Classrooms-2nd-Edition-By-Carol-Ann-Tomlinson (1)

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability Classrooms Carol Ann Tomlinson 2ND EDITION

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability Classrooms 2ND EDITION Carol Ann Tomlinson Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Alexandria, Virginia USA

``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 1703 N. Beauregard St. • Alexandria, VA 22311-1714 USA Telephone: 1-800-933-2723 or 703-578-9600 • Fax: 703-575-5400 Web site: http://www.ascd.org • E-mail: [email protected] Copyright © 2001 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval sys- tem, without permission from ASCD. Readers who wish to duplicate material copyrighted by ASCD may do so for a small fee by contacting the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923, USA (telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470). ASCD has authorized the CCC to col- lect such fees on its behalf. Requests to reprint rather than photocopy should be directed to ASCD’s per- missions office at 703-578-9600. ASCD publications present a variety of viewpoints. The views expressed or implied in this book should not be interpreted as official positions of the Association. e-book ($20.95): ebrary ISBN 0-87120-917-9 • Retail PDF ISBN 1-4166-0095-7 Quality Paperback: ISBN 0-87120-512-2 ASCD product no. 101043 ASCD member price: $16.95 nonmember price: $20.95 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (for paperback book) Tomlinson, Carol A. How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms / Carol Ann Tomlinson.— 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. “ASCD product no. 101043”—T.p. verso. ISBN 0-87120-512-2 (alk. paper) 1. Mixed ability grouping in education—United States. 2. Learning ability. 3. Classroom management—United States. I. Title. LB3061.3 .T65 2001 371.2’52—dc21 2001000344 ```````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````

``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms 2nd Edition Foreword to the 2nd Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii 1 What Differentiated Instruction Is—And Isn’t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 The Rationale for Differentiated Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms . . . . . 8 3 The Role of the Teacher in a Differentiated Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 The Learning Environment in a Differentiated Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 5 A Look Inside Some Differentiated Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 6 Strategies for Managing a Differentiated Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 7 Preparing Students and Parents for a Differentiated Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . 39 8 The How To’s of Planning Lessons Differentiated by Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . 45 9 The How To’s of Planning Lessons Differentiated by Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 10 The How To’s of Planning Lessons Differentiated by Learning Profile . . . . . . . 60 11 Differentiating Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 12 Differentiating Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 13 Differentiating Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 14 Grading in a Differentiated Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 A Final Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Appendix: A Few Instructional and Management Strategies for Differentiated, Mixed-Ability Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117



``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` Foreword to the 2nd Edition I am often asked these days why I think there is advanced skills and understandings. They come such a great interest in the topic of differentiat- with an array of physical handicaps. They rep- ing instruction. My best guess is that the inter- resent cultures that vary in significant ways. est is sparked by the realization that it’s no Many students bring with them to school longer possible to look at a group of students in stresses from home that are too great for young a classroom and pretend they are essentially shoulders to carry. Many students, of course, alike. represent several of these realities—a very bright student whose learning disability masks Even in the few years since the first edition his promise, a second-language learner whose of this book, academic diversity has increased family teeters on the edge of economic viability, in schools. Greater and greater numbers of sec- and so on. ond-language students take seats among stu- dents whose first language is English. Even the If we elect to use what we know about second-language learners vary greatly as a learning, and, in fact, about ourselves, as we group—not only in their native tongues but craft classrooms, we acknowledge that students also in their degree of experience with their learn in varied ways—some by hearing, others native language and the sort of home support by doing, some alone, others in the company of system that follows them to school. peers, some in a rapid-fire fashion, others reflec- tively. We acknowledge, too, that individuals are Greater numbers of students are being diag- intrigued or even inspired by different topics or nosed with attention-deficit and related disor- issues, and that curiosity and inspiration are ders. Diagnosis of learning disability affects powerful catalysts for learning. To teach well is students in virtually all classrooms. In addition, to attend to all these things. students come to classrooms with highly ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` v

``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` Differentiation suggests it is feasible to I am grateful to ASCD for the opportunity to develop classrooms where realities of student share reflections and insights fueled by many variance can be addressed along with curricular educators who work daily to ensure a good aca- realities. The idea is compelling. It challenges us demic fit for each student who enters their to draw on our best knowledge of teaching and classrooms. These teachers wrestle with stan- learning. It suggests that there is room for both dards-driven curriculum, grapple with a pre- equity and excellence in our classrooms. dictable shortage of time in the school day, and do battle with management issues in a busy As “right” as the approach we call differenti- classroom. These educators also derive energy ation seems, it promises no slick and ready from the challenge and insight from their stu- solutions. Like most worthy ideas, it is com- dents. I continue to be the beneficiary of their plex. It calls on us to question, change, reflect, frontline work. I hope this small volume repre- and change some more. sents them well. I hope also that it clarifies and extends what I believe to be an essential discus- This second edition of How to Differentiate sion on how we can attain the ideal of a high- Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms follows this quality public education that exists to maximize evolutionary route. In the years since the first the capacity of each learner who trusts us to edition, I have had the benefit of probing ques- direct the course of his or her learning. tions and practical examples from many educa- tors. This revision reflects an extension and refinement of the elements presented in the ear- lier version of the book, based in no small meas- ure on dialogue with other educators. ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` vi

``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` Introduction The students populating U.S. classrooms today dren, when they reach middle school, also are a diverse lot. They come from differing cul- make connections between themes in social tures and have different learning styles. They studies and literature, or apply advanced math- arrive at school with differing levels of emotion- ematical tools to solving science problems al and social maturity. Their interests differ before other students in their classes grasp the greatly, both in topic and intensity. At any given main idea of a chapter in the textbook. In high time, they reflect differing levels of academic school, students who may have been previously readiness in various subjects—and in various identified as “slow” or “average” may surprise facets of a single subject. And to complicate everyone when they’re able to develop a com- things even further, readiness and interest can plex and articulate defense of a position related vary for a given student over time and depend- to scientific ethics or economic strategy. And ing on the subject matter. some of their classmates who had, until now, found school a “cinch” must work hard to feel Teachers in mixed-ability classrooms face comfortable with applications at a more abstract multiple challenges, at every grade level. Each level. September, many 1st graders arrive already able to read 3rd grade books with comprehension, In life, kids can choose from a variety of while their peers grapple for months with the clothing to fit their differing sizes, styles, and idea of left-to-right print progression or the dif- preferences. We understand, without explana- ference between short and long vowels. Some tion, that this makes them more comfortable 3rd graders make an independent leap from and gives expression to their developing person- multiplication to division before any explana- alities. In school, modifying or differentiating tion has been offered. Many of these same chil- instruction for students of differing readiness ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` vii

``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` and interests is also more comfortable, engaging, While the goal for each student is challenge and and inviting. One-size-fits-all instruction will substantial growth, teachers must often define inevitably sag or pinch—exactly as single-size challenge and growth differently in response to clothing would—students who differ in need, students’ varying interests and readiness levels. even if they are chronologically the same age. This book provides guidance for teachers Acknowledging that students learn at differ- who are interested in creating learning environ- ent speeds and that they differ widely in their ments that address the diversity typical of ability to think abstractly or understand com- mixed-ability classrooms. The principles and plex ideas is like acknowledging that students strategies included here can help teachers at any given age aren’t all the same height: It is address a variety of learning profiles, interests, not a statement of worth, but of reality. To and readiness levels. The goal here is to help accommodate this reality, teachers can create a teachers determine what differentiated instruc- “user-friendly” environment, one in which they tion is, why it is appropriate for all learners, flexibly adapt pacing, approaches to learning, how to begin to plan for it, and how to become and channels for expressing learning in comfortable enough with student differences to response to their students’ differing needs. make school comfortable for each learner who comes their way. ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````` viii

11` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` WHAT Differentiated Instruction —IS AND ISN’T Kids of the same age other words, a differentiated classroom provides aren’t all alike when it different avenues to acquiring content, to pro- comes to learning, cessing or making sense of ideas, and to devel- any more than they oping products so that each student can learn are alike in terms of effectively. size, hobbies, personality, or likes and dislikes. Kids do have many things in common because In many classrooms, the approach to teach- they are human beings and because they are all ing and learning is more unitary than differenti- children, but they also have important differ- ated. For example, 1st graders may listen to a ences. What we share in common makes us story and then draw a picture about what they human. How we differ makes us individuals. In learned. While they may choose to draw differ- a classroom with little or no differentiated ent facets of the story, they all experienced the instruction, only student similarities seem to same content, and they all had the same sense- take center stage. In a differentiated classroom, making or processing activity. A kindergarten commonalities are acknowledged and built class may have four centers that all students upon, and student differences become impor- visit to complete the same activities in a week’s tant elements in teaching and learning as well. time. Fifth graders may all listen to the same At its most basic level, differentiating explanation about fractions and complete the instruction means “shaking up” what goes on in same homework assignment. Middle school or the classroom so that students have multiple high school students may sit through a lecture options for taking in information, making sense and a video to help them understand a topic in of ideas, and expressing what they learn. In science or history. They will all read the same chapter, take the same notes, complete the same 1

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms lab or end-of-chapter questions, and take the instruction recognized that the teacher needed same quiz. Such classrooms are familiar, typical, to work sometimes with the whole class, some- and largely undifferentiated. times with small groups, and sometimes with individuals. These variations were important in Most teachers (as well as students and par- order both to move each student along in his ents) have clear mental images of such class- particular understandings and skills as well as rooms. After experiencing undifferentiated to build a sense of community in the group. instruction over many years, it is often difficult to imagine what a differentiated classroom Differentiated instruction is would look and feel like. How, educators won- NOT chaotic. der, can we make the shift from “single-size instruction” to differentiated instruction so we Most teachers remember the recurrent night- can better meet our students’ diverse needs? mare (and periodic reality) from their first year Answering this question first requires clearing of teaching: losing control of student behavior. away some misperceptions. A benchmark of teacher development is the point at which the teacher has become secure What Differentiated Instruction and comfortable with classroom management. Is NOT Fear of losing control of student behavior is a major obstacle for many teachers in establishing Differentiated instruction is NOT the a flexible classroom. Teachers who differentiate “Individualized Instruction” of the 1970s. instruction quickly point out that, if anything, they exert more leadership in their classrooms, We were probably onto something important in not less. the ’70s when we experimented with what we then called individualized instruction. At least Compared with teachers who offer a single we understood that students have different approach to learning, teachers who differentiate learning profiles and that there is merit in meet- instruction have to manage and monitor many ing students where they are and helping them activities simultaneously. And they still must move on from there. One flaw in the ’70s help students in developing ground rules for approach was that we tried doing something behavior, give and monitor specific directions different for each of the 30-plus students in a for activities, and direct the sequence of events single classroom. When each student had a dif- in each learning experience. Effective ferent reading assignment, for example, it didn’t differentiated classrooms include purposeful take long for teachers to become exhausted. A student movement and some purposeful second flaw was that in order to “match” each student talking. They are not disorderly or student’s precise entry level, we chopped up undisciplined. instruction into skill fragments, thereby making learning fragmented and largely irrelevant. Differentiated instruction is NOT just another way to provide homogeneous While it is true that differentiated instruction grouping. offers several avenues to learning, it does not assume a separate level for each learner. It also Our memories of undifferentiated classrooms focuses on meaningful learning or powerful probably include the bluebird, cardinal, and ideas for all students. Differentiation is probably buzzard reading groups. Typically, a buzzard more reminiscent of the one-room-schoolhouse remained a buzzard, and a cardinal was forever than of individualization. That model of 2

