ICY SCIENCE QUARTERLY MAGAZINE VOL 1 ISSUE 1

51 Imaginary Numbers Mathematicians did not welcome these new numbers overnight. It took a couple of centuries to develop a consistent framework explaining how √(-1) actually ftted into the rest of mathematics. The French math- ematician Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) derided these numbers, calling them imaginary (as opposed to the useful, real numbers). But his name for them stuck. The square-root of minus one – whatever it was – gained its own symbol. It was denoted in equations by the letter i, which made arithmetic with them less cumbersome. No doubt it shielded nervous mathematicians from having to think too much about how diferent √(-1) was from the familiar, real numbers. The imaginary unit i was defned by the relationship i^2=-1. In other words when you square this strange number, it takes a negative value. Mathematicians noticed that when imaginary numbers cropped up in their calculations, they were often bonded to real numbers. Written down they look like 3+4i or 2-5i. These mixtures of the real and imagi- nary are called a complex numbers. Complex numbers are an amalgam of our familiar real numbers and the recently discovered imaginary. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

52 The horizontal axis is the real numberline. The vertical axis is the imaginary number line. Since complex numbers could be treated as points on a graph it made them amenable for analy- sis by using geometry and trigonometry. It wasn’t long before those branches of mathematics shed light on useful complex numbers could be. The most beautiful equation Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783) studied complex numbers. Euler was aware that many functions could be represented by infnitely long series of powers. For example the exponential function e^x, which describes rapid (exponen- tial) growth can be calculated by adding powers of x together. Using the type of mathematical manipulation that is routine at A-Level, he was able to show power series for sine and cosine (from trigonometry) could combine with the imaginary unit to give a power series for the exponential function. Euler uncov- ered the following relationship: Here the symbol θ represents the angle that the line to the complex number makes to the horizontal axis when it’s plotted on the graph. Euler’s incredible equation links two previously unconnected types of function: the exponential and trigono- metric functions. The exponential function grows and grows. Sine and cosine functions are oscillating waves. There was no reason to think they should be related before complex ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

53 numbers were discovered. It’s like fnding out that two of your friends, who didn’t previously know each other are actually related to each other. It’s difcult to convey how shocking that result must have seemed to mathematicians at the time. What follows from Euler’s equation is both trivial and profound. Trivial to demonstrate: when the angle θ is 180° (or π radians in mathematical currency) the formula becomes But the sine part disappears at this angle, and the equation simplifes to e^iπ=-1. Rearranging this so that all the terms are on the left side of the equation gives us one the most profound and beautiful mathemati- cal results of all time This is a single equation that captures the fve most important numbers in mathematics. The Nobel prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman (1918 - 1988) described it as “one of the most remarkable, almost astounding, formulas in all of mathematics.” Real applications for imaginary numbers We’re almost at the end of this real and imaginary journey. Despite their name, imaginary (and complex) numbers have found very real applications in science and engineering. For electrical engineers complex numbers are a useful computational tool for dealing with frequencies and time varying voltages and resistances. You can fnd the imag- inary unit at the heart of quantum mechanics in the Schrodinger equation. The most iconic image of 20th century mathematics, the Mandelbrot set, is constructed from simple rules applied to complex numbers. My own research background is image processing – particularly improving noisy radiological images. The techniques used in that feld (Fourier transforms) have imaginary numbers embedded within them. We might not be able to imagine what the square-root of minus one looks like but we need it to fully capture of the essence of reality Words: Adrian Jannetta ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

54 [Sculpture in Berlin - credit Wikipedia] - we know it when we see it, and we know how to convert it, but we don’t really know what it As equations go - they don’t get much more is. We know fast moving things have a lot of it, iconic than Einstein’s famous equation. There things high up want to lose energy by coming have been books written about it, posters, low down etc. On the other side we have m tattoos, artworks, and a whole industry based on for mass - which you can treat as how much it, not to mention weapons. things weigh broadly without too many issues. An equation is a balance - the things on the left We also have c - the speed of light, squared, so must equal the things on the right. So what this two lots of it. Now the speed of light is fxed - equation tells us is that if you change something you can’t change it. So we can’t play with that on one side, you get a corresponding change on part of the equation. It’s set in stone by the uni- the other. So - lets just pick it apart. verse. This means we can ignore it if we just want to do comparisons. So lets do that for the The E stands for energy. Interestingly no one time being. This means the equation can be really knows what energy is. It’s a sort of thing viewed as ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

55 E = m So - if we have 1kg of mass - we can make a certain amount of energy. If we have 2kg, we have twice as much. 4kg is 4 times as much and so on. We can change the amount of mass, and/or the amount of energy. However by the balance principle, we can convert any amount of mass into an equivalent amount of energy. Equally if we have some spare energy around, we can make it into mass. So, with 1kg of mass, we can make some energy. How much energy? Well quite a lot. Lets put the c2 back in. c is a big number - 300,000,000 m/s. c squared is an even bigger number. 8900,000,000,000,000,000 m2/s2. So this tells us a little bit of mass will make a lot of energy, or equiva- lently you need a lot of energy to make a little bit of mass. This is the principle of nuclear energy. Each useful nuclear reaction loses a tiny bit of mass, and from that we get energy. It’s also true in chemis- try but the fractions are that much tinier there. Equivalently at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) they bang particles together with large amounts of energy, and are able to create new lumps of matter (and anti-matter). ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

