Shivapada in Khmer art

Contents List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................................. .ix Maps ............................ ..... ........................................... .................................. .......................... iv Figures .....................................................................................................................................ix Plates ............... ....................................... .................................................................... ............... x Preface ................. ............... .................................................................................................. xiii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ xv List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................xvii 1 Diffusion of Shiva's Myths ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Localization ................................................................................................. ............................. 2 1.1.1 Shiva's Eight Acts localized in South India ........ .............................. ...................................... ..4 1.1.2 Shiva Absorbs Local Cults ............................ .................... ....................................................... 5 1.2 Shiva beyond India ......................................................... .......................................................... 5 1.2.1 Nepal ......................................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Central Asia (Khotan) ........ ..................................................... ........... ... .................................... 6 1.2.3 South China .. .. .. ............................... .................................................. .......................... ........... .. 6 1.2.4 Sri Lanka .................................................................................................................................. 6 1.2.5 Thailand: Kampeng Phet Shiva ................................................................................................ 6 1.2.6 Champa ..................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.7 Java .................................................. ......................................................................................... 7 2 Shiva in the Khmer Matrix .................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Footprints of Vishnu in Funan ................................................................................................ 10 2.2 The Vishnuite South and the Shaivite North .......................................................................... 11 2.3 Shiva in the pre-Angkor Polity ............................................................................................... 11 2.4 Shiva in the Angkor Empire ..... ................................. .......... .. ...... ........................................... 12 2.5 The propagation of Shaivism ....................:............................................................................. 18 3 Footprints in Cross-Cultural Contexts ..... .......... .... ...... ........................................ .............. 19 3.1 The Contagious Magic of Footprints .............................................................. ...... .................. 19 3.2 Prehistoric Footprints .......................................... ............... ........... ........... ... ............ ........ ....... 19 3.3 The Footprint in Sanskrit Terminology ............................................ ............................... ....... 20 3.4 The Symbolism of Feet in Vedic Literature ............................................................................ 20 3.4.1 Hymn to Primordial Man ....................................................................................................... 20 3.4.2 The Footprint of the Horse ..................................................................................................... 21 3.4.3 The Three Steps of Vishnu ................................................................................. .. ......... ... ...... 21 V