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Wh`at`D`iff`ere`nt`iat`ed`In`st`ru`cti`on`Is`—A`nd` I`sn’`t a cardinal. Under this system, buzzards nearly or to share advanced information on a topic, always worked with buzzards on skills-focused grade some students a little harder or easier on tasks, while work done by cardinals was typi- an assignment in response to the students’ per- cally at “higher levels” of thought. In addition to ceived ability and effort, or let students select being predictable, student assignment to groups which questions to answer or skip on a test. was virtually always teacher-selected. Certainly such modifications reflect a teacher’s awareness of differences in student profiles and, A hallmark of an effective differentiated to that degree, the modifications are movement classroom, by contrast, is the use of flexible in the direction of differentiation. While they grouping, which accommodates students who are not necessarily ineffective or “bad” strategies are strong in some areas and weaker in others. on the teacher’s part, they are a “micro-differen- For example, a student may be great at inter- tiation” or “tailoring,” and are often just not preting literature, but not so strong in spelling, enough. or great with map skills and not as quick at grasping patterns in history, or quick with math If the basic assignment itself is far too easy word problems but careless with computation. for an advanced learner, having a chance to The teacher who uses flexible grouping also answer a complex question is not an adequate understands that some students may begin a challenge. If information is essential for a strug- new task slowly, and then launch ahead at gling learner, allowing him to skip a test ques- remarkable speed, while others will learn, but tion because he never understood the more slowly. This teacher knows that sometimes information is ineffective. If the information in she needs to assign students to groups so that the basic assignment is simply too complex for assignments are tailored to student need, but a learner until she has the chance to assimilate that in other instances, it makes more sense for needed background information and skills, students to form their own working groups. She being “easier” on her when grading her assign- sees that some students prefer or benefit from ment does not help her in the long run. In sum, independent work, while others usually fare trying to stretch a garment that is far too small best with pairs or triads. or attempting to tuck and gather a garment that is far too large is likely to be less effective than In a differentiated classroom, the teacher getting clothes that are the right fit at a given uses many different group configurations over time. time, and students experience many different working groups and arrangements. “Fluid” is a What Differentiated good word to describe assignment of students Instruction Is to groups in such a heterogeneous classroom. In the older, “three groups approach” to instruc- Differentiated instruction tion, student assignment to tasks was more is PROACTIVE. fixed. Flexible grouping will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4. In a differentiated classroom, the teacher assumes that different learners have differing Differentiated instruction is NOT just needs. Therefore, the teacher proactively plans a “tailoring the same suit of clothes.” variety of ways to “get at” and express learning. He still needs to tailor or fine-tune instruction Many teachers think that they differentiate for individual learners, but because different instruction when they ask some students to learning options are available based on his answer more complex questions in a discussion 3

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms knowledge of varied learner needs, the chances Differentiated Instruction is ROOTED IN are greater that the learning experiences will ASSESSMENT. provide an appropriate fit for many learners. Effective differentiation will typically be proac- A teacher who understands the need for teach- tively planned by the teacher to be robust ing and learning to be a good match for stu- enough to address a range of learner needs, in dents looks for every opportunity to know her contrast with planning a single approach for students better. She sees conversations with everyone and reactively trying to adjust the individuals, classroom discussions, student plans when it becomes apparent that the lesson work, observation, and formal assessment as a is not working for some of the learners for way to gather just a little more insight about whom it was intended. what works for each learner. What she learns becomes a catalyst for crafting instruction in Differentiated instruction is more ways that help each student make the most of QUALITATIVE than quantitative. his potential and talents. Assessment is no longer predominately something that happens Many teachers incorrectly assume that differen- at the end of a unit to determine “who got it.” tiating instruction means giving some students Assessment routinely takes place as a unit more work to do, and others less. For example, begins to determine the particular needs of indi- a teacher might assign two book reports to viduals in relation to the unit’s goals. advanced readers and only one to struggling readers. Or a struggling math student might Throughout the unit, in a variety of ways, have to do only the computation problems teachers assess students’ developing readiness while advanced math students do the word levels, interests, and modes of learning. Then problems as well. the teachers design learning experiences based on their best understanding. Culminating prod- Although such approaches to differentiation ucts, or other forms of “final” assessment, take may seem to have an adequate rationale, they many forms, with the goal of finding a way for are typically ineffective. One book report is too each student to most successfully share what he much for a struggling learner without additional or she has learned in the course of the unit. support in the process of reading as well as interpreting the text. Or a student who could Differentiated instruction provides act out the substance of the book effectively MULTIPLE APPROACHES to content, might be overwhelmed by writing a three-page process, and product. report. If writing one book report is “too easy” for the advanced reader, doing “twice as much” In all classrooms, teachers deal with at least three of the same thing is not only unlikely to remedy curricular elements: (1) content—input, what the problem, but it could also seem like punish- students learn; (2) process—how students go ment. A student who has already demonstrated about making sense of ideas and information; mastery of one math skill is ready to stop prac- and (3) product—output, how students demon- tice related to that skill and begin practice in a strate what they have learned. These elements subsequent skill. Simply adjusting the quantity are so important in differentiating instruction of an assignment will generally be less effective that they are dealt with in depth in Chapters 8, than adjusting the nature of the assignment to 9, and 10. By differentiating these three ele- match student needs as well. ments, teachers offer different approaches to what students learn, how they learn it, and how 4

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Wh`at`D`iff`ere`nt`iat`ed`In`st`ru`cti`on`Is`—A`nd` I`sn’`t they demonstrate what they’ve learned. What these or use the same activity with the whole class. different approaches have in common, however, Such whole-group instruction establishes com- is that they are crafted to encourage substantial mon understandings and a sense of community growth in all students. for students by sharing discussion and review. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, the pattern of Differentiated instruction is instruction in a differentiated classroom could STUDENT CENTERED. be represented by mirror images of a wavy line, with students coming together as a whole group Differentiated classrooms operate on the premise to begin a study, moving out to pursue learning that learning experiences are most effective when in small groups or individually, coming back they are engaging, relevant, and interesting. A together to share and make plans for additional corollary to that premise is that all students will investigation, moving out again for more work, not always find the same avenues to learning coming together again to share or review, and equally engaging, relevant, and interesting. so on. Further, differentiated instruction acknowledges that later understandings must be built on previ- Differentiated instruction ous understandings and that not all students is “ORGANIC.” possess the same understandings at the outset of In a differentiated classroom, teaching is evolu- a given investigation. Teachers who differentiate tionary. Students and teachers are learners instruction in mixed-ability classrooms seek to together. While teachers may know more about provide appropriately challenging learning expe- the subject matter at hand, they are continuous- riences for all their students. These teachers real- ly learning about how their students learn. ize that sometimes a task that lacks challenge for Ongoing collaboration with students is neces- some learners is frustratingly complex to others. sary to refine the learning opportunities so they’re effective for each student. Differentiated In addition, teachers in differentiated classes instruction is dynamic: Teachers monitor the understand the need to help students take match between learner and learning and make increasing responsibility for their own growth. adjustments as warranted. And while teachers It’s easier sometimes in large classrooms for a are aware that sometimes the learner/learning teacher to tell students everything rather than match is less than ideal, they also understand guiding them to think on their own, accept sig- that they can continually make adjustments. nificant responsibility for learning, and develop a Differentiated instruction often results in more sense of pride in what they do. In a differentiated effective matches than does the mode of teach- classroom, it’s necessary for learners to be active ing that insists that one assignment serves all in making and evaluating decisions. Teaching learners well. students to share responsibility enables a teacher to work with varied groups or individuals for Further, a teacher in a differentiated class- portions of the day. It also prepares students far room does not classify herself as someone who better for life. “already differentiates instruction.” Rather, that teacher is fully aware that every hour of teach- Differentiated instruction is A BLEND of ing, every day in the classroom can reveal one whole-class, group, and individual more way to make the classroom a better match instruction. for its learners. There are times in all classrooms when it is Finally, such a teacher does not see differen- more effective or efficient to share information tiation as a strategy or something to do when 5

HOW TOFigure 1.1 The Flow of Instruction in a Differentiated Classroom Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `13579 Classrooms 6Teacher and the Students and The whole class The whole The whole class whole class begin teacher come reviews key class is introduced listens to individ- exploration of a together to ideas and to the skills need- ual study plans topic or concept share informa- extends their ed later to make a and establishes tion and pose study through presentation baseline criteria questions sharing for success Etc. Students engage in Students work on In small groups Students self-select further study using varied assigned selected by stu- interest areas through varied materials tasks designed to dents, they apply which they extend their based on readiness help them make key principles to understanding and learning style sense of key ideas solve teacher- at varied levels of generated problems 8 2 complexity and related to their study varied pacing 6 4 A differentiated classroom is marked by a repeated rhythm of whole-class preparation, review, and sharing, followed by opportunity for individual or small-group exploration, sense-making, extension, and production.

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Wh`at`D`iff`ere`nt`iat`ed`In`st`ru`cti`on`Is`—A`nd` I`sn’`t there’s extra time. Rather, it is a way of life in In a differentiated classroom, the the classroom. She does not seek or follow a teacher proactively plans and carries recipe for differentiation, but rather combines out varied approaches to content, what she can learn about differentiation from a process, and product in anticipation of range of sources to her own professional and response to student differences in instincts and knowledge base to do whatever it readiness, interest, and learning needs. takes to reach out to each learner. The practical strategies in this book should A New Image to Keep in Mind crystallize this new image for you as you work at differentiating instruction in your classroom. As you continue reading about how to differen- tiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, keep this new image in mind: 7

22` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` THE Rationale FOR Differentiated Instruction IN Mixed-Ability Classrooms Some educators say a understandings, interests, beliefs, how the stu- “good” education is dent learns best, and the student’s attitudes one that ensures that about self and school (National Research all students learn cer- Council, 1990). tain core information and master certain basic competencies accord- We also know that learning takes place most ing to a prescribed route and time line. Others effectively in classrooms where knowledge is define a “good” education as one that helps stu- clearly and powerfully organized, students are dents maximize their capacity as learners. highly active in the learning process, assess- Because the latter definition encourages contin- ments are rich and varied, and students feel a ual lifting of ceilings and testing of personal sense of safety and connection (National limits, it would seem to make the best sense for Research Council, 1990; Wiggins & McTighe, all learners. 1998). How People Best Learn: The We know that learning happens best when a Engine That Drives Effective learning experience pushes the learner a bit Differentiation beyond his or her independence level. When a student continues to work on understandings We actually know a great deal about how peo- and skills already mastered, little if any new ple learn. For example, we know that each learning takes place. On the other hand, if tasks learner must make meaning of what teachers are far ahead of a student’s current point of seek to teach. We know that the meaning-mak- mastery, frustration results and learning does ing process is influenced by the student’s prior not (Howard, 1994; Vygotsky, 1962). In addition, we know that motivation to learn increases when we feel a kinship with, 8

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Th`e`Ra`tio`na`le`fo`r D`iff`er`en`tia`te`d I`ns`tru`ct`ion`in` M`ix`ed`-A`bi`lit`y C`la`ssr`oo`m`s interest in, or passion for what we are attempt- need to learn the same things in the same way ing to learn (Piaget, 1978). Further, we go over the same time span. about learning in a wide variety of ways, influ- enced by how our individual brains are wired, Ensuring rock solid clarity about where we our culture, and our gender (Delpit, 1995; want students to end up as a result of a Gardner, 1983; Heath, 1983; Sternberg, 1985; sequence of learning is fundamental to educa- Sullivan, 1993). tional success. Remembering that we cannot reach the mind we do not engage ought to be a In the end, we can draw at least three pow- daily compass for educational planning. erful conclusions about teaching and learning. Offering multiple and varied avenues to learn- First, while the image of a “standard issue” stu- ing is a hallmark of the kind of professional dent is comfortable, it denies most of what we quality that denotes expertise. Our students— know about the wide variance that inevitably each of them—is a message that we can never exists within any group of learners. Second, stop attending to the craftsmanship and artistry there is no substitute for high-quality curricu- of teaching. lum and instruction in classrooms. Third, even in the presence of high-quality curriculum and The focus of this book is on the refinement instruction, we will fall woefully short of the of high-quality, alluring instruction that we call goal of helping each learner build a good life “differentiation.” This book, however, calls for through the power of education unless we build clarity and quality in what we differentiate. It is bridges between the learner and learning. an exercise in futility to try to meet the needs of learners by low quality, incoherent approaches These three conclusions are the engine that to differentiation. They provide learners with drives effective differentiation. They, along with several varieties of gruel. They will fall short for our best knowledge of what makes learning virtually all students. happen, are nonnegotiables in a classroom where a teacher sets out to make each learner a Looking at a Classroom Through captive of the mystery and power of knowing Many Eyes about the world in which those learners will live out their lives. Their teacher cares about her work. She likes kids and she likes teaching. She works hard and Mixed-ability classrooms that are ambiguous is proud of her profession. The kids know that, about learning goals, that evoke little passion, and they like her for all those things. But the that cast the teacher as the centerpiece of learn- day seems long too often for many of the stu- ing, and that lack responsiveness to student dents. Sometimes their teacher knows it. Often variance show little understanding of these vari- she does not. ous learning realities. They lack the foundation of all powerful learning, top quality curriculum Lin does not understand English. No one and instruction—as well as a key refinement of understands her language either as far as she superior curriculum and instruction, differenti- can tell. The teacher smiles at her and assigned ated or responsive instruction. In regard to the a classmate to help her. That classmate does not first-named deficit, these classrooms operate as speak her language. The classmate smiles too. though clarity of understanding can be achieved Sometimes smiles help. Sometimes they seem through ambiguity and that fires of inquiry will like music without sound. In math, Lin under- be ignited in the absence of a flame. In regard stands more. Numbers carry fewer hidden to the latter deficit, they imply that all students meanings than words. No one expects her to 9