56 Can you convert material 100% into energy? Well yes you can in special cases. Matter and anti-matter will do it. They cancel each other out making pure energy. We are sur- rounded by matter, but anti matter is very rare. We can make it, but guess what, it takes energy to make it. As much energy is required as you would get back. However normally conversion isn’t 100%, so in practice you’d lose energy in the steps. A nuclear bomb (fssion) for instance, is about 0.03% efcient whilst a hydrogen bomb ups it to about 0.3%. That is only a tiny fraction of the mass is converted to energy. The efects are still quite devastating though. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

57 Bottom Left: [Nuclear fssion bomb explosion - credit wikipedia] The Sun does a little better - extracting somewhere around 1% efciency from the reactions - but then it does have size on its side. Black holes can do somewhat better - getting up to maybe 40% of the possible energy from stuf falling into it. Another aspect of this equation is that energy has mass, and mass causes gravity. So even a photon of light, which has no real mass in the conventional sense, has an efective mass. This is why light can be bent by large masses caused by gravity. However this is very simplistic, as light actually bends a little more than you might expect just treating it as a mass. This is where general relativity comes in, and lets agree to sweep that under the carpet, as the maths is epically horrendous. But… why the speed of light, how has that got involved? This looks a little incongruous, why have it in there? Well its a little complicated - but then it did take Einstein to fgure it out. It comes down to the speed of light being the universal speed limit. Nothing can go faster. Also that Einstein turned space and time into a single space-time. We travel through the universe in space-time at the speed of light. If we’re standing still we shoot forward in time only. If we move in our regular 3 dimen- sions we go through time a little more slowly. For any normal speed we don’t notice the change in time. So - that’s a not very convincing justifcation for why we have the c. You need to follow through the maths to see in more detail. Words: Julian Onions ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

58 Sundogs - The Fact and Fiction A sundog, or to give it its correct name, a parhelion approximately 20 degrees of sky. Why is 22 degrees (plural parhelia) is a well documented atmospheric so special? It is to do with the angle that the light phenomenon. In a similar way to how light is split by is defected as it passes through those hexagonal water droplets when a rainbow forms, parhelia are ice crystals. When the ice crystals sink through the formed when the light from the Sun is refracted by air and become vertically aligned, a parhelic circle hexagonal shaped ice crystals found in cirrus clouds is formed. If the ice crystals are arranged randomly, high in the atmosphere. These ice crystals act like tiny then a pair of parhelia is formed, but often the two prisms, causing bright patches to appear either side are present at the same time. They are usually only of the Sun. These patches may look multicoloured, visible when the Sun is low in the sky (below 60 but often the colours overlap so are more muted than degrees) either at sunrise or sunset. Depending you would expect to see in a rainbow. Sometimes the on the conditions, there may be one or two parhe- pair of bright patches is part of a white 22 degree halo lia present. Although parhelia are only visible when which surrounds the Sun, also called a parhelic circle. the correct conditions are present, they are relatively common. Far less common though, are moondogs, Why are they called 22 degree halos? The sky is divided correct name paraselene (plural paraselenae). Also up in a similar way to how the Earth is divided into lat- caused by light being refracted by cirrus clouds, the itude and longitude. If you imagine the sky as being a Moon needs to be almost full in order for there to be huge sphere, the entire thing is divided up into degrees, enough light to cause a paraselene to form. Because with the total being 360. A parhelic circle stretches out the Moon is far less bright than the sun, a paraselene by 22 degrees in every direction from the Sun. To give is rarely bright enough to be able to pick out indi- you an idea of how big that is, if you place your hand vidual colours; it usually just looks like a bright white at arm’s length and stretch out your fngers, the dis- patch, but may also be part of a 22 degree halo. tance from your thumb to your little fnger will cover ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

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61 We understand this atmospheric phenomenon very well now, and we can even speculate that they form in the atmosphere of other planets too. But this wasn’t always the case. There are a lot of references in mythology and folklore which we now believe are referring to sundogs. The word “parhelia” comes from the Greek language, meaning “beside the sun”. But it is also known by several other names; sundog, mock sun or phantom sun. It is easy to understand how ancient civili- zations would have interpreted these peculiar bright patches as “mock suns” but where did the name sundog originate? Its frst recorded use was in 1631 by the British Naval Captain Luke Foxe. He used it in his journal whilst on a search for the North West Passage. However, this was clearly not a new term that he had coined himself. In the 1st century AD, the Greek playwright Seneca used the term “par- helion” to mean sundogs. The origin of these two parallel terms is thought to be from the Greek and Germanic languages which then entered into the English language. If the two bright patches of light rise alongside the Sun, following it as dogs would follow their master, then this is perhaps one possible origin of the term “sundog”. However, a better explanation may come from Germanic mythology. Odin was the sky god, and he was said to have two dogs, one named Geri and one named Freki, so people seeing their god rising with two faithful companions may have been the source of the name sundog. The appearance of atmospheric phenomenon like parhelia would have given ancient story tellers many opportunities to tell their tales, and many stories there are. Most of the ancient writings refer to sky gods and twin sons of the sky. In Greek mythology Zeus was god of the sky, and there is reference to “Dioskouri” which translates as “Sons of God”. In Greek mythology there are two sets of twin sons of the sky god. Stories from Babylon, China and India all feature twin sons of the sky. The native American cultures of Zuni, Hopi and Apache feature sun twins. Elsewhere in America, sun twins appear in the writings of the Seneca of New York State and Maya of Central America. Women of South East Africa who gave birth to twin sons were said to have children of the sky. Finally, there are ancient carvings in Scandinavia which depict twin fgures that are associated with the Sun. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

