Military Journal NR 11 April-June 2018

MILITARY’ Issue NR 11-April-June 2018JOURNALQUARTERLY FREEISSUEPrevious to* FORMER MILITARY* THOSE INTERESTEDFrontpage picture: SU 35 F EDITION 2 Autonomous and multi read

THIS ISSUE CONTENTMILITARY Editorial ...........................................................................3JOURNAL Magazine Special: Russian Forces.........................................4 Fall and Rise of the Russian MilitaryPublisher Part 1. Following the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the RussianMedia Hill Publications Federation inherited several formidable tasks and challenges from its Soviet predecessor.2542-4858 All new Combat Aircraft..................................................27Editor in Chief Russia has announced in 2017 it is looking to start work on two all newRob Vaneker combat jet designs.Photographic lay-out ARTILLERY; STEEL AND FIRE.................................................32Hans Hollestelle Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions farEditor beyond the range and firepower of infantry's small arms.Robert Wilbrink Advertisments............................................50Graphic Design .Rob VanekerInteresting Internet links https://www.facebook.com/groups/412151909179902/about/https://www.rcmodelfreak.nl https://www.facebook.com/groups/285413265174459/https://www.imos-nederland.nl https://www.facebook.com/groups/314257969084947/https://catalina-bpy.nlDigital media and distributionMedia Hill ProductionsContributions :Allan Warnes- CorrespondentRob VanekerJoseph TrevithickHans HollestelleBarry SheppardFree subscriptionSurprise your friends,acquaintances and old servicemates with a [email protected]. 2

Fromthe editorEDITORIAL :Rob Vaneker- Editor in ChiefDear reader, Russia continues to modernize its extensiveVladimir Putin’s address to the Russian Federal nuclear forces and is developing long rangeAssembly following the referendum on annexation precision-guided conventional weapons systems.of Crimea, 18 March, 2014: It is manipulating the global information“The USA prefers to follow the rule of the environment, employing tools of indirect actionstrongest and not by the international law. They against countries on its periphery and using itsare convinced that they have been chosen and military for power projection and expeditionarythey are exceptional, that they are allowed to force deployments far outside its borders. Itsshape the destiny of the world, that it is only them ultimate deterrent is a robust nuclear forcethat can be right. They act as they please. Here capable of conducting a massed nuclear strike onand there they use force against sovereign states, targets in the United States and Europe withinset up coalitions in accordance with the principle: minutes.who is not with us is against us.” Within the next decade, an even more confidentThe resurgence of Russia on the world stage— and capable Russia could emerge. The Unitedseizing the Crimean Peninsula, destabilizing States and NATO needs to anticipate, rather thaneastern Ukraine, intervening on behalf of Syrian react, to Russian actions and pursue a greaterPresident Bashar al-Assad, and shaping the awareness of Russian goals and capabilities toinformation environment to suit its interests—poses prevent potential conflicts. Our policymakers anda major challenge to the United States. Moscow commanders must have a completewill continue to aggressively pursue its foreign understanding of Russia’s military capabilities,policy and security objectives by employing the especially as U.S and NATO,and Russian forcesfull spectrum of the state’s capabilities. Its may increasingly encounter each other around thepowerful military, coupled with the actual or globe. DIA ( Defence Intelligence Agency) willperceived threat of intervention, allows its continue to provide our leaders decision-space,whole-of-government efforts to resonate widely. ensuring they have the time and information necessary to protect our nation. The wrong decisions—or the right ones made too late—could have dire consequences. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 3

By: Rob Vaneker-Allan WarnesIntroduction/HistoricalOverview 1991-Present: Fall and Rise of the Russian Military Part 1INTRODUCTION Russia. The issue of conventional Moldova, Georgia, and Tajikistan.Following the collapse of the military forces was much more Most significantly for the newUSSR in 1991, the Russian problematic. Forces returning Russian military, interior militaryFederation inherited several from Eastern Europe had to be districts, which under the Sovietformidable tasks and challenges reintegrated into the new Russian Union contained low-readinessfrom its Soviet predecessor. For military, while those in the newly mobilization forces such as thethe newly-formed Russian independent states were viewed Moscow and North CaucasusMinistry of Defense, the most as the basis for building national Military Districts, now becameimmediate challenge was to militaries for new sovereign “front-line” districts borderingrelocate military equipment and countries. foreign states. The Russianpersonnel from the newly Returning military forces from Federation emerged from theindependent states of the former Eastern Europe were often collapse of the Soviet Union withUSSR and countries of the shipped piecemeal back to a much smaller military and andisbanded Warsaw Pact into a unprepared bases in the Russian entirely new set of securitynew Russian state. Federation. Other units located in challenges.The assets of the Soviet Union’s the territory of the former Soviet Russia’s new military facednuclear arsenal were of particular Union were absorbed by the dramatic budgetary, readiness,importance. Russia, Ukraine, newly independent states. In and personnel shortfalls, as wellBelarus, and Kazakhstan, the four certain cases, units such as the as uncertainty of its role asstates with nuclear weapons in Black Sea Fleet in Ukraine or the Moscow struggled to determinetheir territory, eventually reached 14th Army in Moldova actively its place in the post-Cold Waran agreement to dismantle all resisted the attempts by the world. Russia cut militarytactical and strategic nuclear Soviet successor states to absorb spending drastically during theweapons in the non-Russian these forces. Some of these decade of post-Soviet economicrepublics or return them to stranded units became turbulence. embroiled in ethnic conflicts in MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 4

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsFielding of new weapons late 1980s highlighted the limitations were widelysystems slowed to a trickle and harshness of the conscript’s lot, publicized by the Russian andeventually halted; the huge and in particular the brutal and international press, furtherformer Soviet arms industry sometimes deadly dedovschina undermining its reputation andstruggled, focusing on gaining hazing of new draftees. Draft reinforcing the desire of younghard currency by selling its most evasion became endemic, with Russians to avoid service.modern weapons to foreign many young Russian men using Throughout the post-Soviet era,buyers. At the same time, any and all legal or illegal there was a recognized need toRussian military units lacked measures to avoid military reform and modernize thefunding and fuel to train and service. Russian generals voiced military. Not only did the Russianexercise, and pay was often complaints about the poor military suffer from the readinessmonths in arrears. The readiness quality of the conscripts they and manpower shortfallsof the force was minimal, and actually received, as they were outlined above, but Moscow’sthe popular image of the often unhealthy, poorly forces retained theirRussian military of the 1990s educated, and sometimes cumbersome Soviet-eraremains ships rusting at pier arrived with criminal records. organization, designed for theside, pilots unable to fly, and The military’s most painful trial, mobilization of massive numbersRussian officers moonlighting however, was caused by of reservists to conduct deepwith second jobs to make ends insurgency within the borders of mechanized theater operationsmeet. the Russian Federation. From in the context of a major war.Moscow also had difficulty 1994 to 1995, undermanned The 1990s and first decade ofmanning its military. Press and poorly trained Russian the 21st century saw a series ofreports on military life that forces struggled to take and military reform effortsbegan to appear during the secure the breakaway Chechen announced, discussed, and onlyglasnost (openness) era of the Republic in the North Caucasus. abortively implemented. The military’s problems andKremlin Guards in 2017. Military power has always been regarded as of critical importance by Russian and Soviet leaders, but after the collapse ofthe USSR, Moscow was left with a dramatically weakened military. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 5

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsRussia’s first Minister of Defense, General Pavel The New Look was controversial and painful forGrachev, (1992–1996) posited the creation of a many in or associated with the Russian militaryfully manned and equipped small “mobile force” establishment. Even military education andcomponent that could rapidly move to a conflict medical support organizations became targets forarea and hold the line until additional forces major reductions. In late 2012, the unpopularmobilized. Minister of Defense Igor Sergeyev Minister of Defense associated with the reform(1997–2001) created a new strategic nuclear effort, Anatoliy Serdyukov, left office and thedeterrence force based on his previous service, former head of the Emergency Situations Ministry,the Strategic Rocket Forces and Minister of Sergey Shoygu, took over. Shoygu proved adeptDefense Sergey Ivanov (2001–2007) and Chief of at easing some of the most unpopular aspects ofthe General Staff Yuriy Baluyevsky (2004–2008) the New Look while largely retaining and refiningpushed for the establishment of new regional the essence of the reform program.theater commands and filling the military’s ranks The years of Shoygu’s tenure have seen the Newwith professional “contract” personnel. By the late Look military engaged in a series of active2000s, these reform plans remained largely operations. In early 2014, Russian naval infantry,unimplemented, unsuccessful, or abandoned. special forces, and airborne troops rapidly seizedOne arguable exception to this series of military control of the Crimean Peninsula. While they facedreform failures was the effort during the late 1990s almost no opposition, the operation gave theto create “permanently ready forces,” a subset of world its first look at a military that appearedthe Russian force structure made up of units with surprisingly disciplined and well-equipped forbetter manning and equipment levels. These units those whose image of Russian forces was formedwere created and used during the second during the years of decay in the 1990s. AlthoughChechen conflict (1999–2004) and enabled their presence was denied by Moscow, RussianMoscow to intervene more rapidly and with more special forces and troops operated to mobilize,capable forces than during the first Chechen War lead, equip, and support separatist militias in the(1994-1995) Despite modest improvements and a Donbas region of eastern Ukraine from springmeasure of success in the second Chechen 2014 to the present. Ukrainian forces haveconflict, the Russian military still entered the first stressed the capabilities of the Russian-enableddecade of the 21st century with a Soviet-era separatist units, especially with respect to C4ISR,mobilization force structure almost completely artillery firepower, and air defense. In Septemberequipped with dated Soviet-era equipment. 2015, Moscow launched its first expeditionaryShortfalls in modern command, control, operation since the Soviet era, deploying fixed-communications, computers, and intelligence, wing and helicopter aviation assets to Syria.surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) Combined with other military support to the Asadequipment and capabilities were particularly regime such as intelligence information, advisors,notable. Russian military limitations were fully on ammunition, and artillery, Russian action arresteddisplay during the August 2008 “five-day war” with the decline in the Syrian regime’s military position.Georgia. Russian forces prevailed and defeated The Russian military today is on the rise—not as thetheir relatively weak Georgian opponents, but same Soviet force that faced the West in the Coldafter-action analysis by the Russian military War, dependent on large units with heavyhighlighted many failings. Air and artillery strikes equipment, but as a smaller, more mobile,missed their targets, an army commander had to balanced force rapidly becoming capable ofresort to a cell phone to contact a higher conducting the full range of modern warfare. It is aheadquarters, and several aircraft were lost to military that can intervene in countries alongGeorgian air defenses. While internationallymany Russia’s periphery or as far away as the Middlewere impressed by the ability of the Russian East. The new Russian military is a tool that can bemilitary, so derelict in the 1990s, to accomplish its used to underpin Moscow’s stated ambitions ofmission, Moscow was spurred by what it viewed as being a leading force in a multipolar world.critical shortfalls in Georgia to rapidly pushforward a whole new set of reforms—known as the“New Look”—which had been under discussionbefore the conflict. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 6

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsSimple Evidence convinced that a similar aggressive battle plan likeThis was a simple and clear evidence that the entire in Georgia and Ukraine will be effective in all formerrequest for Russian support by so-called Soviet states especially when considering and“Independent movements” and the following analyzing the effective countermeasures taken byoccupation of Abkhazia and South Ossetia was NATO in the pre-phase of exercise ZAPAD 2017. Hefabricated by economic and financial pretexts to get has now obviously chosen for a somewhat “refined”a foothold in the southern Caucasus. While in the approach.position of only forty kilometers from the capital As a result, he has -again temporarily- postponed hisTbilisi, the Russians are able to blackmail the plans to use ZAPAD 2017 as a pretext to make aGeorgian government any time they want by next move into Ukraine and in the Baltic region. Thethreatening to use the so-called “Peace Keeping battle plans were ready, as was the militaryForces” to further engage deeper in Georgian component to execute these plans*. NATO’sterritory. Russians has shown that they can be very countermeasures* have obviously convinced Putin“creative” in finding excuses for such an that a direct confrontation with NATO at the momentengagement! was not realistic and would have brought moreAlthough Georgian ambitions to become part of doubt for a positive result.western structures, including NATO, are temporarilyeliminated and similar ambitions of Ukraine are alsotemporarily derailed, Putin does not seem to be MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 7

