 24 lakh 1961 to 16.33 million in 2011, migrants over the years have new housing units by the year growing at an average annual resulted in the emergence 2021. Of these, 54 percent are rate of 3.95 per cent. The level of unplanned/informal required for the economically settlements in the city which weaker sections (EWS) and lower income groups (LIG). 78 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Table 1: Distribution of Unplanned Dwelling Units and Population in Delhi (1) (2) (3) Jhuggi Jhompri Basti (JJ Basti) 775 JJ Basti Encroached on public land (State Population 17 lakh government: 30% Central Government Resettlement 70%). Colonies Colonies 82 (45+37) Plots 267,859 Incorporated within the expanded city Unauthorised Population not specified with good shelter consolidation without Colonies adequate services Notified Slum Colonies 1797 Areas (Katras) Population about 40 lakh Illegal colonies in violation of Master Plans, no clear land title Katras 2,423 Population 20 lakh Notified under Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956. Urban Village Urban Village 135 (227 rural Residents are staying on a perpetual villages not yet notified as license basis. urban) Population not specified Notified under Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957 Homeless and 16,000 persons - Pavement Dwellers Source: Economic Survey of Delhi 2021-22 DDA defines unauthorized by the government, or of Delhi which came in 1962 colonies as developments that urban fringe agricultural there were 110 unauthorized comprise contiguous areas land or common land of colonies, housing around 2 where no permission from a village engulfed by city lakh people and accounted for the concerned agency has growth (Banerjee, 2002). It about 9 percent of the city’s been obtained for approval is estimated that around 40 population. A fourth of these of layout plan/building lakh people or 25 percent of colonies were located in East plan (The Gazette of India Delhi’s population reside in Delhi (Gupta, 1992; Dupont, Extraordinary Part II Section-1 unauthorized colonies. 2005). Sub section 2b, 2019). Unauthorized colonies consist The genesis of unauthorized In 1956 there were 110 of illegally sub-divided plots, colonies in Delhi can be traced unauthorized colonies and non-conforming land use and back to the pre-independence with time their numbers development control rules era when private players increased. During 1960s the and unapproved building started sub-dividing tracts colonies started to grow on bye-laws. The land may be of land on the East bank of available agricultural land privately owned, or under river Yamuna to re-sell to around urban villages and ‘lal notification for expropriation lower income groups. Even dora’ areas as extensions or before the first Master Plan around the city periphery into April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 79

CASE STUDIES the rural hinterland. Some of of notified land continued gradually the colony got the colonies were located close through other arrangements regularized. Figure 1 shows to the refugee resettlements, such as gifting away the plot the growth of unauthorised taking advantage of existing (Banerjee, 1994). colonies in Delhi over the infrastructure and lax years. government control over land In most cases the ‘colonizers’ on humanitarian grounds, were the developers and In 2008 based on Government while others were located property dealers who would of NCT of Delhi’s directive of along major access routes, buy agricultural land from ‘Regulation for Regularization for easier commuting to local farmers. They would of Unauthorized colonies’, workplaces (Dupont, 2005). then subdivide it and sell 1639 colonies applied for In 1961 the government the smaller plots at cheaper regularization based on introduced a scheme for rates to new buyers. The certain parameters and cut large scale acquisition and new buyers would make off dates, out of which 1218 development of land in temporary makeshift colonies received “Provisional Delhi of around 30,000 acres. structures to occupy the land. Regularisation Certificates” However due to slow and Meanwhile road networks (PRCs). Further, in September lengthy process only 10,000 and boundary walls were 2012, a GNCTD order found acres could be developed by built by the developer and 895 of them to be eligible for 1978. Moreover, there was illegal electricity was also regularisation of which 312 a huge shortage of housing arranged for. Overtime the colonies that were on private especially for the lower colony got improvised. land were considered to be income group. Inadequacy Sewers and drains were de facto regularized whereas in land development coupled mostly non-existent and by the remaining 583 colonies with shortage of housing units the time