62 Sometimes only one parhelion is visible, and this is thought to have given rise to other mythological tales. In the Greek myth of Phaethon, Phaethon was the son of Klymene, however, his father was absent. Upon ques- tioning, Klymene told him that his father was Helios, the Sun, so the presence of the Sun with one parhelion was symbolic of Helios and his son Phaethon. The frst clear description of parhelia as an atmospheric phenome- non rather than the stuf of myth and legend comes from a passage in a book written in 1533. In “Brotherly Faithfulness: Epistles from a Time of Persecution”, Jakob Hutter wrote, “My beloved children, I want to tell you that on the day after the departure of our brothers Kuntz and Michel, on a Friday, we saw three suns in the sky for a good long time, about an hour, as well as two rainbows. These had their backs turned toward each other, almost touching in the middle, and their ends pointed away from each other. And this I, Jakob, saw with my own eyes, and many brothers and sisters saw it with me. After a while the two suns and rain- bows disappeared, and only the one sun remained. Even though the other two suns were not as bright as the one, they were clearly visible. I feel this was no small miracle…” Two years later, in 1535, came the ear- liest pictorial record of parhelia in the form of a paint- ing called “Vädersolstavlan”. This literally translates ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

63 as “The Weather Sun Painting” but is more widely referred to as “The Sundog Painting”, shown below. It depicts the city of Stockholm on the morning of 20th April, 1535. In this painting, the sky is full of various atmospheric phenomena, including parhe- lia, 22 degree halo and circumzenithal arc. The king was not impressed with the painting, viewing the mock suns as some kind of threat to his authority. Prior to the Vädersolstavlan, other artistic depictions of parhelia existed. One famous example also shown below is taken from the Nuremberg Chronicle, one of the frst books to combine words with pictures. It follows human history, paraphrasing the bible. This picture is clearly representing parhelia, the top image depicting them as the holy trinity. One of the most famous stories involving the appearance of parhelia is the one which occurred shortly before the battle of Mortimer’s Cross in 1461. Edward of York’s troops were initially terrified by this apparition, described as “three glorious suns, each a perfect sun”; they thought it was a portent. But Edward convinced them that it was in fact an auspicious sign; that it represented the holy trinity and that it foretold of their victory. It is also reported that he thought the three suns represented himself and his ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

64 two brothers. This scene is re-enacted within Shakespeare’s play Henry VI Part 3, where the would-be King Edward exclaims, “Dazzle mine eyes, or do I see three suns?” This event clearly had an impact on Edward, as he later incorporated the Sun into his personal badge. Appearances of parhelia have long been asso- ciated with weather predictions, often recorded as meaning that a storm is coming. We now know that this isn’t necessarily the case; it largely depends on the direction of the weather front in question. Given our current level of knowledge, it is difcult to imagine a time when people truly believed the appearance of an atmospheric phenomenon could be interpreted as a sign of good or bad luck; that their fate was hinged upon a bright patch in the sky. But it is easy to see how awe inspiring the sight must have been for our ancient ancestors, and how it inspired so many stories. Even with our vast knowledge I am still capti- vated by the sight myself, imagining all of those tiny prisms difracting rays of sunlight, and I was totally blown away when I recently saw my frst moondog. But I know it doesn’t mean that I will be successful in battle, or that rain is on the way. The presence of one or two parhelia means only thing for certain; that there are cirrus clouds in the sky! ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

65 Sources: http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_dog http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/circular.htm http://www.weather-banter.co.uk/uk-sci-weather-uk-weather/5723-sun-dog-photo.html http://www.decodedscience.com/the-mortimers-cross-parhelion-how-a-meteorological-phenomenon-changed- english-history/3437 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_dog http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle WORDS & PHOTOGRAPHS: MARY SPICER ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

66 Astronomy for the Absolute Beginner. Have you ever looked up at night and wondered enough to fnd out more and spend some time at what all the little shiny dots are? Or maybe you night gazing up in awe and wonder. Be prepared know a little bit about stars, planets and sat- - there’s no such thing as bad weather only inap- ellites but you’re keen to fnd out more about propriate clothing. Even on a relatively mild sum- the cosmos in your corner of our vast universe? mer’s night you can get pretty chilly. A good base If the answer to these is ‘yes’, or ‘maybe’ - then layer may be needed, and the key thing here is to this is for you. Hopefully by the time you’ve avoid cotton if you can. Merino wool t-shirts and fnished reading these few short paragraphs, long-johns are good (particularly Ice-Breaker) as you’ll be able to look up into the blackness of are man-made fabrics. I have a nice long sleeved space and put names to some of the familiar North Face top made from a combination of three lights and patterns. Maybe you’ll even begin to diferent man-made fabrics and it is a great ft too. understand what these objects are, be curious Next you do need a good insulating layer. I tend to ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

67 wear a hoody on top so that if it gets really chilly I can keep my head warm with the hood. In mid-winter I’ll probably have a jumper over the hoody too! Try not to wear jeans on your legs, instead go for jogging pants or outdoor trou- sers such as Rohans or Berghaus. In the middle of winter, especially if it has been snowing I have been known to wear salopettes. Finally, have a decent woolly hat in your pocket to put on when it gets really chilly. Be equipped - You probably need to buy yourself a cheap “red light” torch particularly if you’re going to a dark site, or an actual observatory. You can buy these for less than £10 on most internet shopping and auction sites. Why do you need a red light, why not a white light? Its all to do with the chemicals and cells in your eyes. Here’s the science bit - A chemical called Rhodopsin, made in the retina from Vitamin A found in Beta-Carotene, is the thing that determines your night vision. When you’ve got lots of it in your rod cells, you can see wonderfully at night - mainly in black and white. Rhodopsin is great at absorbing blue/green light however and when it does it breaks down into other chemicals and you can’t see so well at night anymore. Practically it takes the Rhodopsin about 30-45 minutes to recombine and you get your night vision back. Red light doesn’t really break it down - which is why astronomers use red light torches! In any case, give yourself at least half an hour in the dark ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