Russian Joint Strategic CommandsRussia National Military Overview RUSSIA’s Thread Perceptions Russia’s assertive promotion of its national interests, punctuated by its military actions in Ukraine andSince returning to power in 2012, Russian President Syria, demonstrates a more confident and somewhatPutin has sought to reassert Russia as a great power less risk averse Kremlin, but it also has revivedon the global stage and to restructure an international international concerns about the re-emergence of aorder that the Kremlin believes is tilted too heavily in more militaristic Russia. Russian military forces playedfavor of the United States at Russia’s expense.Moscow a key role in the seizure of Crimea and fomenting anseeks to promote a multi-polar world predicated on artificial separatist revolt in eastern Ukraine, bluntingthe principles of respect for state sovereignty and Kyiv’s aspirations to join NATO, at least for thenon-interference in other states’ internal affairs, foreseeable future. Additionally, Russia’s militarytheprimacy of the United Nations, and a careful intervention in Syria has changed the entire dynamicbalance of power preventing one state or group of of the conflict, bolstering the Asad regime andstates from dominating the international order.To ensuring that no resolution to the conflict is possiblesupport these great power ambitions, Moscow has without Moscow’s agreement. Nevertheless, thesesought to build a robust military able to project actions also belie a deeply entrenched sense ofpower, add credibility to Russian diplomacy, and insecurity regarding a United States that Moscowensure that Russian interests can no longer be believes is intent on undermining Russia at home andsummarily dismissed without consequente. abroad. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 8

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsMoscow undoubtedly views the United States and concern.The Kremlin is particularly sensitive to theits NATO partners as the principle threat to Russian growth and spread of these ideologies and theirsecurity, its geo-political ambitions, and most potential to further radicalize Russian Muslims inimportantly, the Kremlin’s continued hold on the turbulent North Caucasus and other Muslimpower. This perception of vulnerability vis-à-vis the areas of central Russia. Russian military operationsUnited States is most clearly evident in the latest in Syria are also intended to eliminate jihadistRussian National Security Strategy published in elements operating there that originated in theDecember 2015. The document identifies the territory of the former Soviet Union, to preventUnited States and its NATO allies as Russia’s main them from returning home and posing a threat tothreat, and accuses the West of pursuing a Russia. At the same time, Moscow remains anxiousdeliberate policy of containment against Russia to about the deteriorating situation in Afghanistansustain its domination of the post-Cold War and the potential for Afghan-based Islamicinternational order and deprive Moscow of its extremists to spill over into the Central Asian statesrightful place on the world stage. It explicitly of the former Soviet Union and ultimately intostates, “the Russian Federation's implementation Russia.of an independent foreign and domestic policy is Russian threat perceptions with regard to Chinagiving rise to opposition from the United States are more divided and nuanced. Russian officialsand its allies, who are seeking to retain their regularly praise the cooperative nature of thedominance in world affairs.” The security strategy bilateral relationship, and Putin himself hasalso cites the buildup of NATO military capabilities declared that the current Russian-Chinesecloser to the Russian border, the deployment of relationship is the best it has been in decades. InU.S. missile defense capabilities in Europe, and the fact, the Russian National Security Strategy listsongoing U.S. pursuit of strategic non-nuclear developing a strategic partnership with China asprecision weapon systems as a serious threat to one of Russia’s most important goals. Moscow andRussian security. Beijing share a common interest in weakeningRussia also has a deep and abiding distrust of U.S. U.S. global influence and are activelyefforts to promote democracy around the world cooperatingin that regard.Military cooperationand what it perceives as a U.S. campaign to between the two countries is slowly expanding, asimpose a single set of global values. Moscow are economic ties. Nevertheless, some Russiansworries that U.S. attempts to dictate a set of are keenly aware of the growing power disparityacceptable international norms threatens the between Russia and an ascendant China andfoundations of Kremlin power by giving license for worry that Moscow is at risk of becoming Beijing’sforeign meddling in Russia’s internal affairs. The junior partner. Others continue to harborDecember 2015 National Security Strategy warns suspicions that China over the longer term willof the importance of preserving traditional Russian once again become a military threat to Russia.spiritual and cultural values against foreignWestern ideas and influences aimed at National Security Strategyundermining Russia from within. The Kremlin isconvinced the United States is laying the Russia’s current National Security Strategy wasgroundwork for regime change in Russia, a signed by President Vladimir Putin on 31conviction further reinforced by the events in December 2015 as an update to the previousUkraine. Moscow views the United States as the National Security Strategy published in 2009. Thecritical driver behind the crisis inUkraine and the National Security Strategy is the Kremlin’sArab Spring and believes that the overthrow of foundational planning document and is intendedformer Ukrainian President Yanukovych is the latest for domestic and external audiences. It codifiesmove in a long-established pattern of U.S.- Moscow’s strategic interests and national prioritiesorchestrated regime change efforts, including the for at least the next 6 years.The national prioritiesKosovo campaign, Iraq, Libya, and the 2003–05 were consistent with those identified in previous“color revolutions” in Georgia, Ukraine, and strategies; however, the tone of this update wasKyrgyzstan. harsher than the 2009 strategy, reflectingRussian threat perceptions are not limited to the Moscow’s view of worsening relations with theUnited States, and Moscow views the danger West.posed by Islamic militants and terrorists with grave MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 9

Gen-Lt Sergey Rudskoy Defense Minister Sergey ShoyguRussian TU-160 heavy Bomber and IL-78M tanker The 2015 strategy identifies Russian national interests as strengthening Colonel General Viktor Bondareva of the the country’s defense, ensuring Airforce political and social stability, raising the living standard, preserving andOne of the commanders Russian occupation developing culture, improving theforces in Ukraine, Major General Valerii economy, and strengtheningHryhorovych Asapov (right side) Russia’s status as a leading world power. These national interests are to be achieved through concentration on eight strategic national priorities: • National defense • State and public security • Economic growth • Science, technology, and education • Healthcare • Culture • Ecology of living systems and rational use of natural resources • Strategic stability and equal strategic partnership In the 2015 document, the sections on national defense, internal stability, economy, and culture were significantly expanded.Moscow identified new threats to state and public security posed by foreign nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), “color revolutions,” and the use of social media to foment unrest and undermine political and social stability,reflecting Russian officials’ allegations that Western powers seek to provoke regime change in Russia.The culture priority contains some of the strategy’s most significant revisions, emphasizing the need to preserve and strengthen “traditional Russian spiritual and moral values,” and indicating that Moscow views culture, language, and history as a tool for influence. 10

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsUnlike the 2009 version, the new National Security External Defense RelationsStrategy directly accuses the United States andNATO of pursuing actions that cause instability The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)and threaten Russian national security. The was a regional coordination body created amongimportance of a strong military for a leading world a number of the former Soviet states in the wakepower is acknowledged; the strategy states that of the dissolution of the former Soviet Union. Nine“the role of force as a factor in international states remain members, with Ukraine andrelations is not declining.” The new strategy Turkmenistan retaining associate member status.reiterated key concepts outlined in Russia’s 2014 Russia’s most important defense and securitymilitary doctrine on the importance of deterrence relationships are with its allies in the CIS Collectiveand conflict prevention, nuclear and nonnuclear Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)— Belarus,deterrence, and the need to improve Russia’s Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.mobilization process. The National Security Based on the 1992 Tashkent Collective SecurityStrategy reflects a Russia more confident of its Agreement, the CSTO was established in 2002 asability to defend its sovereignty, resist Western part of a larger Russian effort in the post-Sovietpressure, and contribute to the resolution of environment to create a more structured militaryconflicts abroad (or insecurity). organization capable of implementing the security guarantees stipulated in the agreement. SinceStability Issues then, the CSTO has developed a bureaucratic staff under the organization’s secretary general and aThe Kremlin views internal political stability as a rapid reaction force to respond to variouscritical component of national strength and contingencies that might impact the security of theprojecting power abroad, as evidenced by the member states. The CSTO conducts yearly jointemphasis placed on it in the National Security military exercises addressing various scenariosStrategy. Since returning to the presidency in such as peacekeeping or counterterrorism2012, Russian President Putin has worked to operations. Russia also maintains an airbase atconsolidate power. His efforts to further centralize Kant, Kyrgyzstan, under the auspices of the CSTO.control have been challenged by a slowing Nonetheless, Russian efforts to build the CSTOeconomy, lower energy prices, and growing public into a more structured and capable organizationdiscontent with a system that lacks any genuine on par with NATO largely have floundered. Somepluralism. Putin has tried to deflect from these of the non-Russian member states worry thatconcerns by promising to restore Russia to great Moscow is using the organization to underminepower status, on par with the United States, to their sovereignty and independence and aremobilize public support and secure his legitimacy. cautious of deepening military cooperation withThe Kremlin has taken steps to neutralize political Russia, as evidenced by Uzbekistan’s withdrawal inopposition by expanding laws to impose harsh 2007. Differing threat perceptions, an absence ofsentences that discourage public protests and trust amongst the members, and funding shortfallsencourage self-censorship. It has also restructured have further plagued the organization.Russia alsoits internal security forces to ensure a more loyal is building cooperative defense relationships withand responsive apparatus. Russia maintains other various countries throughout the Middlesecurity forces that are not subordinate to the East, Latin America, Africa, and Asia, but itsmilitary to conduct a range of internal security and engagement is far less robust than in the formerpolicing functions. Nonetheless, the Kremlin will Soviet Union. Moscow appears to no longer belikely face continuing challenges to its rule from interested in funding Soviet-style patronagedemocracy and anti-corruption activists, labor relationships, and Russian policy remains largelyunrest, as well the ever present threat of terrorism transactional aimed at expanding arms sales andemanating from Russia’s restive North Caucasus other Russian economic interests, which hasregion representatives of other nationalities, in the contributed to the limited nature of these ties.overwhelming majority of cases with Russian Nevertheless, the Kremlin continues to view itsspeakers – and the large share of Russian speakers military outreach to these countries as importantamong Latvians. to enhancing its global stature and strengthening its regional influence. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 11

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsDefense Budget and design, and expenditure on modernization and repair of existing weaponry. Funding for theRussian government spending on national 10 year program was heavily back-loaded suchdefense has generally grown over the last decade that just 31% was to be spent in the first 5 yearsand in 2016 reached a post-Soviet record. This (2011–2015) and nearly 70% was to be spent fromincrease in defense spending was enabled by 2016 to 2020.In order for Moscow to meet itsboth a general increase in the size of Russia’s GDP original target for SAP spending and maintain itsand a political decision to increase the defense operational spending at current levels, defenseburden—the share of national wealth devoted to spending from 2016 through 2020 will have todefense. In 2015, Russian defense spending increase substantially over 2011–2015 levels.reached a then-record $52 billion (in 2017 dollars) Russian defense spending, however, is poised toand the defense burden was nearly 4% of GDP. decrease in 2017.103 The 2017 budget calls forThe 2016 budget, which was initially to decrease 2.8 trillion rubles to be spent on national defense,defense spending, was amended late in the year equivalent to $42 billion. This constitutes a 30%to increase defense spending to $61 billion, a real cut in defense spending from 2016 levels, and4.5% defense burden on GDP.93, 94, 95 By if it is not amended to increase funds mid-year, itcontrast, in 2006 defense spending was $27 would be the lowest budget for national defensebillion, and the defense burden was 2.4%.96, 97 since 2013. According to Russian press andMoscow’s ambitious rearmament program has Ministry of Finance announcements, from 2017driven the increase in defense spending. The through 2019 Russian defense spending will beStrategic Armament Program (SAP) called for essentially frozen in nominal terms—and thereforespending 19.4 trillion rubles (equivalent to $285 declining in real terms.billion) to rearm Ministry of Defense forces from2011 through 2020. Each year the SAP is A Russian TU-22M3 Backfire Bomberimplemented through the State Defense Order(SDO), Moscow’s purchase of new weaponry,investment in weapons-related research MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 12