city officials become that were partly or wholly aggravated the proliferation aware of the existence of such on public land would be of unauthorized colonies on a colony, it acted as a thriving regularised after the cost of agricultural land where the sub system with families land on which they stood had land prices were low to begin living and going about their been recovered by the Delhi with. Since major chunks daily lives. Eviction no longer Government (Sheikh and of land were notified for remained an option under Banda, 2014). acquisition by DDA, to evade humanitarian grounds and lengthy procedures of land acquisition and coping with Figure 1: Growth of Unauthorized colonies in Delhi inadequate compensation, it was more profitable 2000 1639 1797 to subdivide plots and 1500 transfer the land notified for 1000 1071 acquisition on General Power of Attorney to prospective 500 567 buyers looking for affordable 0 334 shelter. In order to ban such 110 101 practices, the Delhi Lands (Restrictions on Transfer) Act upto 1961 1961-1967 1967-1971 1971-1977 1977-1993 1993- 2008 2008-2018 was enforced in June 1972 (Dupont, 2005). Yet, transfers Source: Mehra, P. (2014), Unauthorized colonies in Delhi, Unpublished Thesis, SPA, New Delhi 80 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Some of the generic and have to either depend on that part of the city. their own resources or borrow characteristics of these from their social network or Table 2: Distribution of private moneylenders. unauthorized colonies on settlements include private land in Delhi incremental nature of housing, with limited access OBSERVING FOUR to infrastructure facilities UNAUTHORIZED Location Number of unauthorized like water supply, sewer and COLONIES IN DELHI North North-East colonies electricity distribution. The North-West 11 South 41 plots have 100 percent ground A study was undertaken to South-West 22 understand the evolution of East 41 coverage and built from all such illegal colonies to decode West 51 the underlying historic, Total 9 sides with the exception of cultural and physical patterns 137 and explore the incremental 312 the front/access road which nature of housing which is a reflection of their changing is the only means of light and needs and ever changing family sizes. The study also ventilation. The settlements focuses on the health effects due to the lack of light and are characterised by a narrow ventilation, dampness and termite infestation and network of roads whose width the level of infrastructure provision in these colonies varies between 5m (that serve through four case studies in Delhi. The study was part of as thoroughfare through the a research project funded by the Design Innovation Centre colony) to 2m (that serve as (DIC), School of Planning Source: Unauthorized colonies cell, and Architecture, Delhi GNCTD access to residences) which which aimed at developing innovative housing solutions are shaded by balcony or for low income settlements. The four selected colonies The four colonies described in were (1) I.G. Camp, Vikaspuri bathroom projections that this paper were chosen from (West Delhi); (2) Nai Basti, 312 unauthorised colonies Okhla (South Delhi); (3) Rajbir extend beyond the building that are on private land and Colony, Gharoli (East Delhi); were de facto regularised and (4) Chandan Vihar, Burari line. in 2012. Distribution of the (North Delhi). Their locations 312 unauthorised colonies are marked in Figure 2. Unauthorized colonies are on private land across Delhi different from its other show a higher concentration Figure 2: Location of selected unplanned counterparts in in the western part (Table 2) colonies terms of legality in the sense due to the presence of large that the transfer of land/ number of factories and Note: 1) IG Camp (West Delhi), 2) property takes place under migrant workers inhabiting Nai Basti (South Delhi) 3) Rajbir General Power of Attorney Colony (East Delhi), 4) Chandan (GPA) which, though quasi Vihar (North Delhi). legal, is neither recognized as a legal document in the transfer of immovable property nor does it serve as a proof of ownership. Transfer of property is not registered by the Sub-Registrar due to the ambiguity over ownership and misuse of agricultural land. This implies that the buyers of such properties are not eligible to avail loans from the financial institutions April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 81