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms understand, however, and so no one asks her to two teachers makes her feel different. She go to the board and work problems. That’s okay, doesn’t like the fact that what she studies seems because if she went, she wouldn’t have words to so unlike what everyone else studies. She does- tell about her numbers. n’t like feeling like she’s on the edge of the action all the time. Rafael wants to read aloud, wants to ask for more books about the people in history, wants Danny likes coming to school because peo- to add his questions to the ones the other kids ple don’t yell there all the time. Nobody hits at ask in discussions. He doesn’t. His friends are school—or if they do, they get in trouble. There down on school. They say it’s not for them—not are things to play with at school. His teacher for kids like him. Learning belongs to another smiles. She says she’s glad he’s there. He’s not kind of person, they say. Where would grades sure why. He doesn’t do well. He wants to, but get him? they ask. Maybe they’re right. He it’s hard to concentrate. He worries about his knows he won’t go to college or get a big deal mom. He worries about his sister. He forgets to job—but he secretly thinks about it. And he listen. At home, it’s hard to do homework. He wants to know things. But it’s hard to ask. gets behind. Serena reads her mom’s books at home. She Theo keeps listening for questions that reads the magazine that comes with the Sunday sound like something a person in his house Times. She and her friends write and produce a would ask. He keeps listening for language that neighborhood play every summer. Lots of peo- sounds like his. He keeps waiting for a signal ple come. In school, she’s learning 4th grade that the people he studies in school have some spelling words. She gets A’s on the tests. She connection with him. He keeps waiting to see gets A’s on everything. She doesn’t work hard how the knowledge fits in with his neighbor- like when she’s getting the plays ready. In hood. He doesn’t mind learning. He just wants school, she feels dishonest. She makes up sto- to know why. He’s restless. ries in her head while she waits for other stu- dents to learn. They try hard and don’t get A’s. Their teacher works hard on preparing their That makes her feel dishonest too. lessons. They know that. Sometimes—many times—it seems like she’s teaching lessons, not Trevor hates reading. He misbehaves some- kids. Sometimes it seems like she thinks they are times, but it’s not that he wants to. He’s just all one person. Sometimes it’s like they are syn- tired of seeming stupid in front of everyone. He onyms for test scores. Sometimes school is like a thinks he sounds worst in the class when he shoe that’s shaped for somebody else’s foot. reads aloud. The odd thing is that he under- stands what the pages are about when some- Perhaps a good way to begin an exploration body else reads them. How can you understand of differentiated teaching is to look at the class- what you can’t read? And how can you be a room through the eyes of two broad categories normal 4th grader and not be able to read? of students—those who are advanced and those who struggle. Those two categories, of course, Lesley knows she doesn’t learn like the other encompass many different sorts of students, but kids do. She knows people think she’s “slow.” they do at least provide a place to begin think- She has a special teacher who comes to class to ing about the readiness of academically diverse help her, or takes her to a special room to learn learners and the range of needs they bring to things. She likes that teacher. She likes her main school. In later chapters we’ll look at needs teacher too. She doesn’t like the fact that having related to student interest and learning profile. 10

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Th`e`Ra`tio`na`le`fo`r D`iff`er`en`tia`te`d I`ns`tru`ct`ion`in` M`ix`ed`-A`bi`lit`y C`la`ssr`oo`m`s Understanding the Needs of (Ross, 1993). There are many reasons why Advanced Learners advanced learners don’t achieve their full potential. Whatever label we use—“gifted learners,” “high- end learners,” “academically talented learners,” • Advanced learners can become mentally or “advanced learners”—it seems to bother lazy, even though they do well in school. We many people. In this book, “advanced learners” have evidence (Clark, 1992; Ornstein & is used for two reasons. First, this label doesn’t Thompson, 1984; Wittrock, 1977) that a brain seem to carry some of the more controversial loses capacity and “tone” without vigorous use, overtones of some other descriptors. Second, it in much the same way that a little-used muscle says to the teacher in a mixed-ability classroom, does. If a student produces “success” without “Don’t worry so much about identification effort, potential brainpower can be lost. processes and formal labeling. Take a look at who is ahead of where you and the curriculum • Advanced learners may become guide expect your students to be. Then you “hooked” on the trappings of success. They have a place to start.” may think grades are more important than ideas, being praised is more important than tak- Some students may be advanced in ing intellectual risks, and being right is more September and not in May—or in May, but not valuable than making new discoveries. in September. Some may be advanced in math, Unfortunately, many advanced learners quickly but not in reading; or in lab work, but not in learn to do what is “safe” or what “pays,” rather memorization of related scientific formulas. than what could result in greater long-term Some may be advanced for a short time, others learning. throughout their lives but only in certain endeavors. Some learners are consistently • Advanced learners may become perfec- advanced in many areas. tionists. We praise them for being the best readers, assign them to help others who can’t Because the primary intent of differentiated get the math, and compliment them when they instruction is to maximize student capacity, score highest on tests. When people get excited when you can see (or you have a hunch) that a about their performance, these students often student can learn more deeply, move at a assume it’s possible to keep being the best. brisker pace, or make more connections than Because they attach so much of their self-worth instructional blueprints might suggest, that’s to the rewards of schooling and because those a good time to offer advanced learning rewards are accessible for years at a time, opportunities. advanced learners often don’t learn to struggle or fail. Failure then becomes something to avoid But advanced learners, like other learners, at all costs. Some advanced learners develop need help in developing their abilities. Without compulsive behaviors, from excessive worry to teachers that coach for growth and curriculums procrastination to eating disorders, and occa- that are appropriately challenging, these learn- sionally even suicide. Many advanced learners ers may fail to achieve their potential. For simply become less productive and less satis- example, when a recent study compared fied. Creative production typically has a high Advanced Placement Exam results of the top 1 failure-to-success ratio. Students who have the percent of U.S. students with top students in 13 other countries, U.S. students scored last in biology, 11th in chemistry, and 9th in physics 11

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms capacity to be producers of new knowledge but goals, devise plans for reaching those goals, who are afraid of failure are unlikely to see their tolerate frustrations and share joys along the productive capacity realized. way, and sight new horizons after each accomplishment. • Advanced learners may fail to develop a sense of self-efficacy. Self-esteem is fostered by Several key principles are useful when being told you are important, valued, or suc- coaching advanced learners for growth. cessful. Self-efficacy, by contrast, comes from stretching yourself to achieve a goal that you • Continually raise the ceilings of expecta- first believed was beyond your reach. Although tions so that advanced learners are competing many advanced learners easily achieve a sort of with their own possibilities rather than with a hollow self-esteem, they never develop a sense norm. of self-efficacy. These students often go through life feeling like impostors, fearfully awaiting the • Make clear what would constitute excel- inevitable day the world will discover they lence for the advanced learner so she knows, at aren’t so capable after all. least in large measure, what to aim for in her work. • Advanced learners may fail to develop study and coping skills. When students coast • As you raise ceilings of expectation, raise through school with only modest effort, they the support system available to the student to may look successful. In fact, however, success reach his goals. When tasks are appropriately in life typically follows persistence, hard work, challenging, you’ll find high-end learners need and risk. In many cases, advanced learners your support and scaffolding to achieve genuine make good grades without learning to work success, just as other learners do. hard. Then when hard work is required, they become frightened, resentful, or frustrated. In • Be sure to balance rigor and joy in learn- addition, they “succeed” without having to learn ing. It’s difficult to imagine a talented learner to study or grapple with ideas or persist in the persisting when there is little pleasure in what face of uncertainty. We graduate many highly the learner once thought was fascinating. It’s able students with “evidence” that success also difficult to imagine growth toward expertise requires minimal effort, and without the skills when there is all joy and no rigor. necessary to achieve when they discover that evidence is invalid. Understanding the Needs of Advanced learners, like all learners, need Struggling Learners learning experiences designed to fit them. When teachers are not sensitive to that need, Labels are tricky with struggling learners, too. they may set learning goals for advanced stu- The term “slow learners” often carries with it a dents that are too low or that develop new skills negative connotation of being shiftless or lazy, too infrequently. Then, if students are successful yet many struggling learners work hard and con- anyhow, they often fail to develop the desirable scientiously—especially when tasks are neither balance between running into walls and scaling boring (such as a steady diet of drill and skill) them. Advanced learners share other learners’ nor anxiety-producing (such as tasks that require need for teachers who can help them set high more than they can deliver even when they work hard). The term “at-risk” overlooks the portion of the learner that may well be “at-promise.” One child’s struggle stems from a learning disability, another’s home life takes all her energy, and another just finds a subject his nemesis. 12

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Th`e`Ra`tio`na`le`fo`r D`iff`er`en`tia`te`d I`ns`tru`ct`ion`in` M`ix`ed`-A`bi`lit`y C`la`ssr`oo`m`s Further, just like with an advanced learner, learning-disabled gifted learners, for example, the learning profile of a struggling learner may find school intolerable because educators spend shift over time; for example, suddenly a student so much time “remediating” their flaws that becomes an eager reader after trailing the class there’s no space for enhancing their strengths. in decoding and comprehension for some time. It’s important to avoid this temptation with Many students whom we perceive to be “slow,” struggling learners in general. “at-risk,” or “struggling,” may actually be quite proficient in talents that schools often treat as • Pay attention to relevance. It’s easy to secondary, such as leadership among neighbor- understand why many struggling learners hood peers, story telling, or building contrap- believe school is not “their place.” They don’t tions out of discarded materials. “do school” well today, and we keep insisting that persistence will pay off “someday”—often Nonetheless, many students do struggle with in another grade or level of school in which the school tasks. They are a diverse group who can child believes he has little prospect for success. challenge the artistry of the most expert teacher Dewey (1938) reminds us that if school isn’t for in listening deeply, believing unconditionally, and today, it will often turn out to be for nothing. moving beyond a recipe or blueprint approach He believed this to be true for all learners. to teaching to shape classrooms that offer many Certainly it is so for many struggling learners. A avenues and timetables to understanding. skilled teacher conscientiously works to make each day’s explorations compelling for that day. Here are some principles that can be helpful in ensuring that struggling learners maximize • Go for powerful learning. If struggling their capacity in school. learners can’t learn everything, make sure they learn the big ideas, key concepts, and governing • Look for the struggling learner’s posi- principles of the subject at hand. Not only does tives. Every student does some things relatively this approach help struggling learners see the well. It’s important to find those things, to big picture of the topic and subject, but it also affirm them in private conversations and before helps build a scaffolding of meaning, a requisite peers, to design tasks that draw on those framework for future success. strengths, and to ensure that the student can use strengths as a means of tackling areas of dif- • Teach up. Know your struggling students’ ficulty. A student with kinesthetic ability and a learning profiles. Create tasks for struggling weakness in reading, for example, may find it learners (individuals or groups with similar pro- easier to comprehend a story by pantomiming files) that are a chunk more difficult than you the events in it as someone else reads aloud, believe they can accomplish. Then teach for and then reading the story to herself. success (by encouraging, providing support, guiding planning, delineating criteria, and so • Don’t let what’s broken extinguish what on.) so that the seemingly unattainable moves works. Few adults elect to spend the majority within the learners’ reach. A strong sense of of their days practicing what they can’t do. The self-efficacy comes not from being told we’re difference between us and students is that we terrific, but rather from our own recognition have a choice. Struggling learners are more that we’ve accomplished something we believed likely to retain motivation to learn when their was beyond us. days allow them to concentrate on tasks that are relevant and make them feel powerful. Many 13