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsRussian government revenues are Moscow fears that the speed,highly dependent on oil prices, and accuracy, and quantity of non-nuclearMoscow’s decision to base its budget strategic precision-guided weaponsfor 2017–2019 on low projected oil can achieve strategic effects on parprices in 2017–2019 is largely with nuclear weapons, one of theresponsible for the glum outlook for primary reasons that since at leastgovernment revenue and low 1993 (and most recently codified inprojected GDP growth rates. the 2014 Military Doctrine) Russia hasAccording to the International reserved the right to a nuclearMonetary Fund and a number of response to a non-nuclear attack thatprominent economists, Russia faces a threatens the existence of the state. Ingrowth ceiling; absent structural addition to rejecting no-first-use,reforms, Russian GDP growth would Moscow has discussed using nuclearprobably reach only 1 to 2 percent weapons to de-escalate a conflict.per year, even were oil prices to While most military theorists andincrease significantly. leaders believe great-power conflict************************************* is unlikely, they nevertheless express concern about the usability of theMilitary Doctrine And Strategy/ information space to achieve stateRussian Perceptions of Modern goals. Russia has tied this decisiveConflict and shortened initial period to the idea that only more proactive or evenSince at least 1991, the Russian preemptive action is required toperception of the nature of modern counter it. Russian developments inconflict has evolved. Russia views precision-guided munitions indicatewars as often undeclared, fought for a desire for “deep strike” capability torelatively limited political objectives, preempt attacks from an adversary.and occurring across all domains, Russia’s Military Doctrine, lastincluding outer space and the updated in December 2014,information space.Russian leaders contained several new elements nothave noted the tendency for crises to in the 2010 Doctrine, which reflectarise quickly and develop Moscow’s military focus and threatimpetuously, and to potentially perceptions. First codified in theescalate from local wars into global doctrine was the concept of non-ones. In addition, Moscow judges nuclear deterrence, an idea that hasthat modern conflicts are been evolving since the Sovietcharacterized by a destructive and period.The doctrine also underscoredrapid “initial period of war”—a subject perceived threats to Russia’son which Russian military leaders and domestic security and described thetheorists have written extensively military’s requirement to inflictsince the 1920s— which is becoming unacceptable damage on anymore decisive than ever before. In adversary at any time. This requiresmodern cyber-enabled information the military to calculate orand battlefield spaces, this understand what level of damagedestructive non-kinetic initial period would constitute unacceptablecan be reduced to milliseconds, and damage to an adversary.kinetically to hours. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 13

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsMobilization readiness of the state was stressed, as systems, influence public opinion, and “erode thewere measures to unify state, societal, and opponent’s resolve. The modernization of itsindividual efforts to protect Russia and increase nuclear and conventional forces to includethe effectiveness of military-patriotic indoctrination precision-guided strike weapons provide it aof citizens and their preparation for military major military force to shape the outcome of warservice. along the entire spectrum of modern conflict.The concepts of readiness, non-nuclear Military and Security Leadershipdeterrence, and unacceptable damage are closelylinked in Russian thinking; Russian military leaders Decisionmaking in Russia is highly centralized, andjudge that a highly ready non-nuclear force, able President Vladimir Putin dominates Russia’sto inflict unacceptable damage on an aggressor— decisionmaking, including for military and securityincluding against its economy— at any moment, is issues. His constitutional responsibilities includeits own deterrent.For Moscow, the word translated appointing the prime minister, chairman of theas “deterrence” ( ) is more closely linked to a Central Bank, government ministers, and judges;concept of active restraint, or literally to hold back he may announce State Duma elections orsomething moving with force. In the West, dissolve it. His annual address to the Federaldeterrence is often seen as an established Assembly sets guidelines for national internal andcondition, whereas in Moscow it is an active, foreign policies, and he resolves internalflexible process that continues throughout the governmental disputes. The Russian presidentconflict spectrum. governs foreign policy, signs international treaties,The Russians define strategic deterrence as a forms and heads the Security Council, andpackage of coordinated political, diplomatic, approves military doctrine. The Russian presidenteconomic, ideological, moral, spiritual, serves as the Supreme Commander in Chief of theinformational, scientific, technological, military, Russian military, and in times of emergency heand other actions taken by a country to may introduce martial law.demonstrate the decisiveness of the political The Russian Ministry of Defense is subordinate toleadership to tap all instruments of state power President Putin as Supreme Commander in Chiefconsecutively or simultaneously—to stabilize the and is charged with implementing presidentialmilitary, political, and strategic environment, to policy within the military, overseeing all readiness,anticipate aggression, and to deescalate military manpower, and procurement issues. The defenseconflict. Some Russian theorists break deterrence minister has the legal authority to oversee anddown further into non-forceful and forceful means direct operations of the General Staff.Defenseand even into deterrence by “type” (economic, Minister Sergey Shoygu was appointed Defensemilitary, nuclear, non-nuclear, etc.Closely linked to Minister on 6 November 2012, after 18 yearsstrategic deterrence is the concept of strategic leading the Ministry of Emergency Situations.stability. At its basic level, Russia’s concept of Shoygu’s introduction of frequent strategic-level,deterrence, appropriately applied in its view, no-notice inspections in Russia’s military districts,assures strategic stability. Strategic stability is the unprecedented in number and scope for the post-sum total of political, economic, military, and other Soviet Russian military, has been critical inmeasures (e.g., force) retained by states in a stable assessing and increasing combat readiness in thebalance whereby neither side has the opportunity, armed forces, as well in as refining defenseinterest, or intent to carry out military aggression. reforms.Russia has observed modern conflicts and The General Staff’s primary mission is to ensureincorporated aspects of these observations into its the military security of the Russian Federation (RF),deterrence and warfighting strategies. Russia that is, to protect the vital interests of the state andseeks to shape the environment in peacetime to society from internal and external threats.Theavoid or deter conflict and, if war does occur, will General Staff is responsible for monitoring anduse its military force to establish a favorable characterizing the threat environment andoutcome for Moscow. Moscow’s warfighting developing strategic and operational plans tostrategy includes use of indirect action and equip, mobilize, employ, command, and controlasymmetric responses, including using technical the armed forces.and psychological operations to disrupt technical MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 14

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsAccording to a 2013 such as the CSTO, CIS, and of the General Staff. The chief ofpresidential edict describing Shanghai Cooperation the General Staff is alsoGeneral Staff missions and Organization. The GOU shapes appointed by the president andfunctions, its range of the Defense Plan of the Russian serves as the military head ofresponsibilities was broadened Federation, identifies sources of the armed forces. The Generalto include coordination of all threats to Russia for strategic Staff’s primary mission is toactivity undertaken by federal planning, and works with the ensure the military security ofexecutive organizations to General Staff’s Military-Scientific the Russian Federation and isensure defense capability and Committee (VNK) to draft the responsible for monitoring andsecurity. State Armament Program. characterizing the threatThe chief of the General Staff, General Lieutenant (Gen-Lt, two environment and developingGen-Army Valeriy Gerasimov, stars) Sergey Rudskoy served as strategic and operational plansserves as the military head of first deputy chief of the GOU to equip, mobilize, employ,the Russian Armed for 9 years before becoming its command, and control theForces.Gerasimov previously chief in November 2015, armed forces.The serviceserved as deputy chief of the Rudskoy has been the General chiefshave the responsibility ofGeneral Staff from December Staff’s senior representative at organizing, training, and2010 until May 2012, when he international forums, and he will equipping their forces to meetwas appointed commander of likely leverage this experience current and future nationalthe Central Military District.He to enhance coordination with security challenges.became chief of the General other militaries operating in The Russian military hasStaff in November 2012. He is a Syria. established a redundant andrespected armor officer with National Military Command survivable command andsubstantial combat experience and Control control (C2) system to controland time in command in At the pinnacle of Russian its forces that serves as a force-Russia’s restive North success military command and control enabler. Russia’s C4ISR complexthan the 25th Brigade. The is the Russian president, uses multiple capabilitiesattack on Gona had been going Vladimir Putin, who serves as ranging from technologicallyon for two weeks without the Supreme Commander in advanced systems tosuccess. Caucasus region. Since Chief of the armed forces. As mechanically simple, legacyhis appointment, Gerasimov such, he is the primary Soviet devices intended tohas focused largely on dealing decisionmaker and is centralize control of the militarywith military readiness, authorized to assume direct while providing intelligencemodifying defense reforms command and control during support to speed upcarried out by his predecessor, times of crisis and martial law. decisionmaking cycles andand preparing for security The minister of defense is carry out joint operations.concerns. appointed by the president and Russia’s C2 system has six keyMain Operations Directorate is charged with implementing characteristics:The Main Operations presidential policy within the • Centralized. The president ofDirectorate (GOU) of the Ministry of Defense. ThisGeneral Staff has operational includes overseeing all hiring, the Russian Federation is thecontrol of the armed forces, equipping, training, care, and commander in chief of theorganizes strategic and feeding of military personnel. armed forces and isoperational force planning; With the implementation of authorized to assume directexecutes military exercises and Russia’s New Look military C2 over the military via theoperational training, and reforms, the minister of defense Ministry of Defense andengages with multilateral now has legal authority to General Staff during times ofmilitary-security organizations oversee and direct operations crisis and martial law. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 15

Building a Military to support Great Power Aspirations• Redundant. Multiple C2 and centralizes command operations. Russia converted its systems are used at each authority at the highest six military districts into four echelon to disseminate echelon, while guaranteeing OSKs.In 2015, Russia created a commands and for the the ability to quickly launch fifth OSK, the OSK Northern transmission of orders. when necessary. Fleet, to improve its capability Russian military doctrine to project military power into• Geographically dispersed. underscores the central role of the Arctic and to takeRussia’s key C2 nodes and the Russian president in advantage of the opening offacilities are distributed authorizing the use of nuclear the Russia’s Northern Seathroughout the country to weapons. He uses the nuclear Route.increase survivability and limit briefcase, which is carried by In contrast to pre-reformsingle points of failure.1 officers who always remain near military districts that were• Secure. Moscow is upgrading the president. The General Staff primarily land forceC2 systems to take advantage monitors the status of the commands, the new OSKs areof modern and secure digital weapons of the nuclear triad joint force elements that havecommunications networks. control in times of peace and• Reliable. Russia routinely and will send the direct war over all general purposeconducts snap and other command to the launch crews forces stationed in—or deployedtraining exercises to test the following the president’s to—their territories. The phrasesystems’ capabilities to pass decision to use nuclear “military district” still exists andinformation and increase weapons. The Russians send refers to specific geographicdecisionmaking efficiency this command over multiple C2 boundaries, but an OSK is the• Built for the worst case systems, which creates a command element for that redundant dissemination area. For example, the Eastern scenario. Russian C2 systems process to guarantee that they Military District covers the are designed to enable the can launch their nuclear geographic territory from dissemination of launch weapons. Moscow also eastern Siberia to the Pacific orders while under nuclear maintains the Perimetr system, Ocean, but it is commanded by attack through several C2 which is designed to ensure OSK East.These reforms systems, including Perimetr, that a retaliatory launch can be resulted in a reduced command sometimes referred to as the ordered when Russia is under structure, both vertically and “Dead Hand.” nuclear attack. horizontally, which is moreRussian Nuclear Command and Command and Control of Joint streamlined, efficient, andControl Forces flexible.Maintaining control of its Moscow Implemented a Joint Moscow’s National Defensenuclear arsenal is of critical Strategic Command (OSK) Management Center (NTsUO),importance to Moscow. During structure in 2010 to better which came online in 2014, is athe Cold War, Russia developed facilitate joint military key component of the overalla centralized nuclear C2 system Russian C2 system. The NTsUOcapable of meeting its three works with subordinate regionalprimary requirements: and territorial defensereliability, speed, and security management centers toTo accomplish these goals, coordinate ministry andstrategic planners designed a department activities amongcomplex system-of-systems that lower echelons in accordanceprotects weapons from with national defense andunauthorized or accidental use security directives while liaising with municipal autoriteit. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 16

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsRussia has established five Joint Strategic Commands (Obyedinennoye Strategicheskoye Komandovaniye – OSK) to deal with perceived threats from the west, south, east, and Arctic.Minister of Defense Shoygu at the 2014 Victory Day Parade; since 2012, Shoygu has presided over the continued modernization of the Russian military as well as its operations in Ukraine and Syria. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 17 17