68 before you go outside and look up. If you can’t aford a telescope yet its worth getting a set of binocu- lars for around £20 just to get you started. Also on cold nights a thermos fask of hot chocolate or soup is a life saver. Plan your observing - take some time to think about what you are going to look for and where is the best place to fnd it. Stellarium is a great PC based tool to do this and it is free to download here http://www. stellarium.org/. If you’ve got an android phone, download and install Google sky map. iPhone users have similar apps available, just search “sky map”. Your back yard is probably ok for observing the moon, some of the more obvious constellations, brighter planets and satellites like the ISS and Iridium fares. If you want to see more, then you’ll have to head to a darker site - away from light-polluting street lamps. When I frst started astronomy I used to walk down to Gorleston beach, then walk half a mile along the beach away from the town, lie down on a blanket and just look up. The frst time I saw the Milky Way Galaxy was here and it quickly became one of my most favourite places in the world. If you’re uncertain then this map will give you some pointers towards ideal dark sky sites around the UK http://www.darkskydis- covery.org.uk/dark-sky-discovery-sites/map.html. This page has two clickable map links that show you the levels of light pollution in the UK and Europe but the simple rule is - head to the countryside or the coast and away from street lamps! What to look out for - some easy-to-fnd objects to look out for over the Autumn and Winter months. The Moon - great for naked eye or binocular observ- ing. Look particularly for detail highlighted by shadows around the edge of the moon, or at the line where the day meets the night. (This line is called the terminator). ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

69 The moon changes on a daily basis so keep looking up! Its also worth noting that when the moon is fully in shadow - a new moon - other objects in the night sky become clearer. The International Space Station (ISS) - The home to a number of astronauts hurtling around our planet can be tracked here - http://iss.astroviewer.net/observation.php. The Planets - Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn are usually very easy to fnd and observe, particularly with binoculars or a small telescope. The frst time you see the rings of Saturn, it will blow your mind. Constellations - These are groups of stars that make recognisable patterns. Key constellations are: Ursa Major, (the Plough or Big Dipper) which helps us fnd the Polaris - the North Pole star. Also it’s handle arcs towards Arcturus the fourth brightest star in the sky. The big dipper has a the two stars Mizar and Alcor which look very close together and are known as an “optical double” but the reality is they’re very far apart. Orion is an instantly recognisable shape in the southern sky. It contains the Orion Nebula, (M42) just below the belt and Betelgeuse which is a massive red star currently at the end of its life and shrink- ing which means it might blow up soon! Like the Big Dipper - the stars in Orion line up in such a way that you can use it as a pointer to other stars and constellations. Cassiopeia is a familiar ‘W’ shape and contains many ‘deep sky’ objects including two open clusters, M103 and M52. M52 is easy to spot with a pair of bin- oculars. Cassiopeia is great for fnding the Milky Way because she’s lying smack bang in the middle of it. These objects are great to get your started and the constellations will also help to guide you towards other things to view as your exploration of the night sky evolves over many weeks and months of viewing.So remember - enjoy your frst nights out as an astronomer by keeping warm, preserving your night vision, planning your observing, fnding yourself somewhere dark and then simply look up. Words: Roy Alexander Moon Image: Mike Greenham ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

70 Astronomy/ Science Education in Schools in India Current Scenario in schools-By Henna Khan “Every kid starts out as a natural-born scientist, and then we beat it out of them. A few trickle through the system with their wonder and enthusiasm for Science intact” – Carl Sagan. I am unaware of how much astronomy is taught in schools the world over, but in India, the only astron- omy which is included in the school curriculum is a bit about the solar system added in the geogra- phy textbook as an afterthought. A lot of children grow up without even knowing that our Sun is just another star. And what is worse is that the education system does not make them wonder and ask these questions for themselves. Further, the current education system is purely focused on passing exams. Almost all children end up rote learning without understanding concepts. If we want future scientists, our education system needs to change from “textbook based learning” to “inquiry-driven learning”. There are few schools in India which do provide hands-on based education, but these are very expensive ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

71 and only a fraction of the children are able to take advantage of it. We need an education system which includes astron- omy as part of the curriculum and imparts education through hands-on activities. Instead of “teaching” we need to “inspire” children into learning. Importance of Astronomy in Schools Astronomy is an interdisciplinary science which has the ability to stretch a child’s mind into infnite spaces and time and mul- tiple dimensions. It can inspire children to imagine! Children are naturally inquisitive. Astronomy can be used to fuel their curiosity. It has an immense potential to motivate children to learn Maths, physics, chemistry, biology – subjects that oth- erwise may not be of interest to them. Through science and innovative thinking children can come up with solutions to world problems such as malnutrition, water, sanitation. Astrology / palm reading/ Numerology are commonplace topics in India. I believe it is easier to change an entire gen- eration of thinkers than to try and change the mindset of the adult population. By including astronomy as part of the school curriculum, we will be able to get children thinking and question the validity of such topics for themselves. This is probably the best way to do away with superstition and blind belief and pave the way for science. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