CASE STUDIES Detailed surveys on dried up storm water drain areas or are employed in the housing conditions, (Sukhi Nahar/Nalah) which homebased enterprises with interviews with the residents, is used for dumping waste monthly salaries/incomes local pradhan and RWA (Figure 3). Its origin can be ranging between Rs.5000- heads were carried out along traced back to 1990s when 8000. Although the colony with qualitative observations people working in the nearby was provisionally regularised and morphological analysis industries settled here. The in 2012 and waterlines were to arrive at distinctions and colony is a modest and laid in 2018 but piped water is general patterns that emerge impoverished settlement with not available and the residents out of all the case studies. a little over 3000 residents. use ground-water through Most of residents either work privately installed bore-wells. I.G. Camp, Vikaspuri – as construction labourers The settlement has no sewer West Delhi: I.G. Camp is and in factories in the nearby lines and paved roads. spread over 9 acres along a Figure 3: Layout of I.G. Camp Source: Author Figure 4: Living Conditions in I.G. Camp 82 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES The settlement is Layout of a typical 28 sq.m. recreational (City/ District plot is shown in Figure 5. Park/ Community Park) characterized by The G+1 structure is one land use as per the Zonal brick thick and built with Development Plan, Zone F predominantly two storeyed girder beams without proper of MPD, 2021. Its origin can construction techniques. The be traced back to 1978 with self-built dwellings packed toilet is placed on the balcony only 558 plots which have projection. now grown to 2500 with together on tiny plots of 25-30 poor infrastructure like lack Nai Basti, Okhla – South of sewer connection, open sq yards (20-25 sqm) with only Delhi: This 7.5 acre settlement drains and sand contaminated is situated in one of the thriving bore well water which makes 7-10 per cent plots reaching areas of South Delhi along the the residents dependent on Kalindi Kunj road (Figure 6) bottled water. Majority of up to 42sqm (50 gaj) in size. and has good connectivity the residents are employed resulting in a high density in private sector while some Access to the settlement is fabric with four storeyed have their own business/ builder floor apartments and shops. restricted to either by foot high property prices. The settlement illegally occupies Figure 6: Layout of the colony or two-wheeler due to the and surrounding influence areas absence of paved roads. The approach road is lined with factory godowns, redundant/ locked-up store-houses, wilderness and garbage. Due to poor accessibility and lack of street lighting, women don’t venture out in the evening. Figure 5: Plans and layout of a house in IG Camp The typical 41.5 sq.m. and 166 sq.m. unit floor plans shown in Figure 7 depict the use of shaft for light and ventilation. For larger plot sizes of 166 sq.m. the plot depth varies between 17 and 20m allowing front and back access to light and ventilation. Rajbir Colony, Gharoli – East Delhi: It is located opposite Ghazipur land fill site along April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 83

CASE STUDIES Figure 7: Layout of 50 gaj (41.5 sq.m.) and 200 gaj (166 sq.m.) plots could be due to subdivision of larger plots. Figure 9 depicts a typical G+4 structure. Figure 9: Facade of typical house in the settlement the Ghazipur drain (Figure like from labourers, auto- The smell from the Ghazipur 8). The only mode of public rickshaw drivers, and landfill site prevents new conveyance is e-rickshaws. The businessmen reside in this migrants from settling here colony came into existence in colony. resulting in low rentals 1976 when a coloniser bought The settlement consists of (Rs.2000-5000 per month). land from the farmers and G+2 and G+4 structures. The Although the sewer network sold plots of 41-83 sq.m. (50- plots are mostly of 41 sq.m was laid in 2001, it is non- 100 Gaj) at low prices (Rs.150/ and 83 sq.m. However, 10-15 functional and the residents Gaj; currently the same plots percent of the plots are smaller depend on septic tanks. fetch Rs.25000/Gaj). People (around 21 sq.m.) which Water supply from Delhi Jal of different income categories Board is intermittent with water availability limited Figure 8: Layout of Rajbir Colony to 2-3 hours in the morning and evening. Proximity to the landfill site have an adverse effect on the health of residents. Chandan Vihar, Burari – North Delhi: Chandan Vihar is a 34 acre settlement located in north Delhi (Figure 10). The colony evolved in 1999 when 84 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES agricultural plots were sub- The settlement lies in the is extracted through bore- divided by colonisers into silty, clay and sandy loam soil wells and the water quality plots ranging between 41-83 region due to which structures is usually brackish and sq.m. (or 50-100 sq yard) and built during the 1990’s have contaminated due to poor were sold at Rs.1000/Gaj. sunk 2-3 feet into the ground. quality of sewer lines. More than 70 percent of the Often