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsOUTLOOK: concentrated effort to develop and field an A Modernizing Force improved military force. Russia’s desire to be a leader in a multipolar worldThe Russian military has built on the military and recapture the “great power” status it had indoctrine, structure, and capabilities of the former Tsarist times and the latter days of the Soviet UnionSoviet Union, and although still dependent on requires a force capable of deterring aggression,many of the older Soviet platforms, the Russians fighting the range of conflicts from local crises tohave modernized their military strategy, doctrine, nuclear war, projecting power and employingand tactics to include use of asymmetric weapons force if necessary to intervene in conflicts acrosslike cyber and indirect action such as was the globe. Despite an economic slowdown thatobserved in Ukraine. will affect the Russian military’s timeline forOne of Russia’s biggest hurdles since the building all of its planned capabilities, Russia isdissolution of the former Soviet Union has been its rapidly fielding a modern force that can challengeneed to rely heavily on its nuclear forces to deter adversaries and support its “great power”aggression, resulting in its stated willingness for aspirations.first-use of nuclear weapons. Russia has beenbuilding its conventional force capability along APPENDIX A: RUSSIAN GROUND FORCESwith modernizing its nuclear forces to create amore balanced military. Moscow has stressed Russian Ground Forcesdevelopment of conventional precision-strike The Russian ground forces are composed of theweapons, a critical gap in its inventory, and Ground Troops, Airborne Troops (VDV), Navalrecently has tested them in combat in Syria, Infantry, Coastal Troops, Coastal Missile Artilleryproviding it with an advanced non-nuclear Troops, and National Guard.The Russiancapability to impact the battlefield. Federation armed forces are geographicallyIn 2009, after almost two decades of deterioration distributed across four military districts: Western,and neglect of the Russian military, Moscow began Southern, Central and Eastern. The Westerndeveloping a more modern military force capable Military District has three numberedof power projection outside Russia’s borders. The combined-arms armies (CAAs), the Southern andNew Look reforms instituted structural and Central Military Districts each have two, and theorganizational reforms and the State Armaments Eastern Military District has four.Program emphasized development of modernizedplatforms and weapons’ systems. In 2013, The Ground Troopsreadiness became an additional area of emphasis The Ground Troops, or Sukhoputniye Voyska, arewith institution of no-notice “snap” exercises and the land warfighting component of the Russianaccompanying mobilization and deployments. Ministry of Defense. The Ground Troops constituteMoscow’s long-term goal is building a military the largest component of the Russian Federationprepared to conduct the range of conflicts from armed forces. The Ground Troops are currentlylocal war through regional conflict to a strategic organized into approximately 40 active andconflict that could result in massive nuclear reserve maneuver brigades and eight maneuverexchange. divisions.386 There are about 350,000 militaryRecently, Russian forces have been involved in personnel in the ground troops.conflict in Ukraine and conducted anexpeditionary deployment to Syria, providing Russia’s commitment to building its military isexperience in combat operations, and employing demonstrated by its retention of the draft. Allnew tactics and advanced weapons systems. This Russian males are required to register for themore flexible and modern Russian force did not draft at 17 years of age and all men between thespring up overnight but is a result of years of ages of 18 and 27 are obligated by law to perform one year of military service. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 18

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsAccording to Russia's Ministry of Defense, the roles • Air Defense Troops provide air defense for theof its Ground Troops include repelling enemy Ground Troops. These units are equipped withaggression and the protection of Russia's territorial anti-aircraft missiles, anti-aircraft artillery,integrity and Russian national interests.Its main anti-aircraft gun-and-missile systems, andpeacetime missions include maintaining adequate portable anti-aircraft missile systems.combat readiness, participating in internationalpeacekeeping operations, participating in disaster • Reconnaissance Troops perform a wide range ofrecovery efforts, and assisting in the maintenance tasks in order to provide decision makers withof internal security, if needed. Examples of what information about enemy strength, disposition,Moscow designates peacekeeping operations terrain, and weather conditions.include ongoing efforts in breakaway enclaves inGeorgia and Moldova. • Engineer Troops perform a variety of specializedIn times of heightened tension, the Ground Troops tasks, including the construction of fortifications,will mobilize forces, operationally deploy to installation of obstacles (mine fields, etc.), thethreatened areas, call up and train reservists, and preparation of field deployment locations, theprepare for defensive operations. Finally, in a time preparation and maintenance of deploymentof war, Russia's Ground Troops are charged to routes, the construction of bridges and ferrysuppress military conflicts if possible, repulse crossings, and water purification.enemy aggression, conduct defensive andcounter-offensive operations to defeat the • Nuclear Biological Chemical Defense Troops areaggressor, and defend critical infrastructure. specialized forces tasked with mitigating theOrganizationally, the Ground Troops are effects of nuclear, biological, or chemicalcomposed of main combat components— contamination.motorized rifle, tank, missile and artillery, and airdefense units. Support elements for these units • Signal Troops are specialized forces designedinclude reconnaissance, engineer, nuclear, for the deployment and maintenance of mobilebiological and chemical defense, and signal redundant command, control, andtroops. communications systems.• Motorized Rifle Troops units are the most The New Look Reforms and the Ground Troops abundant formations in Russia's Ground Troops. The centerpiece of the 2008–2009 New Look Essentially mounted infantry, these are highly reforms was the elimination of the divisional/ mobile forces tasked with holding territory, regimental structure and its replacement by the repulsing enemy attacks, breaking through brigade. The Russian Ground Troops currently enemy defenses, capturing important areas, and have about 40 combined arms brigades. In the defeating the enemy. winter of 2013, one motorized rifle brigade and one tank brigade were reformed as divisions, and• Tank Troops are the main strike component of in the spring of 2016, it was announced that four the Ground Troops. They support Motorized Rifle new divisions would be formed in the Western and Troop missions with direct fires during meeting Southern Military Districts and one in the Central engagements. Military District. The transition to the brigade structure was• Missile Troops and Artillery are the main means intended to optimize Russia's ground forces to of indirect fires for Russian combined arms fight in what the Russians call \"local wars and operations. Missile Troops and Artillery forces armed conflicts,\" limited wars along Russia's are organized into missile, rocket-artillery, and periphery, which the Russian General Staff believes combined artillery units. Missile units operate to be very likely under modern conditions. In close/short-range ballistic missiles. November 2011, then-Chief of the General Staff Rocket-artillery units operate multiple rocket Nikolai Makarov said: \"The possibility of local launchers (MLRs), and combined artillery units armed conflicts virtually along the entire perimeter operate composite towed or self-propelled of the border has grown dramatically.The Russian artillery and MLRs. ground forces fielded brigades of this type that had been field tested in Afghanistan (1979–1989) and had proved to be quite effective in combat. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 19

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsAnother development that had received great normally subordinate to combined arms armies.impetus in the Afghanistan war was the reinforced Although Russia's military strategy is officiallybattalion, or battalion tactical group (BTG), a defensive, the Russian Ground Troops basicmotorized rifle or tank battalion, strengthened by principle of land warfare is violent, sustained, andother assets, such as artillery, reconnaissance, and deep offensive action, just as it was during theair defense resources. BTGs are similar to NATO Soviet era. Mechanized and armored formationsbattalion task forces and are ad-hoc organizations, supported by aviation and artillery are to seize theindividually created and optimized to fulfill a initiative at the outset of hostilities, penetrate theparticular mission. enemy's defenses, and drive deeply and decisivelyThe new Russian divisions are much smaller than into the enemy's rear area.their Soviet predecessors. While a Sovietmotorized rifle division numbered around 13,000 Combined Arms Armiesofficers and soldiers, Russia's new motorized rifle The combined arms army is an operational anddivisions number around 9,000. administrative organization that forms the basis ofA proponent of the mixed division-brigade ground the Russian field army. A typical combined armsforces, then-acting chief of the ground forces, army includes two to four combined armsGeneral Lieutenant Vladimir Popov, stated that brigades, usually motorized riflebrigades and in aRussia's combined arms brigades “in terms of few cases a tank brigade, plus artillery, missile, airstructure are intended for fighting in local wars,\" defense, engineer, chemical defense,but that they also \"can be successfully employed in communications, intelligence and reconnaissance,large-scale wars. They differ from divisions by and rear support units. By altering the mix oflesser numbers of personnel and military motorized rifle and tank formations and artilleryequipment and are capable of executing missions and missile support, the army can operate in eitherwith the very same high effectiveness as divisions, offensive or defensive roles in differentbut in a smaller zone of responsibility.The geographical areas and under various operationalre-introduction of some smaller divisions may be constraints.based more on their potential intimidation value The Tank Armythan they are on their potential value in combat. The Russian armed forces currently only have oneThese positive developments have led some tank army, the First Guards Tank Army (1st GTA). It,analysts to claim that Russia is developing entirely like the combined arms army, is both annew military concepts. Modern Russian tactics operational and administrative unit. Currently, theshow a strong continuity with past practices. 1st GTA includes a tank division, a motorized rifleRecent Russian activity in eastern Ukraine, for division, and a tank brigade, plus artillery, missile,example, demonstrates a creative use of their air defense, engineer, chemical defense,traditional combined arms and communications, intelligence and reconnaissance,reconnaissance-strike tactics combined with a and rear support units. The traditional role of amore aggressive application of information tank army is to exploit penetrations deep into thewarfare concepts that date back to the Soviet enemy's rear areas.period. Russian ground forces troops have The Separate Combined-Arms Brigadecooperated with non-traditional semi-military The primary combat formation of the Groundforces such as partisans and Cossacks for Troops is the separate combined-arms brigade,centuries. Regardless, the contemporary Russian either motorized rifle (MR) or tank. There are threeground forces pose a serious challenge to U.S. basic tables of organization and equipmentmilitary planners, and they should be seen as (TO&Es) for separate MR brigades and one forneither a simple continuation of past Soviet separate tank brigades. All Russianpractices, nor an entirely new force employing combined-arms brigades, however, regardless ofentirely new military concepts, but a highly specific primary combat vehicle, are organized innuanced and adaptive combination of both. essentially the same manner.The main combat power of the Ground Troops iscentered in tank and motorized rifle divisions andseparate tank and motorized rifle brigades that are MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 20

General of the Army Valeri Gerasimov 21

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsTank and MR brigades differ in organization in that brigade. An order issued on 19 September 2012where the MR brigade has three MR battalions, required all maneuver brigade commanders toone tank battalion, and an antitank (AT) battalion, create a contract-manned BTG within the brigadethe independent tank brigade reverses this basic if they had not already done so.structure with three tank battalions, one motorized The need to have effective BTGs is a primary drivertank battalion, and no AT battalion. The three MR of the New Look structural reforms. BTGs haveTO&Es differ from one another in their primary their theoretical origins in the late Soviet period,combat vehicle, either wheeled armored where they were envisioned to fight against NATOpersonnel carrier (APC) or tracked infantry fighting on both a nuclear or non-nuclear battlefield in avehicle (IFV). nonlinear, large-scale environment. BTGs haveBattalion Tactical Groups been used in every local war or armed conflict inBTGs are task-organized battalion-plus-sized which Soviet and Russian forces have beentactical combat entities that are capable of involved since the Afghanistan War (1979–performing independent combined-arms combat 1989).The tactical use of BTGs in combat hasmissions. They are similar in purpose, structure, impacted the tactical principles that govern theirand tactical use to U.S. Army battalion task forces. construction and use. BTGs currently serve—andMost, if not all, New Look maneuver brigades have will continue to serve— as Russia's primary tacticalone BTG, manned entirely or mostly with contract fighting unit in all tactical circumstances, both insoldiers, that is used to perform the most difficult large-scale and small-scale conflicts, well into theor complicated combat tasks assigned to the future. BASTION Coastal Defense Missile Launcher MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 22