72 However, maybe a bigger reason for teaching astronomy in schools is because it is a humbling subject. We can look at pictures of earth from space and know how fragile it is. We can understand how futile hatred and war is and the threat of self-destructing ourselves. We can understand how our planet func- tions and the dangers of climate change. Astronomy has the potential to make this world a better place and we a better race. What can be done in developing countries for Astronomy/ Science outreach The Government of India needs to work on improving education infrastructure, providing teacher train- ing and ensuring quality education even to children in rural areas. Initiative and efort for astronomy/ science outreach needs to come from individuals, private compa- nies and organizations until the ideal situation of having astronomy included in the national education curriculum is achieved. Astronomy/ Science for middle-income children: A sustainable model for Astronomy/ Science outreach through hands-on based activities can be used by individuals and organizations. It may be built on the “After-school Universe” model (http://universe. nasa.gov/au/) and may have the following features: • Low cost hands on based workshops can be ofered to school children. Parents pay the nominal amount for the workshops, not the schools • Use resources of the school (classroom space, projector/ screen for presentation). This reduces expenses and initial investment of the Individual/ organization • Target for more number of children, for example, instead of targeting one workshop of 30 chil- dren per day, 90 to 100 children can be taught in one day in three back to back batches of say around 30 children each. In this case, price per child can be dropped to one/third while the individual/ organization ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

73 makes the same amount of money • Have children work in groups to share cost of the activity, for example, group of four children can make one water rocket to reduce per head cost. Also encourages team work • Certain models can be reused to reduce cost • Teacher training at schools should be given Astronomy/ Science for under-privileged children: In case of under-privileged children, workshops cannot be ofered even at a very low cost. Some ideas for achieving this are mentioned below: • Tie up with corporate companies to perform outreach as a part of corporate social responsibility • Tie up with education consultants who already have a network of schools across the country • Train teachers of local NGOs who work with under-privileged children • Tie up with network of local amateur astronomers. Each amateur astronomer can approach few schools in their area and do this part time. However, doing one time workshops to get kids inspired is not enough. There should be a platform for continued discussion. Challenges: • Availability of quality education for higher studies. There are ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

74 limited options. Also not many courses in subjects such as Quantum Mechanics and Astrobiology. Not always feasible for children to go to other countries for higher education • Availability of jobs in Space industry/ Science as compared to other sectors About Me: I am the owner of Universe Simplifed, through which I am trying to achieve sustainable Astronomy/ Science education for school children by engaging them in hands-on activities. Aim is to get children curious and interested in the subjects. www.universesimplifed.in Twitter: @henna_khan ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

75 Women, Astronomy & UKWIAN Launch! I have had a life-long love of astronomy and science, yet people often ask me if I only like it because my partner likes it too. Why, in this day and age, is astronomy still consid- ered to be a boy’s game? There is a long history of women in science, yet when asked, very often the frst and only female scientist people can name is Marie Curie. She was certainly a formidable and very inspirational lady, but she is not one of a kind. One of the frst recorded female scientists was actually Hypatia of Alexandria (370-415 - pre-dating Marie Curie by almost 1500 years!) She was a Roman Mathematician and Astronomer, and actually invented some of her own scientifc instruments. She died for her art; a new leader was very unhappy about her teachings and had her murdered. All of her writings and teachings were destroyed. Another famous lady scientist who also pre-dated Marie Curie by a long way was Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179). She was a convent educated German lady who was actually the frst person to write about the benefts of boiling drinking water for sanitation purposes. During the 19th Century there were many more famous women scientists, and an even longer list covering the 20th Century to present day. 1 In the 17th Century, attitudes towards education for women were staggering! In his book “At Home”, Bill Bryson writes, “Women were instructed to avoid stimulating pastimes like reading and card games, and above all never to use their brains more than was strictly necessary. Educating them was not simply a waste of time of resources, but dangerously bad for their delicate constitutions”. In 1865, John Ruskin wrote an essay, in ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

76 which he said that “Women should be educated just enough to make themselves practically useful to their spouses, but no further”. One early radical feminist, Catherine Beecher, argued passionately that “Women should be accorded full and equal educational rights, so long as it was recognized that they would need extra time to do their hair”. 2 In astron- omy, women were historically encouraged to work within the feld of solar observing. I heard a remarkable quote about this during a talk at my local astronomical society, where it was said that women should focus on solar work because going out at night into the cold and dark would be detri- Born Caroline Lucretia Herschel mental to their delicate disposition! Luckily there have been 16 March 1750 many women of strong enough dispositions over the years to fght back against this kind of prejudice. As I’ve already Hanover mentioned, Hypatia was a famous Astronomer during Roman Died 9 January 1848 (aged 97) times. There are many more; Antonia Maury, born in 1866 was responsible for some incredible work on stellar spectra, Hanover despite being actively discouraged by her supervisor. There Nationality German was Henrietta Swan Leavitt, born in 1868. Not only did she devise a system for ascertaining the magnitude of stars on Fields Astronomy photographic plates, she also studied Cepheid Variable stars, Known for Discovery of comets and made the phenomenally important discovery that vari- able stars have a period-luminosity ratio; this ratio allowed Notable awards Gold Medal of the her to calculate the absolute magnitude of stars for the frst Royal Astronomical Society (1828) time. There are many more. But one of the most inspiring Prussian Gold Medal for Science (1846) ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