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms • Use many avenues to learning. Some • Work for learning-in-context. In other students learn best with their ears, some with words, help the student see how ideas and skills their eyes, some with touch or movement. are part of their own families and neighbor- Some are solitary learners, some must interact hoods and futures. Helping students connect with friends in order to learn. Some students their lives with ideas and skills presupposes work well by gathering details and constructing that, as teachers, we understand the students’ a bird’s-eye view of what is being studied. neighborhoods, cultures, and families and what Others will not learn unless the bird’s-eye view connections are possible. is clear to them before they encounter the details. Struggling learners sometimes become • Plan teaching and learning through many more successful learners just because their way modalities. If a student has heard about an idea, of learning is readily accessible through both sung about it, built a representation of it, and teacher design and student choice. read about it, success is far more likely than if one avenue to learning predominates. • See with the eyes of love. Some kids come at the world with their dukes up. Life is a • Continually find ways to let the student fight for them in part because the belligerence know that you believe in him or her—and rein- that surrounds them spawns belligerence in force legitimate success whenever it happens. If them. These kids are no less difficult for a I believe in you, I’ll find a way to ensure that teacher to embrace than for the rest of the you succeed, and will be sure to point out that world. But behind the tension and combative- success to you whenever it is genuine and ness abundant in the world of the angry child, earned. what’s lacking is the acceptance and affection he disinvites. Perhaps a good definition of a friend Differentiating Learning is someone who loves us as we are, and envi- Experiences to Address sions us as we might be. If so, these students Academic Diversity need a teacher who is a friend. The eyes of love reflect both unconditional acceptance and Differentiated instruction is not simply giving a unwavering vision of total potential. It’s not “normal” assignment to most students and “dif- easy, but it is critical. ferent” assignments to students who are strug- gling or advanced. That approach usually cre- Here are a few important principles to recall ates a “pecking order” among students, which as you plan for success for students who strug- then tends to cause other troubles. Students gle with school. assigned a remedial assignment, which looks simple to others, can take it as a message that • Be clear on what students must know, they are inferior. Advanced assignments tend to understand, and be able to do in order to grow look more interesting to nearly everyone except in their grasp of a subject. Teacher fog will only the advanced learner, who may perceive it as obscure an already difficult view for struggling more work. These strategies can backfire, caus- students. ing both advanced and struggling students to feel different from those who do the “real” • Set important goals of understanding and assignment. use of ideas for struggling students, then figure out how to build scaffolding leading to student In a differentiated classroom, a number of success in those goals. Don’t dilute the goals. things are going on in any given class period. Over time, all students complete assignments individually and in small groups, and 14

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Th`e`Ra`tio`na`le`fo`r D`iff`er`en`tia`te`d I`ns`tru`ct`ion`in` M`ix`ed`-A`bi`lit`y C`la`ssr`oo`m`s whole-group instruction occurs as well. A Final Thought Sometimes students select their group size and tasks, sometimes they are assigned. Sometimes In the end, all learners need your energy, your the teacher establishes criteria for success, heart, and your mind. They have that in com- sometimes students do. And setting standards mon because they are young humans. How they for success is often a collaborative process. need you, however, differs. Unless we under- Because there are many different things happen- stand and respond to those differences, we fail ing, no one assignment defines “normal,” and many learners. no one “sticks out.” The teacher thinks and plans in terms of “multiple avenues to learning” Some of us are drawn to teach struggling for varied needs, rather than in terms of “nor- learners, some are natural champions of mal” and “different.” The goal for each student advanced learners, and some have an affinity for is maximum growth from his current “learning the sort of “standard” student who matches our position.” The goal of the teacher is coming to image of the 4th or 8th or 11th grader we understand more and more about that learning thought we’d be teaching. That we have prefer- position so that learning matches learner need. ences is, again, human. The most effective teachers spend a career meticulously cultivating their appreciation for children not so easy for them to automatically embrace, while continu- ing to draw energy from those students whom they more automatically find delightful. 15

33` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` THE Role OF THE Teacher IN A Differentiated Classroom Mixed-ability class- then create ways to learn that both capture stu- rooms that offer dif- dents’ attention and lead to understanding. ferentiated instruction Organizing a class for effective activity and make good sense for exploration becomes the highest priority. teachers, as well as students. For many teachers, though, offering Teachers who differentiate instruction focus differentiated instruction first requires a para- on their role as coach or mentor, give students as digm shift. much responsibility for learning as they can handle, and teach them to handle a little more. The Teacher’s Role in a These teachers grow in their ability to (1) assess Differentiated Classroom student readiness through a variety of means, (2) “read” and interpret student clues about Teachers who become comfortable with differ- interests and learning preferences, (3) create a entiated classrooms would probably say their variety of ways students can gather information role differs in some significant ways from that of and ideas, (4) develop varied ways students can a more traditional teacher. When teachers dif- explore and “own” ideas, and (5) present varied ferentiate instruction, they move away from see- channels through which students can express ing themselves as keepers and dispensers of and expand understandings. “Covering informa- knowledge and move toward seeing themselves tion” takes a back seat to making meaning out as organizers of learning opportunities. While con- of important ideas. Most of us have not been tent knowledge remains important, these teach- trained to look at teaching in this light, but we ers focus less on knowing all the answers, and are learners, too. We may not be able to trans- focus more on “reading their students.” They form our image of ourselves in a flash, but we can change over the course of a career. 16

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `T`he`Ro`le`of`th`e`Tea`ch`er`in`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` Best Practice Accounts for • organizing and focusing curriculum on Varied Learners essential information, understandings, and skills, Differentiation calls on a teacher to realize that classrooms must be places where teachers pur- • seeing and reflecting on individuals as well sue our best understandings of teaching and as the group, learning every day, and also to recall daily that no practice is truly best practice unless it works • hunting for insights about individuals, for the individual learner. • peeling back first impressions, looking beyond actions, erasing stereotypes, For instance, most of us who teach know • giving students a voice, that a lesson that “hooks” students has many • thinking of and using time flexibly, merits. Differentiation affirms that principle, but • scrounging for a wide range of materials, reminds us that what may “hook” one student • thinking of many ways to accomplish a might well puzzle, bore, or irritate others. common goal, Differentiation doesn’t suggest that a teacher can • diagnosing student need and crafting be all things to all individuals all the time. It learning experiences in response to diagnoses, does, however, mandate that a teacher create a • thinking of what could go wrong in an reasonable range of approaches to learning activity or task and structuring student work to much of the time, so that most students find avoid potential problems, learning a fit much of the time. • sharing responsibility for teaching and learning with students, ensuring that students Ron Brandt (1998) offers a number of char- are prepared for the shared roles, acteristics for what he calls powerful learning. • moving students among varied work Figure 3.1 offers a few of these “best-practice” arrangements as a way to see students in new principles, as well as corollaries that remind us ways and to help them see themselves in new that truly expert teaching is inevitably differenti- ways, ated. Making the link between best practice • keeping track of student proximity to and teaching and differentiation helps set the stage growth toward personal and group benchmarks, for understanding the role of the teacher in a • organizing materials and space, differentiated classroom. • giving directions, • teaching for success, and Learning to Lead a • building a sense of community in the Differentiated Classroom classroom. Few of us as teachers automatically know how Three metaphors for the role of the teacher to lead a classroom that responds to the daunt- in a differentiated classroom are helpful. (Feel ing reality of learner variance. It is a learned free to create your own metaphor as well.) skill, in the same sense of any other art or craft. Perhaps a good place to begin is by listing some The Teacher as Director of the Orchestra. key skills that a teacher will develop over time This metaphor generates the image of a leader as she consciously and reflectively works on dif- who knows the music intimately, can interpret ferentiating instruction. Teachers who become it elegantly, can pull together a group of people comfortable and competent with differentiation who may not know each other well to achieve a almost inevitably develop skills of: common end, even though they all play differ- 17

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms FIGURE 3.1 Best-Practice Teaching Linked with Differentiation Best Practice (Brandt, 1998): People learn best Differentiation: We need to attend to student under these conditions: differences because… 1. What they learn is personally meaningful. Because students have different backgrounds and interest, there’s no guarantee that they’ll all find the same things personally meaningful. 2. What they learn is challenging, and they accept the Because students learn at different rates, a pace, challenge. text, or task that challenges some students will frustrate or bore others. 3. What they learn is appropriate to their At any time some students will think more concretely developmental level. and some more abstractly, some more dependently and others more independently. 4. They can learn in their own way, have choices, and It’s a sure bet students won’t all opt to learn in the feel in control. same way, make the same choices, or feel in control with the same parameters. 5. They use what they know to construct new Because they don’t all know the same things at the knowledge. same degree of competency, students will construct knowledge differently. 6. They have opportunities for social interaction. Students will vary in the amount of collaboration they need and the sorts of peers with whom they work best. 7. They get helpful feedback. What is helpful feedback for one student may not be for another. 8. They acquire and use strategies. Each student needs to acquire strategies new to that 9. They experience a positive emotional climate. student and use them in ways that are personally helpful. Classrooms that are quite positive for some students are distinctly not so for others. 10. The environment supports the intended learning. Students will need varied scaffolding to achieve both common and personal goals. Note: “Best Practice” column adapted from: Brandt, R. (1998). Powerful learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 18

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `T`he`Ro`le`of`th`e`Tea`ch`er`in`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` ent instruments. There’s a time in rehearsals for Differentiating Instruction: Rules individual practice, a time for sectional practice, of Thumb and a time for the whole group to work together. There’s a need to polish the perform- Before looking at specific ways to modify con- ance of each individual musician so that the tent, process, and product for students in your work of the whole is of quality. In the end, each mixed-ability classroom, it helps to understand musician contributes to a meaningful perform- several general guidelines that make differentia- ance and earns the applause (or scorn) of the tion possible. audience. The director of the orchestra helps musicians make music, but does not make the • Be clear on the key concepts and gener- music himself. alizations or principles that give meaning and structure to the topic, chapter, unit, or The Teacher as Coach. A good coach has lesson you are planning. Few learners can clear goals for the team, but also for every indi- amass and recall scores of bits of data on multi- vidual on the team. Practices will likely involve ple topics, let alone organize and use all that some common activities, but will also likely call data. All learners would probably fare better if on each player to improve areas of weakness lessons focused on key ideas and meanings. and polish areas of strength. The coach is gen- When the curriculum “covers” 500 pages, it is erally part psychologist, having to understand difficult to do much more than drag everyone what motivates each player and use that under- through those pages in the time available. On standing to get the player to sweat and even the other hand, focusing on key concepts and risk pain in order to develop his skill. Also, generalizations can ensure that all learners gain however, the coach must build a team spirit powerful understandings that serve as building that transcends individual concerns. The coach blocks for meaning and access to other knowl- is incredibly active during both practices and edge. Key concepts act as springboards to help games—running the sidelines, motivating, giv- all learners make connections between the topic ing directions, calling small groups aside at key under consideration and expanded studies. And times for strategy adjustments. The coach, how- these learners are more likely to find their ever, does not play the game. school experiences more memorable, useful, and engaging. It’s often useful to begin planning The Teacher as Jazz Musician. Impro- with knowledge, understandings, and skills you visation combines with a high level of musical want individuals and the group to have mas- competence to enable the jazz musician to think tered when a unit concludes, then take a step both inside and outside the box. The jazz musi- by step journey “backwards” to figure out the cian has the big picture, but can add new notes, best progression you and the students can take change tempo, step back for a soloist to assume in order to reach the destination. the spotlight, or become the soloist in the spot- light. A piece becomes longer or shorter, more • Think of assessment as a road map for plaintive, or more playful as the mood of the your thinking and planning. School often group dictates. It is the artistry and confidence of casts assessment as a test. In fact, everything a the jazz musician with the music, instrument, student does, from an oral contribution in a dis- and group that allow her to abandon the score cussion to a homework assignment to comple- for the sake of the music, the group, and the tion of an interest checklist, is a form of audience. A good differentiated classroom is jazz! assessment. When you begin to see the wide 19