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsThe Airborne Troops divisions and brigades received up to a companyRussia's Airborne Troops, or VDV (Vozdushno- (10 to 13) of T-72-series main battle tanks. The tankDesantniye Voyska), is an independent arm of companies within these air assault units will veryservice within the Russian Federation armed likely increase to tank battalions (30 to 42) by theforces. It is composed of four maneuver divisions, end of 2018.The MBTs are not intended for airfour maneuver brigades, and a separate special drops, but will accompany VDV ground maneuverpurpose (Spetsnaz) reconnaissance brigade.The formations to increase firepower and lethality.VDV serves as Russia's high-mobility initial Naval Infantryinvasion and rapid response force. In its role as Russian Naval Infantry is organized into units thatrapid response or initial assault forces, the VDV are operationally subordinate to fleetmay be used to achieve specific objectives that commanders. Naval Infantry is focused onshape the battlespace for follow-on ground amphibious assaults, coastal defense,forces. These may include: counterterrorism, anti-piracy, and ship security• Seizing key terrain (i.e., bridges, airports, and missions. The organization and equipment of Naval Infantry units are generally similar to that of seaports) motorized rifle units in the Ground Troops. The• Establishing blocking positions and vertical Naval Infantry consist of four independent brigades, one separate brigade, and three envelopment of a retreating enemy separate bataljons.• Disrupting enemy logistical supplies, Coastal Troops The Russian Coastal Troops consist of Coastal communications, and command centers Missile Artillery Forces (CMAF) and Coastal• Destroying high value targets Troops. CMAF consist of three independentManeuver formations within the VDV are brigades, two independent regiments, and onedesignated as either parachute or air assault, the independent battalion. The Coastal Troops areprimary difference being in whether they arrive at organized as ground forces but are subordinate totheir objective via airdrop or overland means. In all the Navy. The Coastal Troops consist mainly ofcases, VDV personnel are trained to operate both motorized rifle brigades and artillery brigades.ways. Major VDV formations are: Their primary mission is coastal and regional• Two parachute divisions – the 98th Guards and defensie. The Navy Ground and Coastal Troop Headquarters, a command unit based in Moscow, 106th Guards heads the Coastal Troop force, but coastal missile• Two air assault divisions – the 7th Guards units likely take operational orders from their respective fleets. Russia’s coastal missile and Mountain and 76th Guards artillery forces provide anti-ship defenses for• Four air assault brigades – the 11th, 31st, 56th, Russia’s coastline and littoral regions. Coastal missile defense in Russia is primarily centered on and 83rd anti-ship missile systems. Most units are still• One special-purpose reconnaissance brigade – dependent on two systems that entered production in the late 1970s to early 1980s—the the 45th Spetsnaz STYX and SEPAL. Efforts are underway to rearmIn line with its highly mobile function, the VDV is the coastal missile force with new, longer-rangeequipped with a large number of amphibious air missile systems. These systems include the BALdroppable combat vehicles, the BMD-series IFVs and BASTION, and they are slowly beingand BTR-D series APCs. The VDV's increased introduced to the force.mobility comes at the expense of armor andfirepower; its primary combat vehicles aregenerally lighter than their Ground Troopscounterparts. In late 2016, however, the air assault MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 23

Building a Military to support Great Power Aspirations Bottom: SU-35S is on Russia’s front lines 24 MILITARY JOURNAL 2018

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsAppendix B: Russian Strategic Rocket ForcesThe Strategic Rocket Forces (SRF) (Russian name: ICBM types—60 silo-based and 18 road-mobileRaketniye Voyska Strategicheskovo Naznacheniya SS-27 Mod 1s, and 73 of the most modernized[RVSN]), is one of the most potent missile forces in SS-27 Mod 2s.the world. The SRF was established as a separatemilitary service in December 1959 to operate the The development of new ballistic missile systemsfirst nuclear-armed intercontinental-range land- is a high priority for Russia. The Russian militarybased ballistic missile (SS-6), as the third element has outlined that the SRF should be completelyof Russia's growing strategic nuclear force re-armed with modern (post-Soviet) missiledeterrent triad.The Russian SRF headquarters is in systems by 2022. Russia has stated that it will soonMoscow. The SRF's three missile armies—the 27th, begin testing a developmental, heavy,31st, and 33rd—have a total of 12 subordinate liquid-propellant ICBM called the Sarmat tomissile divisions. Eight of the divisions operate replace the aging SS-18. Russia’s goal is to beginroad-mobile ICBMs, with the other four armed Sarmat deployment in the 2018–2020with silo-based missiles. The Russian SRF have timeframe.Russia has announced a new missileapproximately 60,000 personnel. called the Rubezh (Border) or RS-26, which is smaller than the SS-27 Mod 2 ICBM and will beIn 2016, the SRF had deployed 299 operational deployed in 2017. According to the SRFmissiles, with half that number equipped with commander, the RS-26 is envisioned as a mobilemultiple independently-targetable reentry vehicles system and has been referred to by Russian(MIRV) payloads. The SRF arsenal includes three Vice-Premier Rogozin as a “missile defense killer.”older ICBM types—46 SS-18s and 30 SS-19s insilos, and 72 road-mobile SS-25s—and two newer Locations of Strategic Rocket Forces missile divisions. 25 MILITARY JOURNAL 2018

Building a Military to support Great Power AspirationsRussian industry officials also claim development Russia’s overall number of strategic systems isof the Barguzin rail-mobile ICBM is continuing. A constrained by the New Strategic Arms Reductiondecision on full development, production, and Treaty (START), which entered into force on 5deployment will occur in the coming months. The February 2011. This treaty limits the United Statescurrently deployed SS-18, which Russia plans to and Russia to no more than 1,550 deployedreplace with the Sarmat, is a silo-based, 10-MIRV warheads each (including warheads on ICBMs andheavy ICBM first deployed in 1988; it needs to be SLBMs, and counting each heavy bomber as onereplaced by 2018–2020, when the SS-18s' 27- to warhead) 7 years after entry into force.30-year service lives expire.377 The SS-19 is a silo- Russia retains about 1,200 nuclear warheads forbased, six-MIRV ICBM that entered service in ICBMs. Most of these missiles are maintained on1980, which the SRF will replace with silo-based alert, capable of being launched within minutes ofSS-27 Mod 2 by 2019, as the SS-19s retire. receiving a launch order. Although the number ofThe SS-25 solid-propellant, single-warhead, road- missiles in the Russian ICBM forcewill continue tomobile ICBM was first deployed in 1985 and will decrease because of arms control agreements,retire by 2019–2021, to be replaced by regiments aging missiles, and resource constraints, Russiaof new production SS-27 Mod 2s, and possibly the intends to retain the largest ICBM force outsidetwo-stage, road-mobile RS-26 Rubezh. the United States.In addition, Russian leadership claims a new class Despite Russia’s modernization efforts, the size ofof hypersonic glide vehicle is being developed to the SRF may drop below 300 deployed ICBMs byallow Russian strategic missiles to penetrate the early 2020s, but most of those missiles will bemissile defense systems. Hypersonic glide vehicles equipped with multiple warheads. The(HGVs) are maneuverable vehicles that travel at composition of the force is changing significantlyhypersonic (typically greater than Mach 5) speed to meet the deployed strategic warhead total limitand spend most of their flight at much lower of 1,550. Notably, prior to 2010, no SRF road-altitudes than a typical ballistic missile. The mobile ICBMs carried MIRVs; by the early 2020s,combination of high speed, maneuverability, and all will do so.relatively low altitude makes them challenging To be continued in next issue!targets for missile defense systems. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 26

By Joseph TrevithickAll new Combat AircraftRussia has announced in 2017 it is looking to start and that a formal research and developmentwork on two all new combat jet designs, a fifth- program would start some time in 2019. Then, atgeneration successor to the supersonic MiG-31 the MAKS 2017 air show in Zhukovsky on July 18,Foxhound interceptor called the PAK DP and an as 2017, Deputy Defense Minister Yury Borisovyet unnamed short or vertical takeoff and landing revealed that the Kremlin was in talks with thecarrier fighter jet to go along with the country’s country’s aviation industry about a new fighterequally ambitious naval modernization plans. design,ostensibly to go along with stalled plans forThough these would be significant additions to the a new supercarrier.country’s arsenal, other such aircraft programs \"We are currently developing the concept of ahave repeatedly proven to be complex and costly long-range interceptor aircraft to bring a proposaland it could be years before the Russian military to our main customer [the Russian Defenseactually gets these planes into service, if it ever Ministry],\" Ilya Tarasenko, MiG’s director generaldoes. told journalists on July 14, 2017, according toOn July 14, 2017, Russian officials and Russian state-run outlet Sputnik. “I hope that in therepresentatives from MiG said there was a basic near future we will start research and developmentconcept in the works for a MiG-31 replacement work [pertaining to the new plane].” MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 27

Russian Aerospace Forces chief down cruise missiles. The advanced air defenses andColonel-General Viktor interceptors still had good high stealthy enemy fighters. WithBondarev confirmed the broad altitude performance, too. the youngest jets being moreplans for the new PAK DP. The After the Cold War, though the than 20 years old, the basicRussian air arm desperately overall size of the fleet shrunk, condition of the airframes canneeds this plane as it expects Russia continued flying and only become more and more ofthe existing MiG-31s will start updating the remaining serious issue, as well.Thoughhitting the end of their life MiG-31. In 2015, the Russian the aircraft undoubtedly stillcycles before 2030. Derived military introduced the latest have more life in them, thefrom the MiG-25 Foxbat, the upgraded versions, known as process of developing andFoxhound first flew in 1975 and the MIG-31 BM. The updated testing the low-observable fifth-the last aircraft rolled off the aircraft included a host of new generation PAK DP, as well asproduction line in 1994. The or improved avionics, fire the systems to go inside it,isaircraft have a service ceiling of control, communication, and likely to be long and expensive.more than 67,000 feet and can navigation equipment.Most The experience of the F-35reach Mach 2.8 at that notably, however, the BM Joint Strike Fighter shows thataltitude.new and old airstrips, models have two encrypted the complexity of nextbecause of the transfer of the digital datalinks, one for talking generation fighter jets can126 Infantry to the Australians, to command centers on the make for exhausetively costlyGeneral Harding had to use his ground and another for sharing programs that span decadesreserve, the 2-128 BN to attack information other aircraft, rather than years. The RussiansBuna village. including additional don’t even have to look abroadLike the Foxbats, the Foxhounds MiG-31BMs, as well as the latest to know this, havingwere primarily interceptors, iterations of the MiG-29 encountered many of theseintended to shoot down Fulcrum and advanced issues already with their T-50/incoming American bombers in members of the Sukhoi Su-27 PAK FA fighter jet and PAK DAthe event of a major war Flanker family. This level of bomber projects.between the Soviet Union, its networking gives pilots in the Despite initial plans to haveallies, and NATO. But while the MiG-31 additional situational built 150 of Sukhoi’s T-50MiG-25’s design was geared awareness, as well as providing stealth fighter by 2020, thetoward high-altitude missions additional capabilities to other Kremlin has now scaled thatagainst then state-of-the-art fighter jets that may lack its back to a buy of just a dozensupersonic bombers, such as powerful sensors. aircraft. This year 2018, afterthe B58 Hustler and the And despite their age, the more than seven years of flightplanned follow-on XB-70 MiG-31s seem important as testing, the Russian militaryValkyrie the MiG-31’s main ever to Russia’s integrated air hopes to finally take delivery oftarget was low-flying defensie scheme.By design, the the 10th and 11th pre-“penetrating” B1-Bones and jet's high speed and long range production prototypes.B-52 Stratorfortresses.As such, make it ideally suited to rapidlyengineers at MiG made sure responding to potential threatsthe Foxhounds had significantly even in the country's mostimproved low-level remote regions, especiallyperformance, as well as phased territory close to or above thearray radars and long-range Artic circle. But the MiG-31 isweapons with look-down-shoot- showing its age with adown capabilities. So, in decidedly unstealthy shape fulladdition to being able to of hard angles lifted largelyengage low- and fast-flying from its 1960s-era Foxbataircraft like the B-1, this also predecessors that would makemeant the MiG-31s had the it increasingly vulnerable toability to detect and shoot MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 28