77 stories of women in astronomy has to be that of Caroline Herschel, sister of William Herschel. She was born in 1750, and had a number of childhood diseases which where to afect her in later life. She was left scarred and disfgured by Smallpox and was very short in stature due to Typhus. Her family wrote her of, told her she would never marry and planned for to become their maid. Her brother William came to her rescue. First of all, he taught her how to sing, but more importantly, he took her on as his assistant when he began working in astronomy. She fourished in this role and became the frst woman to discover a comet. She went on to dis- cover more comets and nebulae, and have her own star charts published. She is one of the few early women astronomers who have had their lives very well documented.3 Another famous “forgotten” female astrono- mer and astrophysicist was Cecilia Payne, who in 1925 made one of the most important astronomical discov- eries of the 20th Century.4 Using her thorough understanding of quantum theory, she calculated that 90% of the Sun comprised of hydrogen. At the time, this fnding was highly controversial because most astronomers believed that the Sun was made of iron. Her supervisor, Henry Norris Russell, claimed her result was “spurious” and put a lot of pressure on her to remove this claim from her fnal PhD thesis. Four years later, when further evidence was overwhelmingly in favour of the Sun being made of hydrogen, Russell took the credit for the discovery whilst poor Sylvia Payne was forgotten. Sadly, this kind of thing was not uncommon throughout history. There is no doubt that is has been an uphill struggle for women in science. The Royal Astronomical Society did not allow women as fellows until 1916. Around that time, women could study at university but were not allowed to be awarded degrees. Any women who did manage to obtain professional employment had to give up their job once they married. Luckily things have moved on and women are now aforded equal education rights. In the present day, one third of astronomy PhD students are women, 28% of astronomy lecturers are women and 7% of astronomy Professors are women. 5 Whist it’s great that so many women are entering this male dominated feld, the numbers are still way too low. Modern day female astronomers of note include Dame Jocelyn Bell-Burnell , who was involved with the discovery of pulsars, and Catherine Cesarsky who in 2006 became the frst female president of the International Astronomical Union. There has also been a notable increase in the number of women presenting science documentaries on television, such as Dr. Lucie Green and Dr. Maggie Aderin-Pocock. These people are great role models for young women who want to ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

78 pursue a career in astronomy, but there needs to be more. Surely it is time to move away from pre-historic gender typing? Supermarkets and online retailers still market science toys as “toys for boys”, claiming it is due to public demand. This is something which has to change. There is no doubt that women who want to succeed in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) still face an uphill struggle today and have to make many sacrifces. Women who want to take a career break to have a family may have prob- lems returning to the same posts; often they have to take a demotion in order to get back into work. The number of women in senior positions within astron- omy and physics is still extremely low compared to men. But it is the 21st Century; why does society as a whole still think that science is a “boys” game? Only recently, there was a big fuss in the press on the dis- covery that the extremely successful “I F**king Love Science” Facebook page was run by a female, the Female astrophotography British blogger Elise Andrews. To read about some exhibition on the UKWIAN of the fall-out, take a look at the Guardian’s and The stand at the NW Astronomy Festival Independent’s articles referenced at the end. 6&7 I admire Elise, and the way she handled the fall out. I have to admit that I myself was guilty of assuming the page was run by a man, but wasn’t in the least bit shocked or ofended when I found out that it wasn’t; ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

79 if anything I just felt admiration for her. The page is wonderfully run, and every single post she makes is utterly fascinating. Science and astronomy have become extremely popular subjects in recent years. Modern technology has made astronomy much more accessible to the general public, probably more so than any other branch of science. Amateur astronomers can work hand in hand with professionals, sharing and analysing data from their own back garden. The success of Galaxy Zoo is a great example; volunteers classifying galaxies from their arm-chairs. Many of you will have heard of Hanny van Arkel and “Hanny’s Voorwerp”. Hanny is a Dutch Biology teacher, and she discovered the “unusual object” in 2007. Since then she has become a minor celebrity within astronomy circles! The internet allows people to control and take photos remotely using some of the world’s largest telescopes. Distance learning is also playing a vital role in bringing astronomy to the masses. People can study any number of astronomy or science qualif- cations part-time whilst still working, and once achieved, these qualifcations can open up a whole new career path for people. All of these things provide an awesome opportunity for amateurs, but also could be really important for women who want to have a career in science or astronomy but who may fnd it more difcult to make an impact through the traditional channels. There is certainly a need for the encouragement of more women into science and astronomy, and with astronomy currently being such a popular subject, now is the time for that to happen. Just last week, on 31st October 2013, Professor Dame Athene Donald, gender equality champion from the University of Cambridge, kicked of a debate at the BBC’s inaugural 100 Women Conference on why there are so few women in science and technology. 8 The founders of The Knowledge Observatory have recognized this need, and they set up the UK Women in Astronomy Network (UKWIAN). The Knowledge Observatory are a social enterprise, who enable young people who have become disengaged from education to take part in their learning program which harnesses their interest in astronomy and uses it as a platform for educa- tion in other subjects such as English, maths and computer science. They also provide personal develop- ment programs. They organised the frst astronomy festival to be held in the North West of England, and this took place on the weekend of 26th and 27th October 2013 in Runcorn, Cheshire. They also set up the ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

80 UKWIAN with the purpose of providing positive role models for women who are interested in astronomy, both as amateurs and professionals. They already had a substantial following on Facebook and Twitter before their ofcial launch at the NW Astronomy Festival. The festival featured several guest speakers, including Mark Thompson (astronomer from The One Show and Stargazing Live), Gary Fildes (from the Kielder Observatory), Nick Howes (from the Faulkes Telescope), Andy Newsam (from the Astrophysics Research Institute at Liverpool John Moores University) and Sheila Kanani (Dr. of Planetary Science). As part of the festival, the UKWIAN had an exhibition stand which featured biographies of inspirational women in astronomy together with inspirational quotes from them. It also included an exhibition of astronomy pho- tographs taken by women astrophotographers of all diferent ability levels. The photographs were made into a video slide show which was being shown on a large TV screen displayed above the exhibition stand. I have been assisting the UKWIAN for several weeks now, not only by looking after their Facebook page and Twitter feed, but by helping to collate the biographies, quotes and astrophotos for the exhibition stand. The response to the UKWIAN has been overwhelmingly positive and I feel very proud to be a part of it. A very small number of people have voiced their concerns about sexism. They are not excluding men; in fact, there are quite a few males who have shown their support by following the Twitter account and becoming members of the Facebook group. UKWIAN is not trying to exclude anybody; they simply strive towards gender equality and want to try and help to raise the currently appalling ratio of women in astronomy, and help women to stand alongside their male counterparts. Next to the UKWIAN stand at the astronomy festival was Women Rock Science, who were displaying posters of women who changed the world with astronomy, biographies and badges. They were also running a fun quiz. It is true that many branches of science and astronomy are still male dominated, but women are fght- ing back. I know I’ll never be a professional astronomer, but I’m a girl, and I’m proud to love astronomy. To paraphrase the late Ann Richards (Governor of Texas) “A woman’s place is in the dome” - in this case, an astronomy dome! ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

