["48 Great Britain until the Reform Act 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. The organized women\u2019s movement in Britain formed and developed during the Victorian era, which was marked by women\u2019s struggle for the right to vote. This fact has a decisive impact on the nature of the women\u2019s movement, its ideology, rhetorics, and political practices. It can also be claimed that the attempts of women to enter the sphere of politics have become the most important determinant in the construction of ideas about British democracy and culture. The suffrage movement: - These debates and discussions culminated in the first women\u2019s rights convention, held in July 1848 in the small town of Seneca Falls, New York. It was a spur-of-the- moment idea that sprang up during a social gathering of Lucretia Mott, a Quaker preacher and veteran social activist, Martha Wright (Mott\u2019s sister), Mary Ann McClintock, Jane Hunt, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the wife of an abolitionist and the only non-Quaker in the group. The convention was planned with five days\u2019 notice, publicized only by a small unsigned advertisement in a local newspaper. Stanton drew up the \u201cDeclaration of Sentiments\u201d that guided the Seneca Falls Convention. Using the Declaration of Independence as her guide to proclaim that \u201call men and women [had been] created equal,\u201d she drafted 11 resolutions, including the most radical demand\u2014the right to the vote. With Frederick Douglass, a former slave, arguing eloquently on their behalf, all 11 resolutions passed, and Mott even won approval of a final declaration \u201cfor the overthrowing of the monopoly of the pulpit, and for the securing to woman equal participation with men in the various trades, professions and commerce.\u201d Suffragette movement contribute to women's rights: - Emerged in response to capitalism, the women\u2019s suffrage movement in England began peacefully and transformed into militant actions to obtain the right to vote All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","49 and establish egalitarianism, which changed their position in cultural and political contexts. Before the suffrage movement, the British culture was represented by a patriarchal society where women were perceived as belonging to men. Interestingly, among the opponents of the women\u2019s movement for equality with men, there were not only men but also women who regarded enfranchisement as the collapse of their lifestyle. It was believed that females are less clever than males and that politics, for instance, cannot be a worthy female affair as it may destroy their personalities. In addition, male politicians feared that gender equality establishment could cause the fact that the birth rate would decrease and England would not receive the soldiers for the army. Children were also the property of their father, and girls were educated with the focus on home affairs and obedience to men. In 1903, Emeline Pankhurst founded the Women\u2019s Emancipation Union, the members of which received the nickname of suffragists, but they began their activities in England quite peacefully. Kowal (2000) states that the women\u2019s suffrage movement \u201cemerged as an effect of the onset of capitalism and industrialization\u201d (p. 243). The traditional functions of women who were responsible only for house affairs moved to factories and the state. The characteristic feature of the British culture before the identified movement is their increased participation in public life and occupations outside the home (Kowal, 2000). In turn, the latter made women\u2019s subjugation more evident and caused the conflict between domesticity and outside affairs. Among the vivid examples, there are relatively low wages and poorer working conditions for female workers compared to males. The transition to equality between men and women in Britain was associated with radical initiatives that were also called militant. In addition to the right to vote, suffragettes demanded that they should not be discriminated against men in society All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","50 as well as in political and economic spheres. In this period, the performance of London suffragettes for their rights was accompanied by smashing of glasses in shops and private apartments of public institutions and various meetings (Rollyson, 2003). Women were armed with stones, sticks, and bottles wrapped in paper. As reported by Kowal (2000), they wanted to attract the attention of the male-dominated society by their actions, which were completely opposite to the traditional, discreet culture of England. The mentioned example shows that suffragettes were well-aware of their problems and intentions while they selected radical ways to make a revolution. Conclusion: - From time to time, amendments have been made in the constitution to strengthen the position of women, because in this male-dominated society, it is necessary to ensure their rights not only to end discrimination on the basis of gender with women Rather, the implementation of those rights is also necessary. Question: Write short notes on the following: a) Industrial Capitalism b) League of Nations c) Russian Revolution of 1905 Ans - (a) Industrial Capitalism The rise of industrial capitalism throughout the nineteenth century went hand in hand with the rise of strikes and other forms of labor protests. By the end of the century most industrialized countries were collecting systematic strike data. No doubt the relevance of the issue at the heart of capitalist social relations and the ready availability of data led to a burgeoning academic literature. What do we know? All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","51 Basically, that the temporal pattern of strikes follows the business cycle: the higher the level of unemployment, the lower the number of strikes. More generally, one thing is clear: strikes are cyclical with long up-and-down swings (with the down swings typically leading to predictions of the \u2018withering away of strikes\u2019). Strikes are also linked to organization: the better organized workers are (e.g., through trade unions), the more likely they are to call on strike a larger number of workers and to be successful in their demands. Finally, strikes are linked to the