The program has been beset by famously sold much of the service in 2016 making it odddelays, accidents, and rumors technical design package for that there would already be aof massive design changes, that aircraft to Lockheed need for another new carrieralong with very public criticism Martin, which used it as a fighter. In addition, the Indianfrom India, which has become jumping off point in developing Navy has reported significantan increasingly frustrated the F-35. At present, the F-35B issues with its own MiG-29Kpartner in the endeavor. is the only vertical take-off and aircraft, including persistentIn particular, the T-50's engines landing fighter in active engine and airframe problems,have been a major problem. If production anywhere in the all leading to low availabilityMiG expects the Foxhound world. rates. So, money for a newreplacement to closely match In the 1990s, Yakovlev carrier fighter might be betterthe older aircraft's top speeds reportedly proposed a follow- used to make sure the latestand \"super cruise,\" all while on design to the -41, known as existing models work properly.lugging around large long- the Yak-43, but there is no Russia is supposedly looking torange missiles, it would likely evidence this ever proceeded build a line of Lavina classneed bigger and likely more beyond the conceptual stage. amphibious assault ships, acomplex turbines. There are Deputy Defense Minister replacement for a planned fleetreal questions about whether Borisov said that any future of Franco-Russian made Mistralexisting Russian aircraft engines design would be derived from class ships. The French hadwould be up to the task and the old Yaks, but it’s not clear canceled this deal in responsedeveloping an all new how useful those designs might to Russia's invasion of Crimea inpowerplant could drag out the be to an all-new development, 2014. This new amphibiousdevelopment timeline.   even one that only offered assault ship is reportedlyThe Kremlin has similarly slow- similar capabilities to late fourth configured for helicopterrolled Tupolev's PAK DA generation fighters.It's not operations only, but couldbomber, which has reportedly immediately clear why the potentially field a fighterbeen in the works since at least Russian Navy would need this matching Deputy Defense2008. Despite nearly a decade type of fighter, or any new Minister Borisov's basicof development and the carrier fighter at all. The description and operate in aexpectation that the first service’s only carrier, the similar way as the American “prototype will take to the sky in Admiral Kuznetsov,does not Gator Navy”flattops with their2019, there hasn't even been have any such aircraft in its air AV-8B Harriers and F-35B Jointany official concept art of the wing at present, relying instead Strike Fighters. But it remainsdesign.  Now, the Russian on navalized Fulcrums and questionable if Russia couldgovernment wants to restart Flankers instead. After returning even build a ship as big andproduction of the older Tu-160 from a debacle of a complex as the proposedBlackjack, which would seem to deployment to the Middle East Lavina-class, so developing abe a tacit admission that its new earlier with its aircraft suffering niche STOVL fighter for it seemsstealth bomber is still a long a number of accidents while frivolous to say the least. way off.And all of this applies taking off and landing, Beyond the actual developmentdoubly to any plans for a new Kuznetsov is now set for a major of the aircraft, Russia’sshort or vertical take-off and overhaul. This effectively leaves economic difficulties andlanding capable jet fighter, an Russia without any carriers, or international political realitiesuncommon type of aircraft that the need for specific carrier could easily make it even moreno Russian manufacturer has aircraft, whatsoever for the difficult to build and field bothbuilt even as a prototype since foreseeable future. the PAK DP interceptor and thethe cancellation of the Yakovlev Even when and if it ultimately new carrier fighter.Yak-41/141 in the early 1990s. returns to service, the last of theThe Russian aircraft maker new MiG-29KRs only entered MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 29

The front cockpit of a MIG 31 in 2011, full of analog dials and gaugesStarting in 2014, the global price Of course, MiG designed the released budget figures thatof oil, one of the Russian original Foxhounds with Russia's showed significant cuts to thegovernment’s primary sources of needs in mind specifically and military in the upcoming fiscalrevenue, began to drop. That there have been no export sales cycle of somewhere between 10same year, the Kremlin seized of the type to date. This would and 25 percent.control of Ukraine’s Crimea likely continue to be the case In addition to theregion and began actively with the PAK DP. Regardless, the aforementioned gutting of thesupporting separatists fighting Russians don't appear to be expected T-50 purchases, this hasthat country’s government, having much trouble making new already apparently stymied planstriggering widespread inroads into various world arms for the aircraft carriers the newinternational condemnation and markets, including the Middle carrier fighters would reportedlysanctions. Foreign pressure has East and Africa,and there are fly off of, as well as threateningonly increased as Moscow reports that the country is work on new amphibious assaultcontinues to support Syrian looking to team up with the ships that could potentiallydictator Bashar al Assad in his United Arab Emirates on anew benefit from the aircraft as well.brutal effort to suppress a long fighter aircraft. Even Russia's much toutedrunning rebellion against his Though defense spending to advanced battlecruiser designregime. The Kremlin's modernize the country’s armed has been put on indefinite hold,international relationships and forces remains a clear Kremlin along with new nuclear-poweredallegiances could potentially priority, there is an ever present destroyers, due to fiscalimpact export sales of the PAK question about how Moscow limitations, according to someDP, something that might help intends to pay for all of these sources.spread out the cost of its programs on top of existingdevelopment. This is especially plans. Just in March 2017, thetrue given the otherwise growing Russian Federal Treasury publiclyfuift generation fighter market. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 30

There are also new submarines and ice breakers to squeeze into any future budget. And PAK DP and the newcarrier fighter would be in immediate competition with the PAK DA bomber and the Tu-160 restart project overthis increasingly limited pool of money as well.At present, Russia expects to begin buying production T-50 stealth fighters in 2018. If that timeframe hold true,and there’s no guarantee it will, this suggests the Kremlin won’t be purchasing the final PAK DP aircraft until 2030at the earliest. When the Russian Navy might see a new carrier fighter, or a new ship to carry it, is anyone’s guess.Update: Shortly after this story, Russia announced that it is also going to field a 5th generation light fighter thatwill \"be developed by 2025.\" Once again, any information on how the country was planning on paying for yetanother high-end weapons system development program has not been released. Picture 1: A view of the rear cockpit of a MIG 31 shows a very old style radar display Picture 2:The Yak prototype hovers at the Farnborough Airshow in 1992 Picture 3: MIG 31MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 31

By Barry Sheppard A painting of the Battle of Northampton (War of the Roses) showing the Yorkist gun line.ARTILLERY; STEEL AND FIREINTRODUCTION ‘shell’ (if not). ‘Shell’ is a widely used generic termArtillery is a class of large military weapons built to for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.fire munitions far beyond the range and firepower By association, artillery may also refer to the arm ofof infantry's small arms. Early artillery development service that customarily operates such engines. Infocused on the ability to breach fortifications, and some armies one arm has operated field, coast,led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As anti-aircraft artillery and some anti-tank artillery, intechnology improved, lighter, more mobile field others these have been separate arms and in someartillery developed for battlefield use. nation’s coast has been a naval or marineThis development continues today; modern responsibility. In the 20th century technology basedself-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile target acquisition devices, such as radar, andweapons of great versatility providing the largest systems, such as sound ranging and flashesshare of an army's total firepower. In its earliest spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily forsense, the word artillery referred to any group of artillery. These are usually operated by one or moresoldiers primarily armed with some form of of the artillery arms.The widespread adoption ofmanufactured weapon or armour. Since the indirectfire in the early 20th century introduced theintroduction of gunpowder and cannon, the word need for specialist data for field artillery, notably‘artillery’ has largely meant cannon, and in survey and meteorological, in some armiescontemporary usage, it usually refers to shell-firing provision of these are the responsibility of theguns, howitzers, mortars, rockets and guided artillery arm. In 1742 a British mathematician andmissiles. In common speech, the word artillery is military engineer named Benjamin Robinsoften used to refer to individual devices, along with published a book called New Principles of Gunnery.their accessories and fittings, although these In it, he showed the results of experiments that heassemblages are more properly called ‘equipments’. had conducted on numerous firearms to establish,However, there is no generally recognised generic for example, the relationships between gun caliber,term for a gun, howitzer, and mortar, and so forth: barrel length, powder charge, and projectile muzzlethe United States uses ‘artillery piece’, but most speed. These measurements were made with aEnglish-speaking armies use ‘gun’ and ‘mortar’. The ballistic pendulum, a device that he invented toprojectiles fired are typically either ‘shot’ (if solid) or estimate muzzle speed. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 32

The use of ballistic pendulums spread far and firing projectiles of 4.1 kg with a kinetic energy ofwide, and the original design lasted for more than 240,000 joules.a century before being superseded by an The Greeks and Romans both made extensive useelectronic measuring device, the chronograph, of artillery for shooting large arrows or rocks. Thewhich operated on different principles. The names of the artillery pieces changed with time.ballistic pendulum, and Robins’ scientific Though all inventions in the field of artillery wereapproach, has led to his being widely acclaimed as made by the Greeks, the best known are the Latinthe father of modern ballistics. Robins by no names, “Ballista” and “Catapulta”.means solved all of the many and varied problems Originally “Catapulta” (καταπέλτης ὀξυβελής)of internal ballistics, but he showed us how to meant an arrow or bolt throwing engine, and aproceed. Leon-Hard Euler, the famous Swiss “Ballista” (καταπέλτης λιτοβολος or πετροβολος)mathematician of the late 18th century, critiqued was a more powerful machine primarily designedand expanded upon Robins’ work. His for throwing stones. At some time between 100mathematical approach did much to transform AC and 300 AC a change occurred in theballistics into the mathematical science that it is nomenclature. Thus in the 4th century AC catapulttoday. Between them, the two men turned a trial- indicates a one-armed stone-throwing engine,and-error field into a scientific discipline. The word also known as “Onager”, while ballista means a‘artillery’ as used in the current context originated two-armed piece which shoots bolts only.in the middle ages. One suggestion is that it The technology was developed quite rapidly, fromcomes from the old french “atellier”, meaning ‘to the earliest “Gastraphetes” in about 399 BC to thearrange’, and “attillement”, meaning ‘equipment’. most advanced torsion artillery in about 300 BC atFrom the 13th century, an artillier referred to a the time of Demetrius Polyorcetes. Nobuilder of any war equipment; and, for the next improvement, except in details, was ever made250 years, the sense of the word ‘artillery’ covered upon the catapults of Demetrius. The Romansall forms of military weapons, hence come, the obtained their knowledge from the Greeks, andnaming of the Artillery Company that was employed the Greek specialists. The main use ofessentially an infantry unit until the 19th century. artillery was in the siege of fortified places. TheAnother suggestion is that it comes from the heavy stone-throwing pieces were used to destroyItalian “arte de tirare” (art of shooting), coined by the walls, while the lighter arrow-shooting piecesone of the first theorists on the use of artillery, to clear the walls from the enemy defending them.Niccolò Tartaglia. Sometimes ballistae were used to fireArtillery Piece extraordinary projectiles, like pots with snakes, orAlthough not called as such, machines performing even parts of dead bodies, with the purpose ofthe role recognizable as artillery have been terrifying the enemy. For example, the Romansemployed in warfare since antiquity. The first catapulted to the camp of Hannibal the head ofreferences in the western historical tradition begin his brother Hasdrubal. Artillery was also used asat Syracuse in 399 BC, and these devices were flame carriers. During the last night of Demetriuswidely employed by the Roman legions in attack on Rhodes the Rhodians fired 800 cylindersRepublican times well before the Christian era. with some incendiary substance; the cylindersUntil the introduction of gunpowder into western being subsequently collected and counted; theywarfare, artillery depended upon mechanical managed to set fire on Demetrius' armored tower.energy to operate, and this severely limited the Several attempts to use artillery in the field arekinetic energy of the projectiles, while also recorded but they were mostly unsuccessful,requiring the construction of very large apparatus except when the artillery could be deployed into store sufficient energy. For comparison, a some protected place. For example, in the BattleRoman 1st century BC catapult using stones of of Jaxartes, Alexander used catapults to clear the6.55 kg fired with a kinetic energy of 16,000 further bank of the river.joules, while a mid 19th century 12 pounder gun MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 33

The artillery pieces were transported in surface warfare. Over the course of military history,disassembled state, and it took long time to projectiles were manufactured from a wide varietyassemble, install and adjust them. In many cases of materials, made in a wide variety of shapes, andonly few essential parts of artillery pieces were used different means of inflicting physical damagetransported, the rest could be made on the place of and casualties to defeat specific types of targets.a siege if timber was available. The engineering designs of the means of deliveryArtillery was used in naval battles, as mentioned in have likewise changed significantly over time, andDiodorus book. Both Alexander and Demetrius have become some of the most complexmounted catapults on ships for the purpose of technological application today.attacking fortresses. From the middle ages through In some armies, the weapon of artillery is themost of the modern era, artillery pieces on land projectile, not the equipment that fires it. Thewere moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the process of delivering fire onto the target is calledcontemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on gunnery. The actions involved in operating thewheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, piece are collectively called ‘serving the gun’ by thethough some of the largest were railway guns. ‘detachment’ or ‘gun crew’, constituting either directArtillery used by naval forces has changed or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which artillerysignificantly also, with missiles replacing guns in units or formations are employed is called artillery support, and may at different periods in history refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground, sea, and even air-based weapons platforms. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 34