road construction/ structures are three storeyed paving activities results in GENERAL with upper floors rented buildings to sink further. In CHARACTERISTICS out. Due to its proximity to order to prevent flooding, Delhi University it caters to the residents have either Although the surveyed students as a cheap residential filled their ground floor or settlements have a diverse option. The thriving rental constructed retaining walls character, there are market has encouraged up to the level of the road. commonalities between construction activities while Sewer lines were constructed them in terms of the housing the women run a thriving by the residents from their pattern, typology and business supplying meals to own resources. Source of infrastructure. A comparative the students. water is groundwater which picture of the surveyed settlements is presented in Table 3. Figure 10: Layout plan of Chandan Vihar Plot Sizes & Housing Typology: Most plot sizes range between 41-83 sq.m. The larger plots generally undergo subdivision either due to division in the family or if the owner decides to sell a portion of the plot. The variations in plot sizes (width x depth) observed in the surveyed settlements is shown in table 4. The most common plot dimensions pertain to variation B. Table 3: Surveyed settlements – A comparison No. of Floors IG Camp, Nai Basti, Rajbir Colony, Chandan Vihar, Ground Coverage Vikaspuri Okhla Gharoli Burari Density (PPH) G+4 G+4 FAR G+1 100% G+2 & G+4 100% Built-up % till 2007 100% 3225 100% 214 Built-up % till 2018 4.02 3654 3.6 Source: Authors’ calculations -- 70% 4.0 55% 3.2 90% 85% 90% 50% 95% 80% April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 85

CASE STUDIES Table 4: Variation in plot sizes as observed in the surveyed settlements PLOT SIZES 25 sqm (30 Gaj) 41 sqm (50gaj) 62 sqm (75 Gaj) 83 sqm (100Gaj) Variation-A 10’x27’ 12’x36’ (dimension in feet) 12’x21’ 15’x30’ 16’x41’ 25’x36’ Variation-B 14’x18’ 20’x22 (dimension in feet) 20’x33’ 27’x32’ Variation-C (dimension in feet) 23’x29 30’x30’ Source: Author In the absence of setbacks and typical plot of 25 sqm with upper floors the toilets are full ground coverage the only two rooms usually caters to source of ventilation and light a family of 7-8 people. The constructed on the balcony is from the front façade in the bedrooms are pushed to smaller plots (25 sqm) (Figure the back of the plot which projecting over the ground 11). In the bigger plots (41 sqm receives neither light nor and above) the ventilation is ventilation while the front floor overlooking the road also through a small shaft (2ft part is used as entrance and x 2ft) (Figure 7) but no natural also has a separate staircase to due to the convenience of light permeates through it. access upper floors, especially House Design & Density: A if these are rented out. On the connecting to the water line Figure 11: Staircase and frontage that runs along the abutting road. Kitchens are stacked with big utensils/drums to store water due to inadequate water supply. Houses are dark and cramped, yet the residents display a proud sense of ownership. Construction Technique & Building Material: Houses on smaller plots (25 sqm) are mostly self-built G+2 structures. Originally a single unit with bedroom, living-space and kitchen is expanded vertically with the growing needs of the family. The external walls are 10”thick (225mm) and are often left un-plastered. The 5” (125mm) thick internal walls are supported by girder beams which in turn 86 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES support the filler slab for usage. Light weight rooftop lanes leading up to the the upper floors. However, rooms on the upper floors dwellings are 3-4m wide. houses on bigger plots (41 are often accessed via ladder In some areas there was a sqm and above) are usually in cases where a masonry 1-1.5m wide back-lane that constructed as builder floors roof does not exist. The steep allowed the houses to have a with column-beam structures staircases are very narrow rear window and possibility on raft foundation. Absence of (around 2 feet) and marked of natural light in the rear setbacks results in outer walls by high risers (250- 300mm) rooms. that are twice as thick as what without safety measure like Water & Sanitation: In the is necessary to bear the load. railings. surveyed settlement the These structures can at best Social Space & Roads: There water pipelines were either be described as matchboxes are no community and social laid by the government or stacked together that support spaces like parks for children by residents themselves. But each other structurally. and the elderly. Children play due irregular water supply Access to Upper Floors: The on the streets while women residents had to depend on upper floors are