political position of labor: strikes have gone down wherever and whenever labor-oriented parties acquired a stable and durable control over the government within Western democracies. But what about the future? Has the nature of strikes fundamentally changed with the shift from manufacturing to services? The evidence does show some distinctive features of service-sector strikes. Whether strikes are a thing of the past, the future will tell. (b) League of Nations League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established on January 10, 1920, at the initiative of the victorious Allied powers at the end of World War I. All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","52 The terrible losses of World War I produced, as years went by and peace seemed no nearer, an ever-growing public demand that some method be found to prevent the renewal of the suffering and destruction which were now seen to be an inescapable part of modern war. So great was the force of this demand that within a few weeks after the opening of the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, unanimous agreement had been reached on the text of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Although the League was unable to fulfil the hopes of its founders, its creation was an event of decisive importance in the history of international relations. The League was formally disbanded on April 19, 1946; its powers and functions had been transferred to the nascent United Nations. Many of the attributes of the League of Nations were developed from existing institutions or from time-honoured proposals for the reform of previous diplomatic methods. However, the premise of collective security was, for practical purposes, a new concept engendered by the unprecedented pressures of World War I. (c) Russian Revolution of 1905 Russian Revolution of 1905, uprising that was instrumental in convincing Tsar Nicholas II to attempt the transformation of the Russian government from an autocracy into a constitutional monarchy. For several years before 1905 and especially after the humiliating Russo-Japanese War (1904\u201305), diverse social groups demonstrated their discontent with the Russian social and political system. Their protests ranged from liberal rhetoric to strikes and included student riots and terrorist assassinations. These efforts, coordinated by the Union of Liberation, culminated in the massacre of peaceful demonstrators in the square before the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, on Bloody Sunday (January 9 [January 22, New Style], 1905). All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","53 In St. Petersburg and other major industrial centres, general strikes followed. Nicholas responded in February by announcing his intention to establish an elected assembly to advise the government. But his proposal did not satisfy the striking workers, the peasants (whose uprisings were spreading), or even the liberals of the zemstvos (local government organs) and of the professions, who by April were demanding that a constituent assembly be convened. The revolt spread to non-Russian parts of the empire, particularly to Poland, Finland, the Baltic provinces, and Georgia, where it was reinforced by nationalist movements. In some areas the rebellion was met by violent opposition from the anti- revolutionary Black Hundreds, who attacked the socialists and staged pogroms against the Jews. But the armed forces joined in on the side of the revolt as well: army units situated along the Trans-Siberian Railroad line rioted, and in June the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in the harbour at Odessa. Question: Write a short note on the following: a) Contemporary era b) Treaty of Versailles c) Analyze the Great Depression of 1929. Ans - a) Contemporary era The Contemporary Era, from 1950 to the present, has therefore witnessed an unprecedented global exploitation of both vertical and horizontal frontiers, with much of this expansion occurring in the developing regions of the world. Moreover, as in the previous era of globalization, during the Golden Age of Resource-Based Development from 1870 to 1914, worldwide resource expansion and exploitation occurred during an age in which international trade was booming and primary- All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","54 product commodities were increasingly consumed by the advanced and rapidly industrializing economies of the world. Just as in past decades, most low- and lower-middle-income countries during the Contemporary Era appear to rely on finding new sources of natural resources and land to exploit as the basis of their long-term development efforts. Agricultural land expansion and natural resource exploitation are fundamental features of economic development in many of today\u2019s poorer economies. Contemporary history has, however, often been written in an effort to ascertain responsibility for recent political catastrophes\u2014wars, occupations, repressive regimes, etc. Recent efforts to resolve responsibilities for these yield reconstructions that are usefully compared with comparative history, although less encompassing in their claims. (b) Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Versailles, peace document signed at the end of World War I by the Allied and associated powers and by Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, France, on June 28, 1919; it took force on January 10, 1920. When the German government asked U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson to arrange a general armistice in October 1918, it declared that it accepted the Fourteen Points that he had formulated and presented to the U.S. Congress in January 1918 as the basis for a just peace. However, the Allies demanded \u201ccompensation by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany by land, by sea and from the air. \u201d Further, the nine points covering new territorial consignments were complicated by the secret treaties that England, France, and Italy had made with Greece, Romania, and each other during the last years of the war. All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","55 The treaty was drafted in the spring of 1919 during the Paris Peace Conference, which was conducted even as the world was in the grip of the influenza pandemic of 1918\u201319. The conference was