By the early 15th century, both armies had a wide unit of artillery, usually called a battery, althoughvariety of gunpowder weapons. Large guns were sometimes called a company. In gundeveloped, known as bombards (French detachments, each role is numbered, starting with“bombardes”), weighing up to 3 tonnes and firing ‘1’ the Detachment Commander, and the higheststone balls of up to 150 kg (300 lbs), which seem number being the Coverer, the second-in-to have been more prevalent among the French command. ‘Gunner’ is also the lowest rank andthan among the English until 1420. Such junior non-commissioned officers arebombards were often made by welding bars of \"Bombardiers\" in some artillery arms.Batteries arewrought iron together and holding them inside roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry,circular bracelets, a process known as “à tonoille”; and are combined into larger militarysimilar to that involving the manufacture of wine organizations for administrative and operationalbarrels “tonneaux”. “Veuglaires” (fowlers) were purposes, either battalions or regiments,developed, up to 2 meters (8 feet) long, and depending on the army. These may be groupedweighing from 150 kg to several tonnes, while the into brigades; the Russian army also groups some“crapaudins” or “crapaudaux” were shorter (4 to 8 brigades into artillery divisions, and the People'sfeet) and lighter than the “veuglaires”. Liberation Army (PLA) has artillery corps. The termThe first Western image of a battle with cannon ‘artillery’ is also applied to a combat arm of mostgoes back to the Siege of Orleans in 1429, in military services when used organizationally towhich both the English and the French side are describe units and formations the national armeddepicted with firearms. French cannon killed the forces that operate the weapons.English commander Thomas Montagu in 1428. During military operations, the role of field artilleryJoan of Arc used cannon effectively during the is to provide support to other arms in combat or toLoire campaign in 1429.Portable hand cannons, attack targets, particularly in depth. Broadly, thesethe ancestors of modern firearms, continued to be effects fall into two categories, either to suppressused on a wide scale, sometimes even by or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties,mounted soldiers. Small portable arms were also damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieveddeveloped such as “serpentines” and by delivering high-explosive munitions to“couleuvrines”. They were not able, however, to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy fromreplace the widespread longbows or crossbows casing fragments and other debris and blast, or byduring the Hundred Years' War. In contrast, cannon destroying enemy positions, equipment, andtook on a major role in siege warfare, where they vehicles. Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, cancame to replace traditional wooden siege engines also be used to suppress or neutralize the enemyof the types used since antiquity. by obscuring their view. Fire may be directed byFrom the 1430s, the artillery of Charles VII was an artillery observer or other observer, includingmanaged by the Master Gunner Jean Bureau. manned and unmanned aircraft, or called ontoArtillery was key to the French successes at Meaux map coordinates. Military doctrine has played a(1439), Pontoise (1441), Caen and during the significant influence on the core engineeringNorman Campaign (1449–1450).French artillery design considerations of artillery ordnancewas used with great efficiency at the 1453 Battle of through its history, in seeking to achieve a balanceCastillon, in which grouped and entrenched between delivered volumes of fire with ordnancecannons decimated the English army, killing the mobility. However, during the modern period, thecommander John Talbot. Artillery also startedto consideration of protecting the gunners also aroseaffect military architecture, leading to the due to the late 19th century introduction of thedevelopment of lower, thicker walls in order to new generation of infantry weapons usingbetter resist the effect of cannonballs. conidial, better known as the “Minié ball”, with aCrew range almost as long as that of field artillery.The term ‘gunner’ is used in some armed forces The gunners' increasing proximity to andfor the soldiers and sailors with the primary participation in direct combat against otherfunction of using artillery. The gunners and their combat arms and attacks by aircraft made theguns are usually grouped in teams called either introduction of a gun shield necessary. The‘crews’ or ‘detachments’. Several such crews and problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-teams with other functions are combined into a towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 35

Two distinct forms of artillery were developed, the By the late 14thtowed gun, which was used primarily to attack or century, Chinese rebelsdefend a fixed line; and the self-propelled gun, used organized artillerywhich was designed to accompany a mobile force and cavalry to pushand provide continuous fire support. These Mongols out. As smallinfluences have guided the development of smooth-bore tubesartillery ordnance, systems, organisations, and these were initially castoperations until the present, with artillery systems in iron or bronzecapable of providing support at ranges from as around a core, with thelittle as 100m to the intercontinental ranges of first drilled boreballistic missiles. The only combat in which ordnance recorded inartillery is unable to take part in is close quarters operation near Sevillecombat, with the possible exception of artillery in 1247. They firedreconnaissance teams. lead, iron, or stoneThe first documented record of artillery with balls, sometimes largegunpowder propellant used on the battlefield arrows and onwas on January 28, 1132, when General Han occasions simplyShizhong of the Song dynasty used escalade and handfuls of whateverHuochong to capture a city in Fujian. Early scrap came to hand.Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes. This During the Hundredincludes the ‘long range awe inspiring’ cannon Years' War, thesedated from 1350 and found in the 14th century weapons became moreMing Dynasty treatise Huolongjing. With the common, initially as the bombard and later thedevelopment of better metallurgy techniques, cannon. Cannon were always muzzle-loaders.later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early While there were many early attempts at breech-Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledgebronze ‘thousand ball thunder cannon’, an early rendered these even more dangerous to use thanexample of artillery. These small, crude weapons muzzle-loaders. In 1415, the Portuguese invadeddiffused into the Middle East and reached Europe the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it isin the 13th century, in a very limited manner. In difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siegeAsia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended itused it effectively in the great conquest. thereafter with firearms, namely bombardas, colebratas, and falconetes. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Moroccans brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers. It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces. The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish. However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 36

By the end of the 14th century, result, most of the battles of the cannons down to the nuts, boltscannon were only powerful Hundred Years' War that Joan and screws made their massenough to knock in roofs, and of Arc participated in were production and repair muchcould not penetrate castle fought with gunpowder easier. Another major change atwalls. However, a major change artillery.Artillery also played a this time was the developmentoccurred between 1420 and decisive role in the Battle of St. of a flintlock firing mechanism1430, when artillery became Jakob An Der Birs of 1444. The for the cannons to replace themuch more powerful and could new Ming Dynasty established old method of igniting powdernow batter strongholds and the “Divine Engine Battalion”, in the cannon touchhole. Thefortresses quite efficiently. The which specialized in various flintlock was a far more reliableEnglish, French, and types of artillery. Light cannons (and safe) mechanism. TheseBurgundians all advanced in and cannons with multiple improvements in the Frenchmilitary technology, and as a volleys were developed. In a artillery were essential for theresult the traditional advantage campaign to suppress a local later military successes ofthat went to the defense in a minority rebellion near today's Napoleon. Napoleon, himselfsiege was lost. The cannon Burmese border, the Ming army was a former artillery officer,during this period were used a three line formation of perfected the tactic of massedelongated, and the recipe for arquebuses/muskets to destroy artillery batteries unleashedgunpowder was improved to an elephant formation. Between upon a critical point in hismake it three times as powerful 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 enemies' lines as a prelude to aas before. These changes led to Korean and Chinese troops decisive infantry and cavalrythe increased power in the which fought against Japan in assault.artillery weapons of the time. Korea actively used heavy Artillery was the mostJoan of Arc encountered artillery in both siege and field devastating weapon on thegunpowder weaponry several combat. Korean forces field during the Napoleonictimes. When she led the French mounted artillery in ships as era, and its use could leave theagainst the English at the Battle naval guns, providing an enemy troops demoralized.of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced advantage against Japanese Solid metal cannon ball (alsoheavy gunpowder navy which used known as a “round shot”) werefortifications, and yet her troops “Kunikuzushi” (Japanese commonly used artilleryprevailed in that battle. In breech-loading swivel gun) and ammunition. They wereaddition, she led assaults “Ōzutsu” (large size gun) as effective against squareagainst the English-held towns their largest firearms. formations and heavily packedof Jargeau, Meung, and Napoleonic Artillery columns when fired almostBeaugency, all with the support Cannons continued to become parallel to the ground for theyof large artillery units. When she smaller and lighter. Frederick II would ‘bounce’ into enemyled the assault on Paris, Joan of Prussia deployed the first forces with gruesome results.faced stiff artillery fire, genuine light artillery during Essentially, the round shotespecially from the suburb of the Seven Years' War. Jean- would bounce a few times andSt. Denis, which ultimately led Baptiste de Gribeauval, a start to roll, ripping throughto her defeat in this battle. In French artillery engineer, anything in its wake. Taking thisApril 1430, she went to battle introduced the standardization into consideration, artilleryagainst the Burgundians, whose of cannon design in the mid crews often sought out hard,support was purchased by the 18th century.He developed a 6 flat, and open terrain. AtEnglish. At this time, the inch (150mm) field howitzer extremely close range, artilleryBurgundians had the strongest whose gun barrel, carriage could use canister shot, largeand largest gunpowder arsenal assembly and ammunition tin cans holding a large amountamong the European powers, specifications were made of small bullets. Anotherand yet the French, under Joan uniform for all French cannons. variation of this wasof Arc's leadership, were able The standardized scattershot, a canister or heavyto beat back the Burgundians interchangeable parts of these cloth bag filled with nails andand defend themselves. As a other scrap iron. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 37

Basically, the firing of canisters was the equivalent of using a giant shotgun to disintegrate incoming troops. Yetanother variation was grapeshot, a heavy cloth bag packed well with larger ammunition, which got its name fromits appearance as being a bundle of grapes. Napoleon employed a variation of this tactic to crush theVendémiaire uprising. Besides cannons, artillery was made up of howitzers and other type of guns that usedammunition that packed an explosive punch (also known as “explosive shells”). Explosive shells had a reputationof being unreliable since they would often explode either too early or not at all. However, in the cases in whichthe shell exploded on the target, the results were devastating, especially towards cavalry units. During theNapoleonic period, field artillery consisted of foot artillery, horse artillery and mountain artillery.Napoleonic Wars field artillery pieces. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 38

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The development of modern artillery occurred in explosive forces. The built-up method involvedthe mid to late 19th century as a result of the assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (laterconvergence of various improvements in the mild steel was used) tubes of successively smallerunderlying technology. Advances in metallurgy diameter. The tube would then be heated to allowallowed for the construction of breech-loading it to expand and fit over the previous tube. Whenrifled guns that could fire at a much greater it cooled the gun would contract although notmuzzle velocity. back to its original size, which allowed an evenAfter the British artillery was shown up in the pressure along the walls of the gun which wasCrimean War as having barely changed since the directed inward against the outward forces thatNapoleonic Wars the industrialist William the gun firing exerted on the barrel. AnotherArmstrong was awarded a contract by the innovative feature, more usually associated withgovernment to design a new piece of artillery. 20th century guns, was what Armstrong called itsProduction started in 1855 at the Elswick ‘grip’, which was essentially a squeeze bore; the 6Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at inches of the bore at the muzzle end was ofWoolwich, and the outcome was the revolutionary slightly smaller diameter, which cantered the shellArmstrong Gun, which marked the birth of before it left the barrel and at the same timemodern artillery. Three of its features particularly slightly swaged down its lead coating, reducingstand out. First, the piece was rifled, which its diameter and slightly improving its ballisticallowed for a much more accurate and powerful qualities. Armstrong's system was adopted inaction. Although rifling had been tried on small 1858, initially for ‘special service in the field’ andarms since the 15th century, the necessary initially he only produced smaller artillery pieces,machinery to accurately rifle artillery was only 6 pounder (2.5 in/64mm) mountain or light fieldavailable by the mid19th century. Martin von guns, 9 pounder (3 in/76mm) guns for horseWahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworth artillery, and 12 pounder (3 inches/76mm) fieldindependently produced rifled cannon in the guns.1840, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to Indirect Firesee widespread use during the Crimean War. Indirect fire, the firing of a projectile withoutThe cast iron shell of the Armstrong gun was relying on direct line of sight between the gunsimilar in shape to a Minié ball and had a thin lead and the target, possibly dates back to the 16thcoating which made it fractionally larger than the century. Early battlefield use of indirect fire maygun's bore and which engaged with the gun's have occurred at Paltzig in July 1759, when therifling grooves to impart spin to the shell. This Russian artillery fired over the tops of trees, and atspin, together with the elimination of windage as the Battle of Waterloo, where a battery of thea result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve Royal Horse Artillery fired Shrapnel indirectlygreater range and accuracy than existing smooth- against advancing French troops. In 1882, Russianbore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder Lieutenant Colonel KG Guk published Indirectcharge. His gun was also a breech-loader. Fire for Field Artillery, which provided a practicalAlthough attempts at breech-loading method of using aiming points for indirect fire bymechanisms had been made since medieval describing, ‘All the essentials of aiming pointstimes, the essential engineering problem was that crest clearance, and corrections to fire by anthe mechanism couldn't withstand the explosive observer’. A few years later, thecharge. It was only with the advances in “Richtfläche” (lining-plane) sight was invented inmetallurgy and precision engineering capabilities Germany and provided a means of indirect layingduring the Industrial Revolution that Armstrong in azimuth, complementing the clinometers forwas able to construct a viable solution. The gun indirect laying in elevation which already existed.combined all the properties that make up an Despite conservative opposition within theeffective artillery piece. The gun was mounted on German army, indirect fire was adopted asa carriage in such a way as to return the gun to doctrine by the 1890s. In the early 1900s, Goertzfiring position after the recoil. in Germany developed an optical sight forWhat made the gun really revolutionary was the azimuth laying. It quickly replaced the lining-technique of the construction of the gun barrel plane; in English, it became the ‘Dial Sight’ (UK) orthat allowed it to withstand much more powerful ‘Panoramic Telescope’ (US). MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 43 43