Contents 3.4.4 Seals from Vaishali ............................................ ............... ..... ......... ...... ........ ......... ..... .......... .. 22 3.5 Vishnu's Footpri nt (Vishnupada) ............... ............ .............. ........... ....... ... ...... ........................ 22 3.5.1 Washing the Feet .............................. .............. ............ ................. ... ... ... ....... ......... ........ ...... .... 22 3.6 The Buddha's Footprints in Early Indian Art ........... ...................... ... ..... .... .... ... ... ....... ..... ...... 22 3.7 The Buddha's Footprints in Sri Lanka .. .................... ............... .. ... ..... ... ............. ... .......... ..... .. .23 3.7.l Buddha's Third Visit to Sri Lanka ............................................... .. .... ... ........ ..... ... ..... ....... ...... 24 3.7.2 The Footprint at Adam's Peak ........................... .............. ........... ... ..... ..... ....................... ....... .24 3.7.2.l The Location of the Footprint... ......................... ...................................... .. ... .......... ... ....... ...... 24 3.7.2.2 Priests .. ........ .... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ............. ............................... ............... .. .......... ... ... 25 3.7.2.3 Two Paths to the Summit ...... ..................... ............................................................................. 25 3.7.2.4 Legends about the Buddha's Footprint ........... ............. .. ............................ ........ ... ................. 25 3 .7.2 .5 Historical Testimonies ........ ..... ....... ....................................................... ............... ........ ........ ..25 3.7.2.6 Ch ristian and Muslim Beliefs ..... ....... ............................................................ .. ........... ......... ... 26 3.8 The Buddha's Footprint in Thailand ............ ....... ................. ...... .... ..... ..... ................ ............... 26 3.9 Footprints in India .................................................. .......... ... ............ .................................... ... 27 3.9.1 Footprints in Jainism ................................. .... ..... ....... ....... ... .......... ... ...................................... 27 3.9.2 The Footprint-Pillars in Chamba ..... ... .. ... .. .. ... ....... ....... .......... ... ............................................. 27 3.9.3 Footprints of Lakshmi ..... ... .... ... .. ......... .......... .............. ....... ................................................... 27 3.9.4 Indian Footpri nts in Chronological Order .... .. ....... .................... ............................................. 27 3.10 Footprints in Java .......... ...................................................... .. ............. ... ..... ... ...... .................... 27 3.11 The Cham Context ........................................................................ ... ..... ...... ..... ... ..... ........ ....... 29 3.12 Footprints in Christianity and lslam ......................... ..... ..... ........ .. ... ........ ... ........... ... .......... .... 29 3.13 Footprints in Modern Cambodia ................... ...... ..... ... ....... ... ............. .................................... 30 4 Shivapada in Indian Sources ...... ....... ..... ....... ..... ....................... ... ... ... ... ...... ... ..... ....... ..... ... .31 4.1 The Earliest Literary Reference .. ..... .. ..... .. ... ................. ............... .... ... ... ... ... ... ............... ... .. ... . 31 4.2 The Mahalaya in the Himalayas .... ........................................... .......... ... ... ... ... ... .......... ... ....... . 31 4.3 Shiva's Footprints in the Purana ........................................................... ... ... ...... .....................32 4.4 The Pashupatas and the Worship of Shiva's Footpri nts .................. ..... ................. ... ....... ...... ..34 4.5 The Metaphor of Sandal Worship ..... ............ ....... ........................ ................... ... ... ...... .... ...... ..36 4.5.l The Foot-Water (padodaka) ..... ....... ..... ............................................. ..................................... 36 4.5.2 The Sandals of Gorakshanatha ........ ....... ....... ...... .. ....... ........................ ................ .......... ... ... .. 36 4.5.3 K ings at the Feet of Shiva .. ....... ..................................... ......................................................... 36 4.6 Washing the Shaivite Pontiffs' Feet ....... .. .... ..... ... .. .. ... ... .... ..... ... ...... ... ..... ......... ...................... 38 4.6.l Tamil Saints ............ ......... ......... ....... ........................................ ........ ................. ...................... 38 4.6.2 The Shivajnanabodham .... ....... .................................. ....... .......... ... ..... ... ...... ........... .. ............ .39 4.6.3 Umapati Shivacharya ................................... ..... ... ... .... .......... ......................................... ......... 39 4.6.4 Jagaddharma .. ..... .. .............. ................... .. .. ................. ............... ................. ............................ 39 4.7 Shiva's Sandals at Temple Festivals ..................... ....... ..... ..... ................................. ................. 39 4.7.l Shri Pada Diksha ... .... .. .. ... .. .. ........................ ....... ....... ..... ........ ............. ...... .. ......... .............. ... 39 4.7.2 Ritual at Ekamranatha Temple ..... ....... .................. ..... ..... ........ .......... ... ..... ........ ... ........ .... ......40 4.8 Footprints of Shiva in Indian Art ................. .. ...... .............. ..... ........ .. ... ..... ..... ... ...... ........ .......40 4.8.l Footprints at Sultanganji ........ .................................... ........................ .................................... .40 4 .8.2 The Footpri nt at Gudimallam ........... ..... .. .......... ........... .... .......... ... .. ..... ...... ................ ... ..... ....42 4.8.3 The Lesser Popularity of Sh iva's Footprints ...... .... .... .......... ..... ..... ..... ........ ..... ........... ... ... ... ...43 5 Shivapad~ in the Angkor Empire .................................... .................................................... 45 5.1 Phnom Preah Vihear (Kompong Chnang) .......................................... ............... ..................... 45 5.2 That Ba Chong (IK 326) ... ....... ....... ........................................................................................ 47 5.3 Phnom Bayong (IK 3) .............. ...................................................................................... ......... 48 5.3.l The Principal Sanctuary (A) .... ............................................................................................... 51 5.3.2 Mandapa A ..... ........ ... .. .. ...... ............................. ................................................................. ..... 52 VI