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms array of assessment sources in the classroom, their work written by a peer or adult. Some may you begin to see how many ways there are to need to use materials in a language other than learn about learners. School often casts assess- English, or write initially in a first language and ment as something that happens at the end of a then translate into English. But if argumentation unit to see who “got it” and who didn’t. In fact, is a valuable skill, all students should engage in assessment is most useful when it comes at the it with appropriate scaffolding. outset of a unit or along the way in the unit. At those points, assessment invites us to adjust our • Lessons for all students should be teaching based on current information. School engaging. Again, you may not always achieve often casts assessment as dependent on reading that goal, but it should still be something to and writing. While those are essential skills for strive for as a measure of growth as an educator. most roles in life, they are not always the best Although all students will sometimes have to do way to find out what all learners have come to drill and practice to accumulate needed data, it understand and be able to do as the result of a is not acceptable for struggling learners to learning sequence. Fruitful assessment often spend most of their time trying to master basic poses the question, “What is an array of ways I information while other students get to use it. can offer students to demonstrate their under- In fact, we now know (Means, Chelemer, & standing and skills?” In that way, assessment Knapp, 1991) that many learners who struggle becomes a part of teaching for success and a would find learning more natural and sensible if way to extend rather than merely measure they were consistently presented with problems, learning. issues, dilemmas, and unknowns that required them to use more of what they have learned. • Lessons for all students should empha- size critical and creative thinking. In the • In a differentiated classroom, there imperfect world of teaching, you may not always should be a balance between student- accomplish this, but it should be your clear selected and teacher-assigned tasks and goal. In other words, it is not acceptable for working arrangements. This balance will vary remedial students to do “low-level” tasks that somewhat for each student, based on the stu- require only memorization of information and dent’s maturity, the nature of the task, classroom minimal comprehension. All tasks should conditions, and so on. But all students should require that students, at the very least, under- regularly have choices to make, and all students stand and be able to apply the meaning of the should regularly be matched with tasks compat- ideas at hand. Much of the time, all students ible with their individual learner profile. Again, should be called on to use information, under- struggling students should not typically work standings, and skills to solve knotty problems alone on a teacher-assigned task while other that defy a recipe-like answer. Some students students typically work together on tasks of may need more support than others to make their own choice. and back an argument, for example. Some may benefit from using more advanced research The next chapter provides an overview of learn- materials as they construct their argument. Some ing environments most likely to be hospitable may profit from a minilesson that recaps how to to a philosophy of differentiation. make and support a solid argument. Some may need to develop their arguments orally and have 20

44` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` THE Learning Environment IN A Differentiated Classroom The tone of any class- •Everyone feels welcomed and con- room greatly affects tributes to everyone else feeling welcomed. those who inhabit it Many things make students feel welcomed. and the learning that Certainly the direct and positive attention of the takes place there. teacher is welcoming. Peers who acknowledge Classroom environment in a setting that strives the presence of all of their classmates in positive for differentiation is, if anything, even more of a ways should be an expectation. A room that factor in shaping success. A differentiated class- contains student work and other artifacts that room should support, and is supported by, an are student designed and interesting to look at evolving community of learners. What that and think about are inviting. Flexible and com- means is that the teacher leads his students in fortable seating options provide a kind of wel- developing the sorts of attitudes, beliefs, and come as well. A time in the day when students practices that would characterize a really good and teacher can talk about the day, or life in neighborhood. general, builds bridges between learning and the world of the learner. Think about the things Characteristics of an Effective that make you feel welcomed—or have the Learning Community opposite effect—at a neighbor’s house, in a store, when you enter the place you work, and An effective community of learners is character- so on. It makes a difference to know that the ized by traits such as the following. classroom is a place where you feel you belong, 21

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms because everyone else feels that too. Remember, effort, or take a risk with a creative idea, I won’t too, that a part of feeling genuinely welcomed be thought of as foolish or stupid. Safety hap- in a place is that key people make an enduring pens when you feel accepted as you are, and and sustained effort to get to know and under- valued enough so that people want to help you stand you. become even better. •Mutual respect is a nonnegotiable. It will •There is a pervasive expectation of never be the case that we like or understand growth. The goal in a differentiated classroom everyone with whom we spend time. On the is to help every learner grow as much as he or other hand, the classroom is a better place if we she can in both general ability and specific tal- learn that everyone shares a need for some ents. The teacher gets excited about the growth common feelings such as acceptance, respect, of each individual learner, and of the class as a security, success, and so on. It is a powerful life whole. Students learn to chart their own growth lesson that regardless of our gender, culture, and to talk about both their learning goals and speed of learning, language, dress, and person- ways of achieving them. All growth is worthy of ality we all feel pain, joy, doubt, triumph—the note. One student’s growth may mean that the human emotions. Our lives are made better concept of fractions is finally beginning to make when they are treated as valuable and worthy of sense, while another’s growth may reflect an respect. In a differentiated classroom, the insight about connections between fractions, teacher helps students distinguish between feel- decimals, and subtraction. In a differentiated ings about something someone did and the classroom, the growth of each of the students is value of that person. Further, the teacher helps a matter of celebration, and one person’s growth students learn to solve problems in constructive is not more or less valuable than another’s. ways that attend to the issue at hand without making a person or group feel smaller. Respect •The teacher teaches for success. Some- seldom happens without the cultivation of times school is characterized by a sort of effort. The teacher is inevitably the catalyst for “gotcha” teaching, in which the game seems to that effort. It’s important to remember that be seeing if the teacher can ask a question or humor plays a central role in a welcoming and design a test item that will trip up students. In a respectful classroom. Sarcasm and sharp words differentiated classroom, it’s the teacher’s goal to do not. figure out where a student is in relation to key learning goals and then provide learning experi- •Students feel safe in the classroom. Not ences that will push the learner a little further only does safety presuppose the absence of and faster than is comfortable. When the physical danger, it requires the absence of emo- learner gives the work a really good effort, the tional danger as well. Students in a differenti- teacher will ensure that there is support neces- ated classroom should know it’s a good thing to sary to assist the student in reaching the goal ask for help when it’s needed, that it’s fine to say that seemed a bit out of reach. That kind of you don’t know, that an earnest question will assistance is often called “scaffolding.” Figure get an earnest response, that eyes will not roll 4.1 lists some common kinds of scaffolding in when someone expresses something that seems classrooms. Scaffolding is whatever kind of unusual or evident, that fledgling ideas will be assistance is needed for any student to move given a chance to develop, and so on. Safety from prior knowledge and skill to the next level means that when I try a new skill, expend of knowledge and skill. In a good differentiated 22

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Th`e`Le`arn`in`g E`nv`iro`n`me`nt`in`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` FIGURE 4.1 Scaffolding: Providing Support Needed for a Student to Succeed in Challenging Work • Directions that give more structure—or less • Tape recorders to help with reading or writing beyond the student’s grasp • Icons to help interpret print • Reteaching/Extended teaching • Modeling • Clear criteria for success • Reading buddies (with appropriate directions) • Double-entry journals (at appropriate challenge level) • Text-survey type strategies • Teaching through multiple modes • Use of manipulatives (when needed) • Gearing reading materials to student reading level • Use of study guides • Use of organizers • New American Lecture Note: “Challenging work” means assignments or task that are slightly beyond the student’s comfort zone. classroom, the teacher is constantly raising the classroom, just as in a large family, everyone has stakes for success for any individual, then doing to take extra responsibility both for their own whatever is necessary to help the student suc- well-being and for the well-being of others. In ceed in taking the next step. Remember that this sort of setting, while the teacher is clearly everyone’s next step will not be identical, and the leader of the group, students can help that every student needs scaffolding in order to develop routines for the classroom, make major stretch. contributions toward solving problems and refining routines, help one another, keep track •A new sort of fairness is evident. We of their work, and so on. Different students will often define fair in a classroom as treating be ready for differing amounts of responsibility everyone alike. In a differentiated classroom, at any given time, but all students need to be fairness is redefined. In this sort of environ- guided in assuming a growing degree of respon- ment, fair means trying to make sure each stu- sibility and independence as a learner and dent gets what she needs in order to grow and member of a community of learners. Not only is succeed. Students and teacher alike are part of that essential in a differentiated classroom, but the team trying to ensure that the classroom it’s a huge part of success in life as well. works well for everyone in the class. The teacher sets the tone for the classroom •Teacher and students collaborate for environment. It is a heavy responsibility and a mutual growth and success. In a differentiated wonderful opportunity to help students shape 23

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms Figure 4.2 Teacher Checklist for Group Work Students understand the task goals. Students understand what’s expected of individuals to make the group work well. The task matches the goals (leads students to what they should know, understand, and be able to do). Most students should find the task interesting. The task requires an important contribution from each group member based on the student’s skills and interests. The task is likely to be demanding of the group and its members. The task requires genuine collaboration to achieve shared understanding. Time lines are brisk (but not rigid). Individuals are accountable for their own understanding of all facets of the task. There’s a “way out” for students who are not succeeding with the group. There is opportunity for teacher or peer coaching and in-process quality checks. Students understand what to do next after they complete their work at a high level of quality. positive lives. Teachers, as all people, have good Paving the Way for Respect days and ones they’d rather not duplicate. and Success While none of us will ever do everything in the way of building a positive classroom environ- There are two concrete pieces of guidance that ment exactly like we’d have chosen to do it if contribute to a positive learning environment in we could have scripted events, we can get better a differentiated classroom that round out the and better at modeling what we want students more philosophical guidance offered above. to learn—joy in work, pleasure in one another, Both suggest students in a differentiated class- patience, kindness, and a big heart. Those room need to collaborate successfully. things help students construct sturdier and more rewarding lives. Working toward them •Continually coach students to be con- helps the teacher become a wiser person and tributing members of a group. As teachers, we better professional as well. often work in isolation. When that is the case, 24

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `Th`e`Le`arn`in`g E`nv`iro`n`me`nt`in`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` Figure 4.3 Range of Activities in a Differentiated Classroom Classroom Instructional Arrangements Whole-Class Activities Pre-assessment Planning Wrap-up of (readiness/interest) Explorations Introduction Sharing of Concepts Small-Group Activities (Pairs, Triads, Quads) Sense-Making Teaching Skills Directed Planning Investigation Reading Individualized Activities Compacting Practice & Interest Centers Independent Apply Skills Study Sense-Making Homework Products Testing Student-Teacher Conferences Assessment Tailoring & Guidance Evaluation Planning we get little firsthand experience with effectively dents toward the more functional ways of work- functioning groups. Sometimes, the best way to ing. Remember that students can and should know how to help students succeed in small help you develop groups that are productive if group settings is just to study groups at work in you will involve them in goal setting, reflection, your classroom, and try to list the traits of func- and problem solving. Figure 4.2 provides a few tional versus dysfunctional groups. Then try to guidelines for establishing productive groups. create tasks and give directions that steer stu- Figure 4.3 shows a range of grouping activities. 25

