Genome Genome refers to the complete genetic instructions for an organism. They are also like a library of instructions. A gene is a sequence of adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. These nucleotides combine together to provide the instructions.The normal human genome consists of 3 billion base pairs of DNA in each set of 23 chromosomes from one parent.• In 1920 Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg coined the term “genome.”• In 1976 Walter Fiers was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA.• Phage-X174 was the DNA-genome project to be completed by Fred Sanger in 1977.• In 1995 the first bacterial genome of Haemophilus influenzae was completed.• The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome.• Currently, there are two human genome projects: the first is being produced by a group of international government bodies and organizations, and the second by a private company—Celera Genomics.• Shotgun sequencing is the technique used in breaking the DNA into millions of pieces.Genome DegradationGenome degradation is the process by which a genome shrinks relative to its ancestor.Genome SizeGenome size refers to the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a genome.0
RNARNA or ribonucleic acid is similar to DNA except that it has a single strand. RNA is made of four chemical bases, similar to DNA, except for thymine. Uracil takes the place of thymine in RNA. The process of protein synthesis is carried out with the help of RNA.• RNA is found in animal and plant cells. • Messenger RNA is RNA that carries information from DNA. • RNA is usually a single-stranded molecule and has a much shorter chain of nucleotides.• Synthesis of RNA is usually catalyzed by an enzyme.• RNA also serves as the hereditary material in some of the viruses. • The discovery of ribozymes added to the evidence that RNA, not DNA, was the earliest genetic material.• In 1981 American biochemist, Thomas Cech, discovered that certain RNA molecules act as enzymes.Ribonuclease-PThe enzyme, ribonuclease-P, is in all organisms. It is the part of RNA that has enzymatic activity.In Laboratory SynthesisRNA was produced in a laboratory for the first time in 1955.T-RNA1
Cloning• Therapeutic cloning, also called “embryo cloning,” is the production of human embryos for use in research.• Cloning is asexual reproduction.• Cloning of any DNA sequence involves the following four steps: amplification, ligation, transfection, and screening/selection.• The first mammal to be cloned was a sheep called Dolly. She was born on July 5, 1996, at the Roslin Institute, Edinburgh, Scotland.• Biomedical scientists use stem cells to generate all the other specialized types of cells in the human body. Bone marrow is a rich source of stem cells.Technologies of CloningDNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning are different technologies of cloning. Cloning refers to the creation of an identical copy of an original organism. A clone is genetically identical to the original organism. Cloning started in 1970s, when scientists experimented with frogs and toads. The possibilities of cloning a human became a reality when a sheep named Dolly was cloned.
The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands in the human body. These glands are called endocrine glands. The endocrine glands produce and secrete hormones into the blood or lymph systems. The endocrine glands are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, and the gonads (testes and ovaries).Hormones in the Human BodyThe human body contains 30 amazing hormones, which regulate activities like sleep, body temperature, hunger, and managing stress in times of crisis and so on. PubertyPuberty for girls usually begins between ages 9 to 13, and for boys the age is 10 to 15. • The pituitary gland is known as master gland because it makes hormones to control several other endocrine glands.• Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which glucose is not sufficiently metabolized. It results from deficiency of insulin.• Acromegaly is a disease in which the growth hormone is produced throughout a person’s lifetime.• The pituitary gland regulates the growth of bone and tissue.• The thyroid gland regulates the rate of growth and metabolism. • The gonads are the main source of sex hormones.• The pancreas produces two important hormones—insulin and glucagon.Endocrine System
Blood TransfusionA blood transfusion is the transferring of blood or blood-based products. Blood transfusions take place from one person into the circulatory system of another. It happens in many situations, such as massive blood loss and severe anemia. In 1818 Dr. James Blundell performed the first successful blood transfusion to treat hemorrhage.• Every three seconds someone needs blood. Blood and blood products are used to treat accident and burn victims, cancer patients, and other patients undergoing surgeries and medical treatments.• One unit of blood is roughly the equivalent of one pint. On average, an adult has approximately seven to nine units of blood. • Each year approximately 8 million volunteer donors give about 14 million blood donations.• About 12 million units of red blood cells and whole blood, 8 million platelet units, and 3 million plasma units are transfused annually.• More than 90 percent of transfusion complications have been attributed to the presence of leukocytes in allogeneic blood.Universal Blood DonorsPersons belonging to the O blood group are called universal blood donors. First Effort for Blood Transfusion 15th century chronicle, Stefano Infessura, described the first historical attempt at a blood transfusion.