dominated by the national leaders known as the \u201cBig Four\u201d\u2014David Lloyd George, the prime minister of the United Kingdom; Georges Clemenceau, the prime minister of France; Woodrow Wilson, the president of the United States; and Vittorio Orlando, the prime minister of Italy. The first three in particular made the important decisions. None of the defeated nations had any say in shaping the treaty, and even the associated Allied powers played only a minor role. The German delegates were presented with a fait accompli. They were shocked at the severity of the terms and protested the contradictions between the assurances made when the armistice was negotiated and the actual treaty. Accepting the \u201cwar guilt\u201d clause and the reparation terms was especially odious to them. (c) Analyze the Great Depression of 1929. Great Depression, worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted until about 1939. It was the longest and most severe depression ever experienced by the industrialized Western world, sparking fundamental changes in economic institutions, macroeconomic policy, and economic theory. Although it originated in the United States, the Great Depression caused drastic declines in output, severe unemployment, and acute deflation in almost every country of the world. Its social and cultural effects were no less staggering, especially in the United States, where the Great Depression represented the harshest adversity faced by Americans since the Civil War. The timing and severity of the Great Depression, varied substantially across countries. The Depression was particularly long and severe in the United States and Europe; it was milder in Japan and much of Latin America. Perhaps not surprisingly, All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","56 the worst depression ever experienced by the world economy stemmed from a multitude of causes. Declines in consumer demand, financial panics, and misguided government policies caused economic output to fall in the United States, while the gold standard, which linked nearly all the countries of the world in a network of fixed currency exchange rates, played a key role in transmitting the American downturn to other countries. The recovery from the Great Depression was spurred largely by the abandonment of the gold standard and the ensuing monetary expansion. The Depression affected virtually every country of the world. However, the dates and magnitude of the downturn varied substantially across countries. The country did not slip into severe depression, however, until early 1930, and its peak-to-trough decline in industrial production was roughly one-third that of the United States. France also experienced a relatively short downturn in the early 1930s. Question - Write notes on the following 1. Formation of the United Nations 2. Art and Politics (Picasso) 3. Formation of the USSR Answer: - 1. Formation of the United Nations: - On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 nations at war with the Axis powers met in Washington to sign the Declaration of the United Nations endorsing the Atlantic Charter, pledging to use their full resources against the Axis and agreeing not to make a separate peace. At the Quebec Conference in August 1943, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden agreed to draft a declaration that included a All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","57 call for \u201ca general international organization, based on the principle sovereign equality of all nations.\u201d An agreed declaration was issued after a Foreign Ministers Conference in Moscow in October 1943. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehran, Iran, in November 1943, he proposed an international organization comprising an assembly of all member states and a 10- member executive committee to discuss social and economic issues. The United States, Great Britain, Soviet Union, and China would enforce peace as \u201cthe four policemen.\u201d Meanwhile Allied representatives founded a set of task- oriented organizations: the Food and Agricultural Organization (May 1943), the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (November 1943), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (April 1944), the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank (July 1944), and the International Civil Aviation Organization (November 1944). U.S., British, Soviet, and Chinese representatives met at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington in August and September 1944 to draft the charter of a postwar international organization based on the principle of collective security. They recommended a General Assembly of all member states and a Security Council consisting of the Big Four plus six members chosen by the Assembly. Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at the Yalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. Roosevelt agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States. Representatives of 50 nations met in San Francisco April-June 1945 to complete the Charter of the United Nations. In addition to the General Assembly of all member states and a Security Council of 5 permanent and 6 non-permanent members, the Charter provided for an 18-member Economic and Social Council, an International Court of Justice, a Trusteeship Council to oversee certain colonial territories, and a All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","58 Secretariat under a Secretary General. The Roosevelt administration strove to avoid Woodrow Wilson\u2019s mistakes in selling the League of Nations to the Senate. It sought bipartisan support and in September 1943 the Republican Party endorsed U.S. participation in a post war international organization, after which both houses of Congress overwhelmingly endorsed participation. Roosevelt also sought to convince the public that an international organization was the best means to prevent future wars. The Senate approved the UN Charter on July 28, 1945, by a vote of 89 to 2. The United Nations came into existence on October 24, 1945, after 29 nations had ratified the Charter. 