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms In general, remember that groups will work Using a variety of grouping strategies allows better if students know what to do, how to do you to match students and tasks when neces- it, what is expected of group members, and sary, and to observe and assess students in a what will constitute quality of both working variety of groupings and task conditions. This processes and product. Also reflect on the fact flexibility also keeps students from feeling that that an effective task will call for a meaningful they are “pegged” into a given classroom niche. contribution from every group member. That is During the course of a unit, there will be times not likely to occur when some members of the when it makes most sense for students of a sim- group have all the answers and skills and others ilar readiness level to work together or with the clearly have a comparative deficit in knowledge teachers. There should be other times when and skills. Groups should not establish a caste tasks are designed to bring together students of system whereby some students in the class are differing readiness levels in a way that will be always the teachers and others are always the meaningful to them all. There will be times taught. Also remember to have a respectful when students with similar interests should “way out” of the group for a student who can- work together on an area they all care about— not, at the moment, succeed with the group, and times when students with different special- even with your assistance and the assistance of ties can come together to look at an idea or the group. The alternative should not be puni- topic from several different angles. tive, but should rather present a different work setting that is more likely to succeed at the Figure 4.3 suggests that teachers in a differ- time. entiated classroom plan for flexible grouping at the outset of a unit, asking, for example: When •Plan with flexible grouping in mind. In a during the unit should the class work as a differentiated classroom, you will often design whole? When should I plan small group activi- tasks for students based on your best judgment ties? When does it make most sense for stu- of their readiness for and interest in those tasks, dents to work individually? When should I plan as well as how they learn best. At such times, time to meet with individuals? Flexible group- you will most likely want to assign students to ing is a central part of respect for all learners, the appropriate task. At other times, you may honoring individual differences, collaboration, want students to quickly discuss an idea with a teaching for success, and collaboration in a dif- nearby or pre-assigned thinking partner. Or it ferentiated classroom. may be more convenient to have students work with others at their table or to turn desks into a The next chapter offers several scenarios of how circle with four students in a cluster. Often, stu- teachers of different grades and subjects have dents can select their task partners, or they may used these guidelines to transform their role in need or prefer to work alone. the classroom. 26

55` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` A Look Inside SOME Differentiated CLASSROOMS There is no recipe for Ms. Eames and Her 1st Graders differentiation. Teachers construct It’s early spring, and Ms. Eames’s 1st graders are differentiated class- sporting a wide range of reading levels as well rooms in varying as burgeoning interests in many different topics. ways depending on their own personalities, the One way Ms. Eames addresses both differences nature of the subject and grade level they teach, in her learners is with a flexible reading pro- and the learning profiles of their students. gram. Each week, she posts the reading sched- These teachers have at least two things in com- ule. Students find their own names on the mon, however: a conviction that students differ schedule and go to the appointed part of the in their learning needs, and a belief that class- room at times designated on the chart. In the rooms in which students are active learners, course of the week, students are likely to read decision makers, and problem solvers are more in as many as five or six configurations. There natural and effective than those in which stu- are always times when the whole class meets to dents are passive recipients of information. listen to a story and talk about it, or to volun- Although there is no formula for differentia- teer to read parts of the story. Sometimes a tion, taking a glimpse at some differentiated small group of students meets with their teacher classrooms is often helpful in envisioning how to work on decoding, comprehension strategies, differentiation can be applied. The following or talking about reading just for the pleasure of “tour” includes modes of differentiation appro- sharing ideas. At other points, students meet priate for all grade levels and subjects. with peers who want to read on a topic of mutual interest, regardless of their reading readiness. There may be books at different 27

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms reading levels on the same topic, or students Today, for example, all students will be may read varying portions of the same material. assigned to one of two reading/writing learning Students also read alone—sometimes from dis- centers. Both centers focus on themes in biog- covery boxes which they can browse for books raphies the students have read. At each center, of interest on a number of topics, and some- students can elect to work alone, with a partner, times from boxes of books designated with a or with a group of three or four peers assigned color, and matching their reading level. to their center. At one center, students select a Sometimes students meet with a read-aloud person they’ve read about and make an anno- partner. In these instances, they may take turns tated time line of the person’s early life, select- reading, or the teacher may ask them to “choral ing events that they think were most important read” so that a stronger reader can provide lead- in shaping the person’s life. Then they choose to ership for a peer who does not yet read quite as either write a paper that explains their choices, well. This sort of flexible reading arrangement draw a storyboard of the events, or act out the enables the teacher to target particular teaching events one day during sharing time. Whatever needs, provide for interest-based explorations, way a student decides to express understanding, have students share both their skills and inter- the focus must be on identifying themes in the ests with a good range of classmates, and work life of the person about whom they read. At the with the class as a whole on reading. other, more complex reading/writing center, students select one of the biographies they’ve (Note: You can find out more about some read, as well as a fictional work they’ve read flexible approaches to reading in Guided about a young person. Then they write about Reading by Fountas & Pinnell, 1996; Matching some real-life events they and some of their 3rd Books to Readers, Using Leveled Books in grade friends have experienced. Finally, after Guided Reading, K-3 by Fountas & Pinnell, looking in all three works for common themes 1999; or Readers’ Workshop: Real Reading by about growing up, they design a method of Haggerty, 1992.) showing how those themes are used in each set- ting. Mrs. Riley gives them three suggestions: Mrs. Riley and Her 3rd Graders theme trees; a matrix; and conversations between or among the subject of the biography, Mrs. Riley uses a number of differentiation the fictional character, and a 3rd grader. strategies, but one she finds quite natural is the use of learning centers and interest centers. Some students go early in the day to one of Based on an assumption that all learners need these two reading/writing centers; after that, exposure to the same information, she used to they work with differentiated math assignments create centers and then send each child to every at their desks. Other students experience this center. Now, after designing a variety of centers combination of activities in reverse order. based on her students’ learning profiles, Mrs. Riley often assigns students to centers based on Interest centers are also available to stu- her formal and informal assessment of their dents during the week. Offered at the same time readiness. Even when they are assigned to a as the biography-focused learning centers, some learning center, students make choices about interest centers allow students to explore the their work in ways that address their interests skills of acting, learn how to make storyboards and learning preferences. for advertisements and animated films, or use a laser disc to find out more about a famous per- son they’re interested in. Mrs. Riley also offers interest centers on science- and math-related 28

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `A`Lo`ok`In`sid`e`So`m`e D`iff`er`en`tia`te`d C`la`ssr`oo`m`s topics. Students select which interest centers to enjoys both his subject and his students, every- attend. Most interest centers in Mrs. Riley’s one in the class looks forward to opportunities classroom are available for two weeks or more. to work directly with him. Mr. Blackstone and His 6th Ms. Jeffries and Her 8th Grade Graders History Students Mr. Blackstone teaches science and math to stu- Ms. Jeffries is determined to help her students dents on his middle school team. This week, understand that history is alive and well, so her the team is studying inertia. To introduce this students often work on investigative projects unit, Mr. Blackstone first uses whole-class that help them explore themes common to his- instruction to ensure that all students have a tory over time and place. She has designed a grasp of key ideas. Then, students learn more project to help them explore what went on in about inertia by working at one of two labs their Virginia town during the Civil War. All designed to help them understand, analyze, and students begin this project by reading material apply important unit-related principles. One lab available in class, viewing videos, and doing employs a more multifaceted, complex, and some library research. During these activities, ambiguous problem than the other. The teacher they note in their individual learning logs infor- assigns students to the lab he feels is most mation they will use for background material. appropriate for them, based on observation of Next, they make individual selections of the students over time, dialogue during the resources from a menu of references and other whole-class introduction, and “exit cards” on sources that Ms. Jeffries has prepared. In indi- which students summarized what they had vidual conversations, she often adds one or two learned about key principles of inertia as they additional resources to a student’s list based on left the whole-class session. her assessment of that learner’s interests and reading/comprehension levels, as well as her Following the labs, students take a test that sense of topics they might enjoy. Students also assesses how well they’ve learned the key princi- have to find at least one source of information ples from their whole-class study and differenti- that is not in their classroom or school library ated labs. Students who show mastery on the (Ms. Jeffries’s source list includes possibilities test can begin working on a rocketry project, such as talking with teachers in the school, either alone or with one or two other classmates interviewing students who have completed the who have also shown mastery. Students who do study in previous years, or going to a nearby not yet show mastery begin working on a differ- public library or museum). ent rocketry project, one that is more structured and ensures they reencounter and apply the key As they do their in-class or library research, principles. Mr. Blackstone works with this group Ms. Jeffries encourages students to share with of students, guiding their thinking so they can one another in a round-robin discussion both apply important understandings. He also works sources and ideas they find interesting. Students periodically with the more advanced group on also keep a running class list of topics that they their project, pushing their thinking further, and might explore for their investigations, such as avoiding the role of “the remediator.” medical practice in their town during the Civil War, disease patterns, the economy, the archi- By working with small groups much of the tecture and buildings in the town then and time, Mr. Blackstone gets to know his students now, roles of local citizens in the military, local and how they think. Because Mr. Blackstone 29

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms politics during that period, and schooling or Mr. Rakes and His High School education during the Civil War. Within two to Math Students four days, students decide on a first and second choice for their investigation, which they sub- Mr. Rakes has found that by the time students mit to their teacher. enter Algebra II, their levels of math skill are quite varied. Some students seem to grasp the Ms. Jeffries then assigns students to groups principles in a chapter almost before they read by their topics and strengths. Sometimes she it; others look squint-eyed and genuinely puz- constructs mixed-ability groups of five or six zled as their peers put homework answers on students; other times, she pairs students of rela- the board. Somewhere in the middle are stu- tively similar ability who have common inter- dents who grasp the ideas, but more slowly or ests and work well together. This flexible only after repeated explanations. grouping strategy allows her to tailor projects for advanced students or for students who need When Mr. Rakes used whole-class instruc- more structure and guidance. tion to address everyone’s needs in only one way, he found that he was unsuccessful with A key principle in her class, however, is the most of his students. So he began thinking of importance of working as colleagues, so stu- his class differently. Now, when beginning a dents in one group are free to call on students new chapter, he offers students a chance to in any other group for advice or assistance with “compact out” of the chapter either before the a specific task, such as computer work, draw- class begins working on it, or after three days of ing, or editing. She also pairs students across work with the entire class. “Compacting out” groups every few days so they can share ideas works like this: Prior to or early on in studying that might benefit other students doing similar a chapter, students take the chapter post-test. investigations. The tone is one of cooperation Those who demonstrate competency then do an for mutual success, not competition for scarce ongoing, independent investigation that rewards. Ms. Jeffries negotiates with her stu- explores uses of mathematics in the world. Mr. dents to determine the criteria for the content, Rakes gives those students guidelines for devel- format, and quality of final products. Some cri- oping the independent studies, but the students teria apply to the class as a whole, while others get to choose the specific exploration and are specific to a group or individual task. design the project. Sometimes students work alone on their investigations, and sometimes in Ms. Jeffries designed this project carefully: It small groups. Mr. Rakes works with them to has both clearly defined, “custom-fit” responsi- tighten or focus plans, as needed. bilities for each student, and vague, unassigned components that each group must work out Students like the “compacting out” option how to handle. Every student has an opportu- because it gives them a chance to work with nity to make a clear, individual contribution to many topics that interest them, but that they the whole that is personally challenging and seldom have a chance to examine in depth dur- interesting. And all students engage in tasks that ing high school—topics such as computers, help them improve their negotiating and group- astronomy, architecture, medicine, and econom- work skills. ics. Students working on independent studies 30