Kidney DialysisKidney dialysis is used to remove impurities from the blood. Blood is pumped out of the body and cleaned inside a machine called a dialyser, which acts as an artificial kidney. Dialysis is of two types: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Most patients with damaged kidneys receive hemodialysis. • Dialysis works on the principle of the diffusion of solutes across a semipermeable membrane.• In 1913 John J. Abel “dialyzed” animals by directing their blood outside the body and through tubes with semipermeable membranes.• In 1924 German doctor Georg Haas performed the first dialysis treatment involving humans. • Willem Kolff is acknowledged as the father of the modern kidney dialysis.• In 1943 Willem Kolff invented a crude kidney dialyzer. • The next generation of Kolff’s dialyzer was a stainless steel Kolff-Brigham kidney, which paved the way for the first kidney transplant in 1954. • In 1962 Dr. Belding Scribner started the world’s first outpatient dialysis facility.Parallel Plate DialyzerThe Parallel Plate Dialyzer was a kidney dialyzer that worked by directing the flow of dialysis solution and blood through alternating layers of membranous Father of DialysisScottish chemist, Thomas Graham, was known as the “Father of Dialysis.”
Yellow FeverYellow fever is a viral disease. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes transmit the yellow fever virus. This disease mainly affects the liver. Symptoms of yellow fever include jaundice, muscle pain, high fever, bleeding, and sometimes death. Tropical FeverYellow fever is a tropical disease caused by infected mosquitoes, and found only in Africa and South America. Vaccination for Life A single dose of yellow fever vaccine provides protection for 10 years and probably for an entire life. • Yellow fever is preventable by immunization.• There are two kinds of yellow fever: jungle and urban yellow fever.• The “yellow” in the name is explained by the jaundice that affects some patients, causing yellow eyes and yellow skin.• Yellow fever results in epidemics that can affect 20% of the population.• Yellow fever is caused by the yellow fever virus, which belongs to the flavivirus group. • Fever, headache, and muscle ache may occur 5 to 14 days after vaccination. In rare instances, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) has developed in very young infants.
MumpsMumps is a viral infection that is highly contagious. Mumps primarily affects children under nine years of age. This disease causes the swelling of the parotid gland. Symptoms of mumps include high fever, headache, loss of appetite, and bumps on the cheek.Transmission of MumpsMumps is a viral disease spread through direct contact with saliva, secretions from the respiratory tract, and urine of an infected person. Prevention of MumpsThe mumps vaccine is known as MMR, which is given in one injection with the measles and rubella vaccines. • Mumps is caused by the myxo virus.• Mumps infections are uncommon in children younger than 1-year-old.• Mumps can lead to inflammation and swelling of the brain and other organs, though this is not common.• About 1/3 of people have no symptoms. • The virus may cause a miscarriage if a woman becomes infected during the first three months of pregnancy.
GoutGout is a form of arthritis that occurs mostly in men. It is caused by excess uric acid crystal deposits in the blood and joints. It is an extremely painful disease, which usually affects the big toe. Symptoms of gout include red, swollen joints, and acute pain.Obesity Increases the RiskExcessive weight can increase the risk of developing hyperuricemia and gout due to availability of tissues for breakdown that leads to excess uric acid production. Attack of GoutGout usually affects a single joint and may begin anytime but often at night. • The leading risk factor for gout is a buildup of uric acid in the bloodstream—a condition known as hyperuricemia.• About 90% of people with gout have reported at least one flare-up in their big toe. But they can also experience symptoms in other joints, including the hands, elbows, and knees.• Men are at least four times more likely to develop gout than women.• Men who develop gout usually do so between the ages of 30 and 50. Women are more likely to develop gout after the age of 60. • Events such as strokes, heart attacks, or surgery may also cause
ChickenpoxChickenpox is an infectious, viral disease caused by the varicella virus. It is an acute, communicable disease that usually occurs in young children. A person suffering from chickenpox is covered with red spots all over the body. Symptoms of chickenpox include fever, headache, tummy ache, loss of appetite, and classic pox rash on the skin.Viral DiseaseChickenpox is a contagious viral disease spread from person to person directly from broken chickenpox blisters. Chickenpox ComplicationsAlthough chickenpox is a mild disease, it can cause problems for pregnant women, newborn babies, and people having certain immune system problems. • Chickenpox is spread by direct contact or breathing in from nose and throat secretions.• Incubation period lasts 10–21 days before symptoms appear. • A chickenpox (varicella) vaccine, approved in 1995, is recommended for all children ages 1–13 who haven’t already had chickenpox.• Chickenpox has a superficial resemblance to smallpox. It is completely different and less severe. • The number of pox is different for everyone. Some people get just a few bumps; others are covered from head to toe.• Chickenpox is infectious from about 2 days before the rash appears, and lasts until all the blisters are crusted over.