accessed gather around the entrance of groundwater (bore-wells) or through a staircase which houses to interact with each tankers. is usually in the front of other (Figure 13). While the In the absence of sewer lines, the building (Figure 12). In men gather under a tree or a residents have to construct some cases the upper floor chowk (square). a septic tank/ cess pit which is accessed through a brick Three out of four colonies are to be cleaned by honey- staircase placed in the middle surveyed followed a suckers regularly (3-4 years) segment of the plot that hierarchy of sorts where and the liquid waste often terminates into a masonry major roads running through overflows into the drains. enclosure. The kitchen is the settlement are 6m wide As these cess-pits are not generally tucked under the for thorough-fare. The access properly constructed they staircase to optimize space are a source of ground-water contamination. Open drains Figure 12: Staircase position used for dumping garbage are a common phenomenon observed across the surveyed settlement. WAY FORWARD Poor housing conditions like lack of natural light and ventilation and dampness, cramped and dark living spaces, inadequate water availability, and unhygienic living conditions have an inadvertent adverse effect on the health of the residents. High Density and large sized April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 87

CASE STUDIES Figure 13: Pictures depicting Social spaces light access and better utilization of light wells. families cramped in small using a 1:20 scale model space leads to violation of of G+4 structure with a  Cluster level light space per person and make shaft size of 1.8mx1.2m wells: We propose a it impossible to design and coated with different cluster model wherein as per everyone’s needs. reflective materials to the shafts can be taken Unwillingness to part with study the intensity of to the back/rear side of their land often rules out the light that reaches each the dwelling as shown in solution of redevelopment floor on the principle of Figure 14. This way each on a land sharing model total internal reflection. plot would have to leave which otherwise would have A significant increase in a space for shaft of 1m x proved beneficial with better lux levels was noticed 2m size at the rear end standards of living and also with the use of materials of their plot as a setback an optimal solution to the such as mirror, reflective and use the rest of the problem. We have explored paints and aluminium space as area for services. possible options that allows sheets on the shaft walls. If four plots leave such better access to sunlight in the Computer simulations, setback there would be dwellings. Some of these are: shaft profile, winter and a common shaft which summer sun, shading is 2m in width and 4m  Light collection Units: devices and building in length and will allow It was observed that orientation were also ample amount of light to allow entry of light examined for the to enter the dwellings and ventilation in the optimal efficiency. The from the backside. dwellings a shaft is highest level of light Moreover this open used for rooms and intensity was observed space can also be used bathrooms that are using mirror followed as a common courtyard positioned towards the by aluminium and and a community space backside of the house. reflective paints. It can that can be maintained A number of case be suggested that such collectively by residents. studies were examined innovative treatment of Such a model can be and experiments were the shaft wall can lead implemented through conducted in the studio to higher intensity of enforcing certain set of rules especially formulated for the unauthorized colonies to ensure minimum standard of living. Further, there is also a need for a ‘Housing Manual’ that can include lessons from experts on masonry details, ventilators, wall thickness, good construction practices, joinery details and other architectural solutions that 88 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

CASE STUDIES Figure 14: Common courtyard and services at the rear of the plot countries (pp. 37-58). London. Delhi Development Authority Source: Author (2012), Regulations and Regularizations of Unauthorized can be beneficial to residents architects for helping the colonies in Delhi, June. in such settlements. Such residents. These dispensaries Dupont, V. (2005), “Residential manuals should be made should be mandated as Practices, Creation and Use of easily accessible to everyone. facilities for certain number Urban Space: Unauthorized of population in the planning Colonies”, in Hust E. and M. Housing Dispensaries: standards. Mann (eds.) Urbanization and governance in India, Manohar Due to lack of resources and REFERENCES Publishers & Distributors, p. 311- 341, New Delhi. technical know-how, the Banerjee, B. (1994), Policy, Durand-Lasserve, Alain and procedure and technique Clerc, V., (1996), Regularization dwellings that are constructed for regularizing irregular and integration of irregular settlements in Indian cities, settlements: lessons from are unsafe. Government of Amsterdam. experience. UNDP, UN-Habitat, World Bank, Urban Management the local body should set- Banerjee, B. (2002), ‘Security of Program (UMP), Working Paper tenure in Indian cities’. In A. No.6, 1996, Urban Management up Housing Dispensaries at D. Royston (Ed.) Holding their and Land. grounds, secure land tenure for GNCTD. (2015). Urban Slums a certain population level. the urban poor in Developing in Delhi. Delhi: Directorate of Economics & Statistics. Such dispensaries will Government of NCT of Delhi (2013), Retrieved from provide technical knowhow Unauthorized colonies cell: http://ud.delhigovt.nic.in/ about construction practices, wps/wcm/connect/doit_ udd/Urban+Development/ masonry etc. and would also Our+Services/Unauthorized+ Colonies+Cells+%28UC%29/ have plumbers, electricians, Government of NCT of Delhi (2022), Economic Survey structural engineers and of Delhi 2021-22, Planning Department, Delhi. Gupta, R.C. (1992), Land Assembly in the Indian Metropolis, Uppal Publishing House, Delhi. Gupta, Ruchita (2017), “Transformation of Housing Typologies in organic and April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 89

CASE STUDIES Unplanned Settlements” Sheikh, S., & Banda, S. UN Habitat. (2016). World Cities Report - Urbanization Shelter, 18(2). (2014). Regularising Delhi’s and Development: Emerging futures. United Nations. Mehra, P. (2014). Unauthorized colonies. Unauthorized colonies Centre for Policy Research. in Delhi. Delhi: School of The Gazette of India United Nations. (2019). World Extraordinary Part II Planning and Architecture. Section-1 Sub section 2b. Urbanization Prospects. (2019, December 12th). Part II. Delhi. Department of Economic National Building and Social Affairs. New York: Organization (2015), United Nations. Slums in India-A Statistical W.R. Avis. (2016). Urban Governance. Birmingham, Compendium, Ministry of UN Habitat (2015), Informal UK: GSDRC, University of Settlements, Habitat III, Birmingham. Housing and Urban Poverty United Nations, New York. Alleviation. CITYNET Training Programme on “Sustainable Infrastructure Development and Management”, 12th -13th January, 2022 CITYNET is the largest sound understanding of session and addressed the association of urban concepts and issues of urban participants in the presence stakeholders committed to infrastructural services, of Dr. D Subrahmanyam, Sr. sustainable development within the framework of Executive Director and Shri in the Asia Pacific region Sustainable Development Surendra Singhai, General and HUDCO is the lead Goals, New Urban Agenda Manager(Projects), HUDCO’s Institution for CITYNET and shared some best HSMI. The programme India National Chapter. In practices and innovative was coordinated by Dr. this regard, HUDCO’s HSMI ideas. Mr. D. Guhan, Director Sukanya Ghosh, General conducted CITYNET Training Finance, HUDCO was the Manager(Projects) and Senior Programme on “Sustainable chief guest in the valedictory Fellow, HUDCO’s HSMI. Infrastructure Development and Management” from 12th to 13th January, 2022, in which 37 participants from Urban Local Bodies, Housing Boards and Development Authorities of various states attended the programme. The programme was inaugurated by Dr. D Subrahmanyam, Sr. Executive Director, HUDCO’s HSMI. Through this training programme, participants were provided with a 90 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

PRADHAN MANTRI AWAS YOJANA (PMAY)-URBAN: GLIMPSES OF PROGRAMMES & PROGRESS April 2022 Volume 23 No. 1 - SHELTER 91

PRADHAN MANTRI AWAS YOJANA (PMAY)-URBAN: GLIMPSES OF PROGRESS PMAY (U) Achievement (provisional) [as on 31st March, 2022] Overall Sanctions for 1.23 crore Houses Construction of Houses ( Nos in lakh) Demand Sanctioned Grounded Completed/ Delivered 112.24 122.69 97.02 58.01 Financial Progress (₹ in Cr) Committed Released Expenditure UC Received 2,03,427 1,18,020 1,09,111 1,08,700 ISSR* S- 4.33 G- 6.43 C- 4.90 122.69 Lakh 8.31 Lakh Cr. Houses in verticals (Nos in Lakh) (Nos in Lakh) Investment Approved (Rs in Lakh Cr.) Lakh Cr.) S- Sanctioned G- Grounded C- Completed 23.97 lakh ₹ 55,095 Cr Beneficiaries under CLSS (in lakh) Interest Subsidy under CLSS (Rs in Cr.) 16 lakh houses are being constructed using New Technologies Gujarat, Ahmedabad, ISSR Odisha, Daspalla, BLC Rajasthan, Kota, AHP3 Source: PMAY Dash Board, www.pmay-urban.gov.in, accessed on 18th April, 2022 92 HUDCO-HSMI Publication

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