C o nte nts 5.3.3 Later Additions ... ............ .. .. ... .. ...... ......... ... ..... ........ ......................... .. .... ..... ............................ 52 5.3.4 Prasat S .................................................. .......... ..... ........................ ... .............. .................. ....... 52 5.3.5 The Enclosure K-K' - K\" ........... .................... ....................................................................... 52 5.3.6 Prasats Hand L ..................... ..... ..................................... ........................................................ 53 5.3.7 The Development of the Shaivite Complex ..... .................... ................... ... ............................. 54 5.4 Shivapada of the East: Prasat Neak Buos (IK .291) ................................................................. 57 5.4.1 Three Successive Terraces ...................................................................................................... 58 5.4.2 The South-Facing Temple ......................................... ............... ............. .. ............ .. ... ....... ..... ... 58 5.4.3 Three French Colonial Read ings ............. ..... .......... ....... ..... ........ ........ ........ ... ... ... ..... ... ... ........ 58 5.4.4 The Structures in the Plain ...... ... .. .. ... ....... ....... ..... ..... ....... ... .......... ... ..... .. ............ ... ... ..... .... .. ..59 5.4.4.1 The Lake .... ......... ....... ....... ......... ..... ....... ....... ..... ..... ....... ... ...... .... ... ..... ........ ...... ... ... ....... ... .... ..59 5.4.4.2 The Southeast Corner Annex (291, 3) .... ... ....... ... .. ....... .. ...... ..... ..... ... ... .... ...... ... ... ... ... ........ ... ..59 5.4.4.3 The Northeast A nnex (291, 2) ..... ....... ....... ..... ............ ... ..... ..... ... .......... ... ..... ... .. .. ................ ... .59 5.4.5 The First Terrace .......... .. .. ............ ................... ............................. ........ ........ .......................... 59 5.4.6 The Naga Path ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .............. ............. .......................................................... 59 5.4.7 A Pavilion Open to the Four Cardinal Points ... ..... ... ....... .... ...... ... ............. ............................. 59 5.4.8 The Second Terrace .. ......... ..... ....... ....... ....... ... ....... .......... .......... ... ... ....................................... 60 5.4.9 The Third Terrace ..... ......... ....... ....... ..... ....... ... ....... .......... .......... ... .... .... ..... ... ... ... ... .... .... .. ...... .60 5.4.10 The Main Sanctuary ....................................................... ............. ........................................... 60 5.4.10.1 The Front Part of the Main Sanctua ry ...... ..... ....... .................................. .........:... .... .......... ... ..60 5.4.11 Subsidiary Sanctuaries ...................................................... .............................................. ..... .. 61 5.4.1 1.1 The Southwest Corner Sanctuaries ............................... ....................................................... .. . 61 5.4.11 .2 The Southeast Group .. ....... .. ......... .......................................................................................... 61 5.4.12 Isolated Pieces ... ....................... ............ ............ ..... .......... .... ........... ... .. ... .. ... ...... ...... ... ... ...... .. . 61 5.4.13 Decorative Motifs .......................... ....................................................... ... .......... ... ... ..... .. .... ... . 61 5.4.14 Material Used ........... ................ .. ..... ....... .. ... ............... .. ..... ........ ........................ ... ... ............ ... 61 5.4.15 The Historical Perspective .................. ......................................... ........ ... ... ... ........ ... ... ...... .... .. 61 5.4.16 Epigraphic Evidence ............................................ .. ..... .. ..... ...... ... .... ... ... ..... .. ............ ... ... ... ... ... 62 5.4.16.1 The Seventh Century ......................................................................... ... ... ... ........ ... ... ........... ... 62 5.4.16.2 The Ni nth Century ............. .............. ... ..... ..... .. ..... ....... ... ...... ............ ........ ..... .. ....... ... ... .... .. .... .63 5.4.16.3 The Tenth Century .................... ................. .............. ... ..... ..... ... ........ ..... ... ... ..... ... ........... ....... ..63 5.4.16.4 The Eleventh Century ....... .............. ....... .. ..... .. ..... ....... ..... ... ..... ...... ................................. ... .. ... 65 5.4.17 Satellites of Shivapada Purva ...... ............. ........... ..... ..... ..... ........ ... .... .......... ............ .. ............. 65 5.4.17.1 Prasat Ta Ros (IK 304) ..... .. .. ... .. ....... .. ..... .. .................... ... ........ ..... ...... .. ....... .... ............ ....... ... 65 5.4.17.2 Prasat Kantop (IK 306) .... ........... ..... ....... ..... ... :........... ..... ... .... ...... ... ................................ ...... 65 5.5 Shivapada of the West: Ta Meuan Thom (IK 374) .... ... .... .... ...................... ............................ 66 5.5.1 The Rationale behind Geographical Differentiation............................................................... 68 5.6 Phnom Preah Net Preah (IK 841) ........ ............ ... ............. .. ..... ......... ..... ......... ... ...................... 68 5.7 Shivapada at Angkor Wat (IK 497) ... ..... ..... ..... ..................................... ................................. 71 5.8 Shivapada at Preah Khan (IK 522) .... ..... ..... ....... ...... ............. ............................................ .... .74 5.9 A Pair of Footprints at Phnom Kulen ................................................. ........ ... ... ........ ...... ... ..... 76 6 Conclusion ............................................................................ ............. ... ... ..... .............. .. ......... 77 Appendi x ...... ....... ...... .. ..... .... ... .. ..... .. ..... .. .................. ..... ... ....... ..... .................................. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 81 Chronological List of Khmer Kings in Mainland Southeast Asia .. ...... ... ... ........................................... 81 Notes ........... ........... .... ....... ....... ....... ....... ............ ..... ..... ..... .......... ... .. ...................................................... 83 Bibliography ................... ......... ....... .. ..... .... ........ .... .... ..... ....... ..... ... .......... ... ..................................... ... ... 93 l ndex ............ .. .......................................................... ... ....... ............. ....... ... ... ........................................... 99 Vll