81 Biographies & Inspirational Quotes on the UKWIAN Stand at the NW Astronomy Festival Words & Images: Mary Spicer ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

82 The Women Rock Science stand at the NW Astronomy Festival ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

83 Women in astronomy (left to right): Tracey Snelus (Astronomy for Fun), Sue Davies (The Knowledge Observatory), Mary Spicer (UKWIAN) and Sonia Gee (Astronomy for Fun) ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

84 References: 1. http://www.women-scientists-in-history.com/historia.html 2. “At Home” by Bill Bryson 3. http://www.womanastronomer.com/women_astronomers.htm 4. “We Need to Talk About Kelvin” by Marcus Chown 5. http://www.ras.org.uk/search/article-archive/2017-astronomy-and-geophysics-bring-women-into-science 6. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/us-news-blog/2013/mar/20/i-love-science-woman-facbook 7. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/women-love-science--what-a-surprise-8555226.html 8. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24672376 For a more in-depth look at women in astronomy, please take some time to read this fabulous article: http:// academinist.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Woman_Place_Larsen.pdf And for a female astronomer’s perspective on things, please read this: http://spacemom.net/ adventures/2008/03/19/a-womans-place-is-in-the-dome/ If you want to support UKWIAN please click here for the Facebook page: www.facebook.com/UKWIAN or follow @UKWIAN on Twitter ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

85 FRASER CAIN LET’S TALK.... INTERVIEW How long have you been interested in Astronomy and what got you interested? FC: I’ve always been fascinated by astronomy, since I was a small child. I can remember learning about the constellations and shooting stars from my parents, watching Star Wars and Star Trek as a kid, and obses- sively reading books about space. I bought my frst telescope when I was 14 and organized star parties in my small town. My parents were a huge infuence on me, and I was lucky that space and astronomy was something that they loved too. Who inspires you and why? I’ve got to admit that, like most science communicators, I was infuenced by Carl Sagan. Cosmos, Contact and Pale Blue Dot were pivotal books for me. But maybe even more infuential was Demon Haunted ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

86 World; that book turned me into a lifelong skeptic. I’ve also loved the communication style of James Burke, of Connections fame. I’m also lucky that some of my biggest inspirations, are also my best friends, like Phil Plait and Pamela Gay. Universe today is now a worldwide and well respected website, how did Universe today come about? FC: I originally created Universe Today back in 1999 as a side project while I was working for a web development company in Vancouver. After a few months, I knew that this would be my future career, and so I did everything I could to make the revenue sustainable so I could make it my full time job. It took a few years of hard work to be able to make that change. What other projects are you involved with? FC:In addition to Universe Today, I’m also the co-host of Astronomy Cast, which I create with Dr. Pamela Gay. I’ve been working with a team of astronomers on the Virtual Star Party, where we broad- cast a live view of the night sky every week onto Google+. I also produce explainer videos on YouTube, helping people understand various concepts in space and astronomy. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

87 How do you think twitter, face book, YouTube etc have helped astronomy? FC: Social media like Twitter has allowed everyone to have a voice, same with YouTube. It doesn’t matter who you work for or how much budget you have, if you have an interesting story to tell, you can reach a worldwide audience. I think this whole revolution is really exciting, and I can’t wait to see what happens next. This year has been a hive of activity with near earth asteroids, the Russian meteor and of course comet ISON, what event this year has or will be the most amazing too you? FC: All of those events you’ve mentioned have been big. Although we don’t know what’s going to happen yet, I’d have to say that Comet ISON is the event I’m most excited about. It’s been years since there was a bright comet in the night sky, and I can’t wait to share this with my readers and especially my kids. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

88 If it was possible what planet in our solar would you most like to visit and why? FC: Please don’t make me choose. If I had to choose somewhere else to live, it would have to be Mars, because it’s the most compatable place in the Solar System. But there are places I would love to see with my own eyes: lakes on Titan, geysers on Enceladus, volcanoes on Io, the strange wall on Iapetus, caves on the Moon, the hollows on Mercury, the cloud tops of Venus. It’s an amazing, fascinating Solar System, and I’d love to be able set foot on these locations some day in the far future. What projects are you planning in the future? FC: My biggest project right now is my YouTube channel, where I’m learning how to communicate space and astronomy through video. And if you didn’t already know, making video is hard. But I really think that the future is going to be in video, so I’m forcing myself to go through this process and develop the skills. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

89 What equipment to you use for observing? FC: I actually don’t have very good gear for observing. I live in such a cloudy/rainy part of the world that it’s pretty much pointless to own a telescope. One of the reasons I organized the Virtual Star Party was so that I could see through the telescopes of other astronomers. A big thank you to Fraser for taking the time to be interviewed, you can visit universe Today on twitter, YouTube and online. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