2. Art and Politics (Picasso): - Thoughts on Picasso's art: - Pablo Picasso was born in 1881 in the city of Malaga, Spain. He was a painter, sculptor as well as a sculptor. Throughout his long life, Picasso followed the principles of abstract composition. He was greatly influenced by symbolism. He developed his style in Paris during the Blue Period (1900\u20131902). This name was given because of the blue and green colours on the blue canvas. Picasso made a lot of progress in his pink period (1905-07). During this time, she primarily used pink in her paintings. After this, the influence of African art was seen on him. From 1915 he developed his cubist timepiece, which brought him worldwide fame. In cubism, instead of three-dimensional shapes, pictures were made using square patterns and colors. In those paintings the colors partially covered each other. With this type of cover different sizes and human body or objects can be seen from front and back at the same time. The painting Man with Violin was painted in 1912. This picture is a good example of analytical study of cubism. Objects were divided into different parts and at the same time other ideas were also depicted in the picture. As in other paintings of this era, various painted shapes can be recognized, but all the shapes have been All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","59 converted into cubic forms. Picasso used shape in a new way. The human figure which is holding the violin in the hand has been converted into various geometrical shapes and then assembled in pieces. The colours used in this picture are the representative colors of this era. The mixture and color of brown and green colors is made on seeing. Most of Picasso's paintings in this era are painted with similar techniques and colors. According to him the definition of reality was different. He defined reality in his own way. According to him reality is more real than nature. The skilful and extraordinary use of colors and other means made him the most loved artist of the 20th century. Among his best paintings is the Guernica work based on the Spanish Civil War. Title - Man with Violin Medium - oil on canvas Time - 1912 Size - 100 x 73 cms. m. Artist - Pablo Picasso Collection - Art Museum of Philadelphia All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","60 Thoughts on Picasso's political: - Picasso publicly announced in 1947 that he was a communist. When asked about his motives, he said: \u201cWhen I was a boy in Spain, I was very poor and knew how poor people lived. I learned that the Communists are focusing on the needs of the poor. That's why I became a Communist.\\\" After the death of Joseph Stalin, the French Communists turned to the artist with a request to paint a party leader. His portrait caused a sensation in the leadership of the Communist Party. Although Picasso was in exile from his native Spain following the victory of Generalissimo Francisco Franco in 1939, he gave over eight hundred of his early works to Barcelona. But because of Franco's dislike, his name never appeared in the museum. Of the large number of Picasso exhibitions during the artist's life, the most important were in New York and Paris. In 1961, Pablo married Jacqueline Roque and they moved to Mougins. There Picasso continued his fruitful work, which did not stop until the end of his days. One of the last works was a self-portrait, made in pencil on paper, \\\"Self-portrait standing face to face with death.\\\" He died a year later at the age of 91, on 8 April 1973, at his thirty-five-room villa on the hill of Notre-Dame-de-Vie in Mougins. 3. Formation of the USSR: - While drafting the projects for the USSR, Lenin and Stalin played a game of \u2018good cop and bad cop\u2019. After 1918, most of the former parts of the Russian Empire became Soviet Socialist Republics. Joseph Stalin\u2019s initial idea was to simply merge all other republics into the Russian Federative Socialist Soviet Republic with a centralized government and one legislation for all. Interesting fact: In 1922, Stalin was a People\u2019s Commissar (de facto, minister) for Nationalities of the Russian Republic. And it was he who, together with Lenin, on November 3, 1917, signed the \u2018Declaration of the Rights for the Peoples of Russia\u2019 All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/","61 that particularly said: \u201cThe right of the peoples of Russia to free self-determination, even to the point of separation and the formation of an independent state.\u201d Now, Stalin was going for quite the opposite. Lenin opposed the idea of a centralized state fiercely, calling it anti-democratic. He suggested that the independent Republics unite on equal rights, keeping their respective governments. Sources say Lenin was indeed projecting for an even wider USSR, that would have many countries in Europe and Asia. The Bolsheviks understood that they could unite the former governorates of the Empire into a single state to \u201chave a better stance against the hostile \u2018capitalistic\u2019 environment\u201d, historian Alexander Orlov says. But it seems the necessary Union had already existed before the USSR was formalized. How could this happen? In 1920, treaties of unity were signed between Russia and Ukraine, in 1921 \u2013 between Russia and Belarus, and then the Caucasian republics. According to the treaties, the Russian Federative Socialist Republic gained the right to represent all the other Republics internationally and sign diplomatic documents on their behalf. Also, the 7 most important People\u2019s Commissariats (Ministries) \u2013 Defense, National Economy, Foreign Trade, Finances, Labor, Railways, Posts and Telegraphs, were all centralized, which meant the Russian People\u2019s Commissariats governed the respective spheres not only in Russia, but in other Socialist Republics, as well. Officially, the USSR was formed on December 30, 1922, when the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR (signed between Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Belorussian SSR) was approved by the First All-Union Congress of Soviets. Lenin wanted to create the USSR as the basis for the future unity of all Socialist countries in a World Socialist Soviet Republic. At least that\u2019s what the Constitution of the USSR (January 31, 1924) stated. But in the end, Stalin\u2019s plan to make the USSR a centralized authoritarian state prevailed. All Rights Reserved \u00a9 Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https:\/\/www.manishvermanotes.com\/"]
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