.. . • • I• I I ,\"g·nf.lm..u.o., riJ .. . I I . . I I I I I I I -:< . I .~jWJPIAnll . . '. Map 1. Map Showing Location of Phnom Preah Vi hear, Kompong Chhnang

Sla•Kou B.Ar,,, .~..,..,~~ · Take ... ....frontier tl,ro,. o ...J. ,:J' j, '-'I' . · . :;:;:;.J I! 01,nr r, ~ cl,.1 Aymonier <am LE CAMBODGE Tome I~'-C~apilre VII PEAM-BANTEAi•MEAS_TREANt Echelle . s IO ,s 10 ZJ .JOlnl Map 3. Map Showing Locati on of Phnom Bayong (Ay monier 1900, Chapter 7)

·nKraom _ ·V-qng 02 10 km Map 4. Map of Phnom Bayong (Based on Carte Archeologique du Cambodge, Province de Ta Keo, March 2007)

Footprints at Sultanganji Fig. 5. Brahmanical Images, Jahangira Hill, Sultanganj On the basis of his examination of sculptures Fig. 7. The Image of Ganga Riding a Crocodile, Jahangira , on the two rocky hills Cunningham suggests that Sultanganj both sites were in the possession of Brahmins and not of Buddhists. Amongst the majority of Shaivite in eastern India, where the god lived physically, and Vaishnavite reliefs, Cunningham notices only marking his presence by his footprints. two Buddha reliefs . One of these may be the Brah- manical incarnation (avatara) of Buddha, judging The riverside rock called Bais-Karana is about by the company in which it was found. Numerous 100 feet in height, jutting boldly into the river. Shivalingas, mostly mutilated and including one rare Cunningham observes: type, several bold Maheshvara busts and a number of Uma-Maheshvara and other Shaivite figures from \"On many of the larger rocks at the base of this the site suggest that by the fourth century Sultanganj hillock there are sculptures of the same style had become the great abode of Shiva (Mahalaya) and the age as those of Jahangira rock. The most prominent sculpture is that of a female lying on a bed with her head resting on her left hand , and her right hand holding a bunch of flowers, which a monkey is snatching away. To the left are two small panels with sculptures and several large heads in niches . Below one of these is written 'Kumarasya' of Kumara in beautifully formed Gupta characters. To the left is a large panel con- taining two male figures between them. One of the figures has four arms. Still further to the left there is a pair of feet with an inscription in boldly cut Gupta letters, reading Rudra mahala, which I take to be a contraction of Rudra-Mahalaya or 'Shiva, the supreme lord'. I do not, however, remember ever having seen a Rudrapada before.\" Fig. 6. Half-Male , Half-Female (Ardhanarsihvara) Form of The correct rendering of the term rudra Shiva, Jahangira Hill , Sultanganj mahalaya should be \"the great abode (mahalaya) 41

Shivapada in Indian Sources of Rudra.\" As we have noted earlier, mahalaya originally represents a sacred place below Kaila- sha where Shiva left his footprints . This solitary example suggests the diffusion of the cult of Shiva's footprints further down the Himalayas into the Ganges valley. Auguste Barth, who published the inscription of Phnom Bayong in 1885, did not have Cunningham's findings at his disposal. So for him the Cambodian evidence was a solitary example Fig.10. Umamaheshvara, Murali Hill , Sultanganj Fig. 8. Footprints of Shi va, Murali (Bai sa Karana) Hill , without any precedent in India. The findings of Sulta ng anj Barth and Cunningham, taken together, suggest that the cult of the footprints of Shiva was already well represented at a sacred Shaivite site in eastern India at least 300 years before the Cambodian examples. A scholar has remarked recently that mahalaya means also a temple, an ashrama, a place of pilgrim- age. The term rudra mahalaya may also mean a holy place of Shiva-which Sultanganj really has been since time immemorial.62 In fact, Shiva walked through the whole of India, as his followers believed, from his Himalayan abode in the north to the southern tip of India. He left his footprints wherever he went. He made his followers aware of his presence through his divine inspiration in their dreams. The place where he left his footprints became his great abode, permeated by his presence. His footprints south of Kedara in the Himalayas, as attested to by the Skanda Purana, his footprints around Kanakhala in Haridwara as described by Kalidasa in the Meghadutam and his footprints on the right bank of the Ganges in eastern India- they all mark the advancing feet of Shiva, following the sacred river which he had released from the locks of his matted hair. Each of the footprints here measures 9.5 inches in length They are flanked by other Shaivite figures. A panel of moderate size of Shiva and Surya lies close to their right and two bold Maheshvara busts are visible to their left. 4.8.2 The Footprint at Gudimallam Fig. 9. Bust of Shiva , Murali Hill , Sultanganj In the course of excavations at the Shivalinga temple at Gudimallam in 1973, various phases in the con- 42