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94 A new astronomy project on crowd- funding website Kickstarter has suc- cessfully raised funds to publish a novel pocked-sized astronomical guide in time for Christmas. The Astronomy Diary, described as a “What’s On” guide for the night sky, gives weekly recommendations for observations and must-see celestial events The diary aims to spark a lasting interest in astronomy in both adult and child newcomers, but could also act as a handy aide to more expe- rienced observers. “Astronomy is a bug we’d love to share with every- one” says Kate Harrington, one of the authors, “and we hope the diary will nudge others to explore the night sky.” The idea seems to have caught on, with hundreds of enthu- siasts pledging their support on Kickstarter through October and November. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

95 What’s the Matter with Pluto? The Story of Pluto’s Adventures with the Planet Club By Paul Halpern, Illustrated by Vance Lehmkuhl Pluto joined the Planet Club in 1930, but didn’t quite ft in. He is much tinier than the gas giants in the outer part of the Solar System. He has a lot more moons than any of the inner planets. His orbit is much more stretched out than any of the other worlds’ paths around the Sun. The other members of the Planet Club didn’t know what to make of him. Then one day, Pluto received some bad news... Explore the story of Pluto as seen through the eyes of the planets themselves. Witness the rise and fall of Pluto’s membership in the Planet Club. Why was he demoted and what happened next? Introduce young minds to the fascinating science of astronomy with this entertaining picture book about the Solar System. Great for ages four to ten! Masterful illustrations by Vance Lehmkuhl make this book a true gem. Astronomy for children has never been more fun! Feed the hungry! 10% of the royalties received for this book will be donated to the hunger charity Philabundance Praise for What’s the Matter with Pluto? “Delightful! What a wonderful way to get young ones interested in the mysteries constantly unfolding in the sky above us. Smart, fun, and educational -- all at the same time. .” —Christine Lavin, Singer-songwriter: “Shining My Flashlight on the Moon,” “Planet X,” “Just One Angel 2.0” ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

96 “In ‘What’s the Matter with Pluto,’ Paul Halpern and Vance Lehmkuhl lay out the facts of planetary life with humor, clarity, and a surprising amount of depth. No other issue in astronomy has engendered such passion- ate feelings and outright confusion from children and adults alike as the “demotion” of Pluto from planetary status, and the abandonment of traditional mnemonics as the solar system went from nine planets to eight. Halpern and Lehmkuhl describe the history of Pluto’s discovery, what makes it so different from the others, and ultimately its expulsion from ‘The Planet Club,’ with a light tone, but enough rigor that even the most ardent Plutonian defender would be hard-pressed to argue. .” —Dave Goldberg, Astrophysicist and Science Writer: “The Universe in the Rearview Mirror,” “A User’s Guide to the Universe” About the Author Paul Halpern is a professor of physics at the University of the Sciences in Philadelphia. He is the author of more than a dozen highly acclaimed popular science books and is the distinguished recipient of multi- ple awards related to his work, in addition to having appeared on numerous television and radio programs, including Future Quest and The Simpsons 20th Anniversary Special. His previous children’s book, Faraway Worlds, was named one of the Children’s Choices for 2005 by the International Reading Association. Learn more about him on his personal website. About the Illustrator Vance Lehmkuhl is a cartoonist, writer and musician. He is the author of The Joy of Soy, a collection of car- toons about vegetarianism. His vegan newspaper column, V For Veg, appears biweekly in the Philadelphia Daily News. From 1990 to 2003, he wrote and drew Philadelphia City Paper’s weekly political cartoon, “How-to Harry.” Between 1998 to 2001, he contributed to the New York Times Syndicate feature Face Value. Learn more about him on The Vance Page. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

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98 ISSET’S ‘ASTRONAUT LEADERSHIP EXPERIENCE’ HEADS TO THE ARCTIC The International Space School Educational Trust is a charity that uses space exploration as a means to inspire and motivate individuals. We work mostly with schools and universities, training teachers and stu- dents with hands on experiments and multimedia activities, and bringing them into contact with the most elite professionals in the world; astronauts & rocket scientists. We also branch out beyond the classroom with the Astronaut Leadership Experience. ALE explorers climbing a mountain in the Arctic. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

99 The Astronaut Leadership Experience ofers an exclu- Borealis in the Arctic being one example. After a sive chance for participants to undergo astronaut lead- recent Lake District ALE with record-breaking astro- ership training with the help and guidance of a NASA naut Michael Foale, he said that the experience was astronaut. They will gain new leadership techniques the closest to Russian space training he had ever and team-work skills in some of the wildest environ- encountered. ments on earth. Astronaut Ken Ham says that the “wil- derness environment simulates the physical realities In February the ALE will be running once again in associated with establishing and maintaining a human the Arctic. Due to an upcoming solar magnetic fip, presence where none existed before”. Outdoor lead- the Aurora Borealis will appear brighter than ever, ership courses are a vital part of an astronaut’s train- and February will be the best time to see them at ing, as they are required to remain calm and focused their full potential. On Thin Ice; two in the face of adversity, and maintain clear judgement during any group decision. The programme has been run across the globe, previously visiting the Gobi Desert, the Arctic Circle and the Lake District. Participants are exposed to inspi- rational opportunities they would rarely get in their normal lives; opportunities to see the beautiful Aurora ALE participants navigating through the Arctic. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

100 Northern Norway is an untouched wilderness housing its indigenous people, the Sami, who are com- pletely at one with nature. You will have a unique chance to experience this way of life frst-hand, herding reindeer, riding husky sleds, and experiencing a night in a Lavvu. Rorbu, Sami fshermen’s huts, where participants will stay for part of the ALE. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014