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `A`Lo`ok`In`sid`e`So`m`e D`iff`er`en`tia`te`d C`la`ssr`oo`m`s can work in class (if they don’t distract others), During the last portion of the class, while this request library time (if they use the privilege group is working in pairs on application tasks, appropriately), or even do another assignment Mr. Rakes checks in with the cooperative during math class to free up time for work on groups that have been working without his the independent study after school. Each stu- guidance. dent creates a time line of project tasks and is accountable for meeting deadlines and keeping Mr. Rakes has found this three-part a process log of project work and thought. approach to his class manageable for him and productive for his students. He has also begun When the other students have completed to encourage all of his students to do math working through the chapter, all students take application studies as a part of their individual the end-of-chapter tests. This practice assures portfolio work. Although some students’ indi- that those who compacted out of the chapter vidual projects may not be as complex or time- stay fresh with the skills; it also assures Mr. consuming as others, the projects give all Rakes that everyone understands the material. students a chance to see math in a different Prior to this test, Mr. Rakes often takes two days light and to explore their interests. Some stu- for peer review, which he does by constructing dents, for example, learn about how math is mixed-ability groups in which all students work used outside the textbook and the classroom by together to complete review problems. visiting and interviewing people in their com- munity who use math in their work. By the time the second semester starts, a few students who weren’t advanced enough for The Teacher’s Toolbox compacting during the first semester will have progressed to the point where they can opt for These five teachers use a variety of instructional compacting and the math application independ- strategies to help them match content, process, ent study. Sometimes, a few students who had and product to the readiness, interest, and tal- compacted out the first semester feel more com- ents of their students. Some of the strategies fortable if they work along with the class during described were interest and learning centers, the second semester. And a few students who mixed-ability and matched-ability cooperative had compacted during the first semester will groups, working as colleagues, negotiated crite- again do so during the second semester. They ria, compacting out, independent investigations, often design independent projects that are and peer review (see the Appendix for a com- extensions of their earlier independent studies. prehensive and descriptive list of these and other instructional strategies that are useful for When Mr. Rakes works with the students managing differentiated classrooms). who have not compacted out, he uses a two- part study plan. First, he uses whole-group The next chapter offers 17 “megastrategies” you instruction to teach key principles. Next, he can use to move away from one-size-fits-all creates cooperative groups so students who instruction and toward designing instruction seem able to apply the ideas somewhat inde- that challenges students individually by offering pendently can practice doing so. Students who a variety of learning and working arrangements. are still struggling then work directly with Mr. Rakes during the first part of each class period so that he can assess their thinking and help them focus on missing concepts and skills. 31

66` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Strategies FOR Managing A Differentiated Classroom For many teachers, ones” (p. 69). Although managing a differentiat- uncertainty about ed classroom is not always easy, progress in that how to manage a dif- direction tends to make school a better fit for ferentiated classroom more students. It also tends to make teaching grows into a fear that more satisfying and invigorating. stops them from attempting to provide instruc- tion based on their students’ varied interests Managing a Differentiated and needs. Many teachers don’t appreciate how Classroom: The Basics skilled they are at attending to multiple signals and juggling a variety of roles. The same skills Worthwhile endeavors are often challenging— that help teachers succeed in the complex envi- and usually worth it. Here are 17 key strategies ronment of a classroom can lead them toward you can use to successfully meet the challenge success in a differentiated classroom environ- of designing and managing differentiated ment, as well. instruction for your learners. Benefits for Students 1 Have a strong rationale for differentiat- and Teachers ing instruction based on student readi- ness, interest, and learning profile. Then As Piaget (1969) reflected, “The heartbreaking share your thinking with your students and difficulty in pedagogy, as indeed in medicine their parents—often. Just as teachers sometimes and other branches of knowledge that partake need help creating new mental images of class- at the same time of art and science, is, in fact, rooms as places that are fluid and offer many that the best methods are also the most difficult avenues to learning, so do students and parents. 32

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `St`rat`eg`ie`s f`or`Ma`na`gi`ng`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` If you help your students and parents under- enjoy most. If you teach different groups of stu- stand and contribute to your new view of the dents each day, you might find it advantageous classroom, they will be able to adapt. Without to begin differentiating instruction for the group your help, they may feel that you are “violating you find easiest to work with. Finding your the rules of the game,” and then they may point of readiness and beginning there is as become confused or resistant. This communica- important for you as for your students. Not tion strategy is so important that the next chap- beginning is a guaranteed way to avoid pro- ter more fully describes a way to prepare your- gress. Biting off too much invites discourage- self, your students, and their parents for a stu- ment and failure. Begin where you can and dent-centered, differentiated classroom. chart a time line for your own progress. Figure 6.1 (see next page) lists some approaches to dif- 2 Begin differentiating at a pace that is ferentiation that tend to take less preparation comfortable for you. Some teachers time from teachers—and others that are likely already make frequent adjustments in curricu- to require more preparation time. One lum and instruction to allow for student differ- approach to becoming comfortable with differ- ences in their classrooms. With just a few addi- entiation in a way that doesn’t overtake your life tional guidelines, these teachers are ready to is to select a few low-prep strategies you’re move ahead quickly in differentiating instruc- comfortable using consistently during a year, tion. Others who are less experienced or confi- and then selecting one high prep approach per dent need to move in smaller increments. unit or semester to add to your repertoire. There’s a strong parallel to students in a class- During a second year, you can hone the low room here: Some leap like leopards through a and high prep approaches from the previous given task, others move at a more measured year, and add one or two more high and low gait. What matters most is that students—and prep approaches. In that cumulative way, you teachers—make progress from their respective can work your way to a highly differentiated beginning points, not that they all work alike. classroom in four or five years, without feeling absolutely frenzied along the way. You may easily envision yourself working with varied learning resources, such as differing 3 Time differentiated activities to support texts, multilevel supplementary materials, vari- student success. Some students can man- ous computer programs, or peer tutors. You age group or independent work for long peri- may, on the other hand, feel more comfortable ods of time. Others have less capacity to sustain using a single text with your class but allowing group or independent tasks. When designing some students to move through it more rapidly, your tasks, remember two things: (1) time allot- or differentiating activities so students gain—at ted for a task should be a bit shorter than the their own pace—an understanding of ideas in attention span of the students who work on the text. Perhaps you’d find it easiest to differ- that task, and (2) advanced learners often have entiate student products. Creating small-group extended attention spans. When designing tasks tasks tailored to student readiness, interest, or for students with strong interest and ability in a talent may be more your style. Or you may particular area, allow a longer chunk of time want to begin by learning to use groups in your during a class, day, or week than the amount of class—not varying the group tasks at first, but time planned for tasks for students whose inter- just gaining skill and confidence in directing est or talent in the same area is not as great. A groups. If you teach multiple subjects, you may goal to strive for, over time, is helping all want to try your hand first in the subject you 33

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms Figure 6.1 Begin Slowly—Just Begin! Low-Prep Differentiation High-Prep Differentiation Choices of books Tiered activities and labs Homework options Tiered products Use of reading buddies Independent studies Varied journal prompts Multiple texts Orbitals Alternative assessments Varied pacing with anchor options Learning contracts Student-teacher goal setting 4-MAT Work alone/together Multiple-Intelligence options Whole-to-part and part-to-whole explanations Compacting Flexible seating Spelling by readiness Varied computer programs Entry Points Design-A-Day Varying organizers Varied supplementary materials Lectures coupled with graphic organizers Options for varied modes of expression Community mentorships Varying scaffolding on same organizer Interest groups Let’s Make a Deal projects Tiered centers Computer mentors Interest centers Think-Pair-Share by readiness, interest, learning Personal agendas profile Literature Circles Use of collaboration, independence, and Stations cooperation Complex Instruction Open-ended activities Group Investigation Miniworkshops to reteach or extend skills Tape-recorded materials Jigsaw Teams, Games, and Tournaments Negotiated Criteria Choice Boards Explorations by interest Think-Tac-Toe Games to practice mastery of information Simulations and skill Problem-Based Learning Multiple levels of questions Graduated rubrics Flexible reading formats Student-centered writing formats 34

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `St`rat`eg`ie`s f`or`Ma`na`gi`ng`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` students sustain group and independent tasks- best to phase you and your students into an for longer than what was initially comfortable environment where multiple avenues to learn- for them. The key to reaching that goal is their ing are the norm. Ultimately, your aim is to sense of success in those tasks. have all students understand that when they complete a given assignment, they must auto- 4 Use an “anchor activity” to free you up matically move to an anchor activity and work to focus your attention on your stu- with that activity with care and concentration. dents. “Ragged time” is a reality in a differenti- ated classroom. It is not your goal to have 5 Create and deliver instructions careful- everyone finish all tasks at the same time, so ly. Giving multiple directions to the class some students will inevitably complete work as a whole is confusing and calls too much while others have more to do. Using specified attention to who is doing what. A better alterna- activities to which students automatically move tive is creating and giving task cards or assign- when they complete an assigned task is impor- ment sheets to individuals or groups. Another tant both to maintaining a productive work option is going over an assignment with a few environment and to ensuring wise use of every- responsible students today so that they can one’s time. In almost every classroom, all stu- share directions with their groups tomorrow. It dents, from time to time, engage in activities is also helpful to tape-record directions, espe- like reading, journal writing, managing a port- cially when they are complex, so students can folio, and practicing (spelling, computation, replay them as needed. Tape-recorded direc- learning math through using tubs of manipula- tions are also handy for students with reading tives, and vocabulary). These sorts of tasks can or sequencing problems. Be sure you’ve thought become “anchor activities” that are options for through directions carefully, have anticipated students after assigned work is completed at a student problems, and have struck a balance high level of quality. Begin by teaching your between clarity and challenge. When part of the whole class to work independently and quietly directions require students to move to another on these tasks. Then move toward having half place in the classroom, specify a time limit for of the class work on the anchor activity (which the movement to be complete (shorter is gener- can be adjusted to student readiness and inter- ally better than longer—but not so short that it est), while the other half engages in a different causes students to dash) with clear expectations content-based activity designed specifically for for what constitutes orderly movement. their needs. This may help you feel less frag- mented in the beginning, because a sizable por- 6 Assign students into groups or seating tion of the class will be engaged in work that is areas smoothly. It’s bulky and confusing largely self-directed, freeing you to guide stu- to call students’ names in order to send them to dents in the newer and “less predictable” task. various seating areas or to assign them to partic- Later on, you can flip-flop the class, having the ular groups. You’ll find it’s smoother to list group that first worked with the anchor activity names by color or group on an overhead trans- switch to an appropriate content-based activity, parency that also indicates where the colors or and vice versa. Then, when you feel ready, you groups should report. Wall charts work well can have a third of the class working with an also, especially for groups that will have a some- anchor activity and two-thirds working with what extended duration. For young students, two differentiated content-based tasks. All sorts peg-boards and key tags with students' names of combinations are possible. Do whatever feels on them allow you to “move” students to a 35

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms learning center or section of the room flexibly and off quickly) to remind them to reduce the and with ease. conversation level. Assign a student in each group to monitor the noise level and remind 7 Have a “home base” for students. peers to talk softly. Some students are especially Beginning and ending a class or lesson distracted by noise. Finding a section of the from a “home base” or seating chart enables you room somewhat removed from the noise may to organize students and materials more effec- be helpful for them. If that is not adequate, tively when there will be student movement using a plastic headset with ear cuffs (common during the class or lesson. In middle and high items in rooms with listening stations) can be a school classes, assigned or home base seats also help. Ear-plugs such as those used on airplanes allow you to check attendance without “calling can make a difference as well. Remember to the roll.” involve students in conversation about balanc- ing their needs for conversation and concentra- 8 Be sure students have a plan for getting tion, and let them help you find other ways to help when you’re busy with another retain both. student or group. You can help students learn to work collegially by suggesting that they ask a 10 Make a plan for students to turn in peer for clarification when they get “stuck.” work. There are times in a differenti- Some classrooms have an “expert of the day” ated class when multiple tasks are going on at desk where one or more students especially once, and when various students may turn in skilled with the day’s task sit and serve as con- several different assignments in a relatively short sultants. (Astute teachers ensure that many stu- time span. It is distracting for each student to dents serve as “experts”; students also assist by come to you with the finished piece. Two strate- checking answers, proofreading, answering gies can eliminate the distraction. First, use an questions about directions or texts, and helping “expert of the day” who can check over a piece with art or construction tasks.) Or students may of work a student believes she has finished to try to get themselves “unstuck” by “thinking on see if it is both complete and of good quality. If paper” in their learning logs. Be sure students the “expert” concurs that the work is ready to know when it’s okay to come to you for help— be turned in, have the “expert” sign the paper and when it’s not—and that they know and use and have the student place it in a box or file several options if they need help when you are labeled with the name of the task or an appro- unavailable. For you to successfully manage a priate icon in a predesignated place in the differentiated classroom, your students must room. If the “expert” feels the work is incom- know that it’s never okay for them to just sit plete or lacking in quality, the student must and wait for help to come to them, or to disrupt continue working on the piece. someone else. 11 Teach students to rearrange the fur- 9 Minimize noise. When students are niture. You can draw three or four active in a classroom, there will be some floor plans with furniture arranged differently in noise. There is no need for the noise to become each one and teach the students how to move oppressive or distracting. From the beginning of the furniture quickly and quietly to correspond the year, work with students on working with with the floor plan you designate (by name, peers quietly. Teach them to whisper or talk number, or color). That makes you feel freer to softly. Use a signal (such as turning the light on be flexible with room arrangements than if you 36