AllergyAn allergy is an abnormal response of the body's immune system. It occurs because of the body’s high sensitivity to certain substances such as oil, fungi, molds, pollen, animals, plants, etc. Symptoms of allergies include runny nose, watery and itchy eyes, sneezing, asthma, and allergic shiners (dark circles under the eyes) in children.Antibody Immunoglobulin EAllergic people make a special antibody called immunoglobulin E that react with environmental substances in a harmful way. Symptoms of AllergiesSneezing, runny nose, itchy throat, red or swollen eyes.• Anaphylactic shock is a severe allergy which affects many organs at the same time causing a rapid decrease in blood pressure, fainting, and, occasionally, death. • People with allergies have an antibody called IgE (immunoglobulin E).• Feathers, wool, dyes, cosmetics, and perfumes may act as allergens.• The most common allergens are animal dander, pollen, house dust, house dust mites, molds, some drugs, and many foodstuffs, especially fish, eggs, milk, and nuts.• Conjunctivitis is an allergic condition of the eyes mostly in adults. • Asthma may begin at any age and one can suffer from attacks that obstruct the flow of air to the lungs.0
AcneAcne is a skin disease that occurs in adolescents. The over-activity of oil glands at the base of a hair follicle causes acne. Acne can take many forms, such as whiteheads, blackheads, pimples, and cysts.Inflammatory AcneThe papule is a small, solid, usually inflammatory elevation of the skin that does not contain pus.Hormonal ChangesAcne is caused due to changes in hormones during the menstrual cycle.• Acne is more prevalent in women than men.• Factors that may contribute to acne in women include: hormonal fluctuations of menstrual cycles and use of cosmetics. • There are two classes of acne, non-inflammatory (blackheads and whiteheads), and inflammatory (papules, pustules, and cysts).• Acne can cause psychological problems.• There is no cure for acne. There are only treatments that prevent and control breakouts.• Chocolate and greasy foods do not cause acne.• In acne, too much sebum is produced by the over-stimulated sebaceous glands.• Hormones are known to be the main culprit for acne.• The full cycle of acne generally lasts about 8 weeks.• Laser therapy, chemical peels, dermabrasion, and other treatments have been suggested for acne scarring.1
CancerCancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells. Cancerous cells can spread in any tissue of the body. Cancer is a class of diseases that can affect people of all ages. It is one of the main causes of death in many countries. Treatment of CancerCancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotheraphy.Cancer is CurableCancer risk can be reduced by not smoking, eating healthy food, and avoiding contact with carcinogens.• More than 11 million people across the world are affected by cancer. Cancer causes 12.5% deaths every year worldwide. • Common types of cancer are leukemia, breast and ovarian cancer in women, prostate cancer in men, and cancer of lungs, colon, rectum, kidney, skin, head, and neck.• Infectious diseases and exposure to chemicals can lead to cancer. • The disease tends to affect older people – but can strike at any time. • Cancer happens when a tiny part of the cell’s mechanism goes wrong.• The key symptom of lung cancer is a persistent cough that gradually gets worse. • Leukemias and lymphomas are cancers which affect the cells that are part of the fluids circulating around the body.
HIVHIV or Human Immuno- deficiency virus is a retrovirus. HIV causes AIDS or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. This virus attacks the human immune system. Viruses are nucleic acid wrapped in a layer of protein. They spread from one person to another through coughs, sneezes, vomit, or contact with body fluid of an infected person. HIV Causes AIDSIn 1984 scientists proved that HIV causes AIDS. The first reported case of AIDS was in the United States in 1981.Medicine for AIDSAIDS cannot be cured but with the new medications and protease inhibitors available, people can live longer.• HIV spreads through unprotected sex, transfusions of unscreened blood, contaminated needles, and from an infected woman to her child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.• A blood test for HIV is the only way to test for the virus.• HIV is most frequently transmitted sexually.
IndexAntigens 19, 21Autoimmune 19Axial 6, 12Carcinogens 62Cardiac 12, 25Cerebrum 15Coronary 22Cysts 61Dendrites 17Dialyzer 55Diaphragm 9, 31, 33Duodenum 40Endocrine 3, 5, 35, 40, 49, 53Epithelial 4Gestation 44Gregor Mendel 45Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried 17Hepatic 39Keratin 10Lumen 24Lymphatic 5, 19Mastication 8Meninges 16Neurons 4, 14, 17, 18Nucleotides 46, 50, 51Parasites 21Parotid gland 57Pathogens 19Pituitary 49, 53Platelets 23Restriction enzymes 48Retina 27Sperm 42, 43Thalamus 15Trachea 29, 32, 33Uracil 51Urethra 34
Search