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `St`rat`eg`ie`s f`or`Ma`na`gi`ng`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` personally must move all the furniture each reminders from peers, and put a minus beside time it’s rearranged. Be clear about your expec- those names. Most students most days will do tations for orderly movement, and also help stu- fine. Later, you can fill the pluses and minuses dents understand how the variety from their into a gradebook or daily worksheet, then add work will contribute to their classwork. checks by everyone else’s name. Most days, there will be mostly checks. Letting your stu- 12 Minimize “stray” movement. Kids dents look at their pattern over a period of a need to move around, regardless of week or month can help them see how you’re their age. It’s not necessarily a goal to keep assessing their concentration. Also importantly, everyone glued to her chair. On the other hand, seeing patterns in the students’ concentration an undue amount of idle roaming isn’t likely to provides good assessment information for you. come to a good end either. Think through the It may indicate a student who is frustrated amount of movement you will be comfortable because work is too hard or too easy, a student with, and let your students know what they can who needs a different seating arrangement, or a and can’t do. For example, it may be fine to go student who is really taking off with their work. to an “expert of the day” if you’re stuck on a math problem—but only as long as there is 14 Have a plan for “quick finishers.” only one person at a time with the expert. Or, it Students who consistently complete may be that you want to designate a “gopher” their work early, and do so with competence, for each work group who will get materials are providing a diagnosis of tasks that are insuf- needed for the day’s work, noting that only the ficiently challenging. (Some bright students will gopher should be up from the table—and per- lollygag so you don’t notice the work is easy. haps that only one group’s gopher can be up at That’s safer than signaling a need for something any one time. The directions need to apply as more complex.) Sometimes, however, the task is much structure as is needed to keep you and right for the student, but their goal is simply to the students feeling productive—but no more be the first one finished. In instances like this, structure than is necessary. it’s important for the student to know that you understand their competence, but that what 13 Promote on-task behavior. Help your you’re interested in is “knock your socks off” students understand that you value quality. Ask them to tell you several indicators on-task behavior because it helps them do bet- or characteristics of superior thought and crafts- ter, helps you concentrate on what you need to manship on the piece of work. Feel free to con- do to help them, and eliminates distractions for tribute some indicators yourself. Don’t accept others. Be sure to clarify what you mean by on- work that doesn’t bear those hallmarks. task behavior. If your standards are different, students may feel they are working just fine 15 Make a plan for “calling a halt.” when you think otherwise. You may want to let While you will want to use time flexi- students know that you will be giving them a bly in a differentiated classroom, the time will daily check on how well they are using their come when you simply need to bring closure to time. You can make a list of students who are a lesson sequence or unit. There may still be working with extra concentration and put a students not yet finished. It’s important to think plus by their names. Similarly, you can make a through how you will handle that. Some helpful list of students who find it very difficult to stay approaches include: giving students advance on task, even after coaching from you and warning (a day or two ahead of time, for exam- 37

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms ple) of when the deadline will be, providing 17 Engage your students in talking alternative homework assignments so students about classroom procedures and who want to can have a night or two to finish group processes. Your “metacognition,” or the work at home, using a learning contract or thinking aloud about your thinking, helps stu- anchor activity time to allow for some addition- dents understand your expectations as well as al work, or letting the student help you figure rationales for those expectations. It also helps out how he can complete unfinished work, them develop ownership in their classroom. even as the class moves on. Having ongoing conversations about what you’re all experiencing individually and collec- 16 Give your students as much respon- tively is a great investment in the future—sav- sibility for their learning as possi- ing much more time and stress in the long run ble. Not only does fostering student responsi- than these conversations require at the time. bility make classroom management far more Besides, you’ll be amazed at how many times effective, it also helps young learners become the students can spot and think of a solution to independent—an important learning goal on its a problem before you can figure it out. Use their own. Students can pass out folders and other eyes and minds to make the class work smooth- materials, critique one another’s work, move ly and comfortably. furniture for group work, keep records of their own work, chart their progress by using estab- There are many other effective ways to develop lished goals, help design some of their own a classroom in which students engage in a vari- tasks, and make suggestions for smoother class- ety of interesting and engaging activities. Share room operation. We often underestimate the your management-of-differentiation strategies capacity of students to be self-sufficient. with colleagues and ask them to share with you what works for them. 38

77` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Preparing Students AND Parents FOR A Differentiated Classroom In a differentiated she has developed an effective way both to ori- classroom, some of ent her students to the environment she wants the traditional ground to create for them and to enlist their help in cre- rules change. Your ating it. students and their parents may initially need your help to under- First, Mrs. Middleton shows her students stand and feel comfortable with the new look how to make a line graph. Students choose and feel of the classroom. After an initial period ways to describe the quality of something, of uncertainty, most students and parents which they then position as labels along the respond quite positively to a setting that treats vertical axis. Each class chooses different individuals as unique people and where learn- descriptors, but the top (best) labels are often ing is active and engaging. This chapter offers “awesome” or “way cool” or “in orbit.” The bot- some strategies for making students and parents tom (worst) labels tend to be “disaster zone” or feel “at home” in a differentiated classroom. “dismal” or “dead meat.” Students also label sev- eral points in between the best and worst indi- Introducing Students to cators. Next, Mrs. Middleton asks the students Differentiated Instruction: to put descriptors along the horizontal axis, A Middle School Scenario such as “good in writing,” “good in math,” “good in soccer,” “good in reading,” “good in Mrs. Middleton begins the school year with a cleaning my room,” “good in spelling.” Then clear idea of how she wants her differentiated she asks them to add four or five descriptors middle school English classes to work. Knowing of their own choosing. To help her students she needs her students’ help to reach that goal, understand how to plot themselves on their graph, she makes a graph of herself on the 39

HOW TO Differentiate Instruction IN Mixed-Ability` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` Classrooms board while the students watch. She plots her- means they should not all do the same tasks all self as very strong with writing, somewhat the time in class. Some older classes have even strong with math, weaker with spelling, about offered her specific examples, such as giving average with soccer and cleaning her room, and advanced spelling assignments to students who so on. When she plots herself on each of her are great spellers, or less difficult writing assign- additional descriptors—“good with photogra- ments if writing is very hard for some students. phy,” “good with cartooning,” and “good with crossword puzzles”—she discusses her interest Then, over several days, Mrs. Middleton in each area. Students complete their graph for engages her students in discussions about how homework, and each day for the next couple of their class has to function if different things are weeks, three or four students share their graph going on in a single class period, and they help with the class. Then Mrs. Middleton’s students her establish rules for a class like that. They tape their graphs, grouped by class period, on even discuss grading and decide that students an empty classroom wall. should be graded on their individual progress, not in comparison to everyone else. The stu- After a few days, Mrs. Middleton asks her dents talk about ways to set individual goals students what patterns they see in the graphs, with the teacher, keep track of their own work and she lists the ones they note. Students usu- and progress, and help one another succeed. ally see several patterns quickly, especially the first two in the following list: Mrs. Middleton concludes this “preparation” phase by summarizing what they’ve all agreed is •Everybody said they are better in some necessary and putting a summary of their ideas things and worse in others. on chart paper in front of the room. “In this classroom,” she says, “‘fair’ will mean that all of •Nobody drew a flat line and said they were us must live by the class rules, all of us must the same in everything. work hard, all of us must respect one another and encourage one another. It does not mean •More girls than boys said they were good we’ll all do the same things all the time.” She spellers. lets her students know it is okay to come to her and say they’d really like to be working with a •More kids in 5th period said they were particular topic or project someone else is good writers. doing. “Lots of times,” she assures them, “I’ll be able to let you know when that will come up •People mostly added things they were for you, because I’ll make sure that all of you good at. get your share of both the ‘good stuff’ and the ‘drudge work.’” Mrs. Middleton takes a minute to reflect on their responses, and then she poses this ques- Gradually, students begin practicing the pro- tion to her students: “If you are different in your cedures for distributing work folders, free read- strengths—even in English (some of you said ing, individual conferences with the teacher, you were strong in spelling and weak in read- individualized spelling, small-group projects, ing, for example)—what should I do about writing critique groups, and so on. Each day, that?” Mrs. Middleton takes some time for metacogni- tion: She asks her students to briefly assess how Her students’ response to this question is they did as individuals and as a group toward usually that she should deal with them in differ- achieving their operational goals and following ent ways based on their differences. They often their new ground rules. suggest that her main goal should be to help them all grow, both in their strengths and in their weaker areas. Sometimes they say that this 40

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `P`re`pa`rin`g S`tu`de`nt`s a`nd` P`ar`ent`s `for`a`Di`ffe`ren`ti`ate`d`Cl`ass`ro`om` Mrs. Middleton helps her students under- some students accomplished the task well stand that some days she assigns them to tasks before others. To the students in class, he raises and work groups, and that some days they get the question, “Does it seem to matter much that to select for themselves. She also makes certain somebody began talking nearly a year before to use all sorts of grouping arrangements. She someone else? Seems like everyone in here is made a critical discovery about her grouping talking fine now!” The students agree that when strategies one day simply by overhearing a stu- they began to talk is not nearly so important as dent say to a friend, “I think Mrs. Middleton that they did begin to talk. Mr. Wade uses that stays up nights trying to figure out another way as a reminder in class that some students will to scramble us up.” Mrs. Middleton learned not learn to count higher and faster or read more only to give her students more insight into her comfortably sooner. That’s fine, the students grouping strategies, but also to ask her students agree, as long as everyone is working on the to be active partners with her in figuring out skills they need. how their work is going for them. With parents at parents’ night Mr. Wade also Now she remembers to say from time to adds a conversation about what would have time, “Let me know if you think what you’re happened had they forced a child to walk doing is too hard or too easy for you, and I’ll before he could stand, or run before he could take a look at it with you. We can make walk, or if they had spent every day in a hover- changes when we need to.” ing panic because the child next door was talk- ing and their child was not. He helps the Another way she gives her students oppor- parents realize that school is a progression of tunities to be active partners with her is to occa- life and that teaching is like parenting in some sionally allow them to design minicontracts in ways. He can discover where the child is in a which they work with an interesting activity sequence of skills, provide opportunities for they’ve seen or to extend something they espe- next steps, encourage and ensure affirmation for cially enjoyed doing. progress. He cannot force them to match the kid at the next table. Nor, he points out, should In school—just like everywhere else—there’s he silence the student who is already talking probably no such thing as a perfect day, but until the other students find their voice. The Mrs. Middleton and her students have lots of analogy helps parents throughout the year very good days, and few really rough days. Mrs. understand Mr. Wade’s thinking when he differ- Middleton’s classroom is a comfortable, busy, entiates instruction. He invites parents to help and respectful place, one that both teacher and him understand their child’s development and students work to successfully create. interests so that together they can be effective catalysts for growth. Introducing Students and Parents to Differentiation: Helping Parents Learn About A Primary Grade Scenario Differentiated Instruction Mr. Wade sends a survey home to parents early Most parents are eager for their students to in the year, asking parents to provide the learn, grow, succeed, and feel accepted in approximate ages of their children when they school. A differentiated classroom is an ideal began to do things like walking, talking, place for those things to take place. You share singing, riding a tricycle, dressing themselves, those goals with your students’ parents. It’s just and so on. He charts the results and, not sur- prisingly, always finds that in every endeavor, 41