The British half heartedly could sometimes be used. In ft), when 30 shells are fired atexperimented with indirect fire 1914, the methods of the same target,15 of those, willtechniques since the 1890s, but correcting firing data for the hit the target within a 50 mwith the onset of the Boer War, actual conditions were often circle, around their averagethey were the first to apply the convoluted, and the availability impact point. (The distancetheory in practice in 1899, of data about actual conditions between the target point andalthough they had to improvise was rudimentary or non- the average impact point iswithout a lining-plane sight.In existent, the assumption was referred to as bias.) CEP is not athe next 15 years leading up to that fire would always be good measure of accuracyWorld War I, the techniques of ranged (adjusted). when this distributionindirect fire became available British heavy artillery worked behaviour is not met. Precision-for all types of artillery. Indirect energetically to progressively guided munitions generallyfire was the defining solve all these problems from have more ‘close misses’ and socharacteristic of 20th century late 1914 onwards, and by early are not normally distributed.artillery and led to undreamt of 1918, had effective processes in Munitions may also have largerchanges in the amount of place for both field and heavy standard deviation of rangeartillery, its tactics, organisation, artillery. errors than the standardand techniques, most of which These processes enabled ‘map- deviation of azimuthoccurred during World War I. shooting’, later called (deflection) errors, resulting inAn implication of indirect fire ‘predicted fire’; it meant that an elliptical confidence region.and improving guns was effective fire could be delivered To incorporate accuracy intoincreasing range between gun against an accurately located the CEP concept in theseand target; this increased the target without ranging. conditions, CEP can be definedtime of flight and the vertex of Nevertheless, the mean point of as the square root of the meanthe trajectory. impact was still some tens of square error (MSE). The MSEThe result was decreasing yards from the target-centre will be the sum of the varianceaccuracy (the increasing aiming point. It was not of the range error plus thedistance between the target precision fire, but it was good variance of the azimuth errorand the mean point of impact enough for concentrations and plus the covariance of theof the shells aimed at it) caused barrages. These processes range error with the azimuthby the increasing effects of non- remain in use into the 21st error plus the square of thestandard conditions. Indirect century with refinements to bias. Thus the MSE results fromfiring data was based on calculations enabled by pooling all these sources ofstandard conditions including a computers and improved data error, geometricallyspecific muzzle velocity, zero capture about non-standard corresponding to radius of awind, air temperature and conditions.Circular Error circle within which 50% ofdensity, and propellant Probable (CEP) rounds will hit. Several methodstemperaturen.In practice, this CEP have been introduced tostandard combination of In the military science of estimate CEP from shot data.conditions almost never ballistics, circular error Included in these methods areexisted, they varied throughout probable (CEP) (also circular the plug-in approach ofthe day and day to day, and the error probability or circle of Blischke and Halpin (1966), thegreater the time of flight, the equal probability) is a measure Bayesian approach of Spall andgreater the inaccuracy. An of a weapon system's Maryak (1992), and theadded complication was the precision. It is defined as the maximum likelihood approachneed for survey to accurately fix radius of a circle, centred on the of Winkler and Bickert (2012).the coordinates of the gun mean, whose boundary is The Spall and Maryak approachposition and provide accurate expected to include the landing applies when the shot dataorientation for the guns. Of points of 50% of the rounds. For represent a mixture of differentcourse, targets had to be example, if a given howitzer projectile characteristics (e.g.,accurately located, but by design has a CEP of 50 m (165 shots from multiple munitions1916, air photo interpretation types or from multiple locationstechniques enabled this, and directed at one target).ground survey techniques MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 44

Ammunition During World War I and later, which was introduced in WorldOne of the most important ricochet fire with delay or graze War I. Both base and noseroles of logistics is the supply of fuzed HE shells, fired with a flat ejection are almost always usedmunitions as a primary type of angle of descent, and was used with airburst fuzes. Burstingartillery consumable, their to achieve airburst. HE shells shells use various types of fuzestorage and the provision of can be fitted with other fuzes. depending on the nature of thefuses, detonators and warheads Airburst fuzes usually have a payload and the tactical need atat the point where artillery combined airburst and impact the time. Payloads havetroops will assemble the function. However, until the included:charge, projectile, bomb or introduction of proximity fuzes, Bursting - high-explosive, whiteshell. A round of artillery the airburst function was mostly phosphorus (\"Willie Pete\" orammunition comprises of four used with cargo munitions for \"Wilson Picket\"), coloredcomponents: The fuze, the example, shrapnel, marker, chemical, nuclearprojectile, the propellant and illumination, and smoke. The devices; high explosive anti-the primer. larger calibers of anti-aircraft tank (HEAT) and canister mayFuzes artillery are almost always used be considered special types ofFuzes are the devices that airburst. Airburst fuzes have to bursting shell. Base Ejection -initiate an artillery projectile, have the fuze length (running dual purpose improvedeither to detonate its high time) set on them. conventional munitionsexplosive (HE) filling or eject its This is done just before firing (DPICM) bomblet, which armcargo (illuminating flare or using either a wrench or a fuze themselves and function after asmoke canisters being setter pre-set to the required set number of rotations afterexamples). The official military fuze length. Proximity fuzes having been ejected from thespelling is ‘fuze’. Broadly there have been of two types: photo- projectile (this producesare four main types: Impact electric or radar. The former unexploded sub-munitions, or(including graze and delay), was not very successful and \"duds\", which remainmechanical time including seems only to have been used dangerous), scatterable mines,airburst, proximity sensor with British anti-aircraft artillery illuminating, colored flare,including airburst (VT fuze) and ‘unrotated projectiles’ (rockets) smoke, incendiary,electronic time including in World War II. Radar proximity propaganda, chaff (foil to jamairburst. Most artillery fuzes are fuzes were a big improvement radars: originally known asnose fuzes. However, base fuzes over the mechanical (time) ‘window’) and modern exoticshave been used with armour fuzes which they replaced. such as electronic payloads andpiercing shells and for squash Mechanicalfuzes required an sensor-fuzed munitions. Nosehead (HESH or HEP) anti-tank accurate calculation of their Ejection - shrapnel, star,shells. At least one nuclear shell running time, which was incendiary and flechette (aand its non-nuclear spotting affected by non-standard more modern version ofversion also used a multi-deck conditions. shrapnel).mechanical time fuze fitted into Projectiles Stabilizationits base. Impact fuzes were, and The projectile is the munition or Rifled -Traditionally, artilleryin some armies remain, the ‘bullet’ fired downrange. This projectiles have been spin-standard fuze for HE may or may not be an explosive stabilized, meaning that theyprojectiles. Their default action device. Traditionally, projectiles spin in flight so that gyroscopicis normally ‘super quick’, some have been classified as ‘shot’ or forces prevent them fromhave had a ‘graze’ action which ‘shell’, the former being solid tumbling. Spin is induced byallows them to penetrate light and the latter having some form gun barrels having rifling whichcover and others have ‘delay’. of ‘payload’. Shells can also be engages a soft metal bandDelay fuzes allow the shell to divided into three around the projectile, called apenetrate the ground before configurations: bursting, base ‘driving band’ (UK) or ‘rotatingexploding. ejection or nose ejection. The band’ (U.S.). The driving band isArmor or concrete-piercing latter is sometimes called the usually made of copper, butfuzes are especially hardened. shrapnel configuration. The synthetic materials have also most modern is base ejection, been used. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 45 45

Gun captain and senior gunner in a crew are aiming the gun with a sighting disk; in his left hand he is holding a gunner’s spontoon with two match-holders.Slung over his right shoulder is a powder horn holding the fine-grained priming powder that was poured into and around the touch-hole of the cannon. He is dressed in dark colours, which were obviously more practical when handling gunpowder which left a greasy black residue when fired.U.S. soldiers of Battery C, 780th Field Artillery Battalion, fire an 8 inch howitzer at Kajon-Ni, Korea, near the 38th Parallel. The 780th, an Army Reserve unit from Roanoke, Va., served in Korea from April 1951 to December 1954. MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 46

Smoothbore/Fin-Stabilized - In modern artillery corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy tosmoothbore tubes have been used mostly by manufacture in large quantities. Broadly, modernmortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at gun propellants are divided into three classes:their rear to maintain correct orientation. The single-base propellants which are mainly orprimary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced entirely nitrocellulose based, double-basebarrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved propellants composed of a combination of(due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and nitrocellulose and nitro-glycerine, and triple basegas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) composed of a combination of nitrocellulose andand larger explosive cores for a given caliber nitro-glycerine and nitro guanidine. Artillery shellsartillery due to less metal needing to be used to fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater rangeform the case of the projectile because of less in three ways:force applied to the shell from the non-rifled sides • Rocket-Assisted Projectiles (RAP) - enhance andof the barrel of smooth bore guns. Rifled/Fin-Stabilized - A combination of the above can be sustain the projectile's velocity by providingused, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile additional 'push' from a small rocket motor thatalso has deployable fins for stabilization, guidance is part of the projectile's base.or gliding. • Base Bleed - uses a small pyrotechnic charge atPropellant the base of the projectile to introduce sufficientMost forms of artillery require a propellant to combustion products into the low-pressurepropel the projectile at the target. Propellant is region behind the base of the projectilealways a low explosive, this means it deflagrates responsible for a large proportion of the drag.instead of detonating, as with high explosives. The • Ramjet-Assisted - similar to rocket-assisted, butshell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it isshort time by the rapid generation of gas from the anticipated that a ramjet-assisted 120mm mortarburning propellant. This high pressure is achieved shell could reach a range of 22 miles (35 km).by burning the propellant in a contained area, Propelling charges for tube artillery can beeither the chamber of a gun barrel or the provided in one of two ways: either as cartridgecombustion chamber of a rocket motor. Until the bags or in metal cartridge cases. Generally, anti-late 19th century, the only available propellant was aircraft artillery and smaller-caliber (up to .30 orblack powder. Black powder had many 7.62mm) guns use metal cartridge cases thatdisadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low include the round and propellant, similar to apower, requiring large amounts of powder to fire modern rifle cartridge. This simplifies loading andprojectiles, and created thick clouds of white is necessary for very high rates of fire. Baggedsmoke that would obscure the targets, betray the propellant allows the amount of powder to bepositions of guns, and make aiming impossible. In raised or lowered, depending on the range to the1846, nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was target. It also makes handling of larger shellsdiscovered, and the high explosive nitro-glycerine easier. Each requires a totally different type ofwas discovered at much the same time. breech to the other. A metal case holds an integralNitrocellulose was significantly more powerful primer to initiate the propellant and provides thethan black powder, and was smokeless. Early gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of theguncotton was unstable, however, and burned breech; this is called obturation. With baggedvery fast and hot, leading to greatly increased charges, the breech itself provides obturation andbarrel wear. Widespread introduction of holds the primer. In either case, the primer issmokeless powder would wait until the advent of usually percussion, but electrical is also used, andthe double-base powders, which combine laser ignition is emerging. Modern 155mm gunsnitrocellulose and nitro-glycerine to produce have a primer magazine fitted to their breech.powerful, smokeless, stable propellant. Many Artillery ammunition has four classificationsother formulations were developed in the according to use: see next page!following decades, generally trying to find theoptimum characteristics of a good artillerypropellant; low temperature, high energy, non- MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 47 47

• Service - ammunition used in live fire training or Command authority to allocate resources; for wartime use in a combat zone. Also known as Target acquisition detects, identify and deduce ‘war shot’ ammunition. the location of targets; Control authority to decide which targets to attack• Practice - Ammunition with none or minimally and allot fire units to the attack; explosive projectile that mimics the Computation of firing data to deliver fire from a characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds fire unit onto its target; for use under training conditions. Practice Fire units, like guns, launchers or mortars grouped artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored- together; smoke-generating bursting charge for marking Specialist services produce data to support the purposes in place of the normal high-explosive production of accurate firing data; charge. Logistic services to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support.• Dummy - Ammunition with an inert warhead, Organisationally and spatially, these functions can inert primer, and no propellant; used for training be arranged in many ways. Since the creation of or display. modern indirect fire, different armies have done it many ways at different times and in different• Blank - Ammunition with live primer, greatly places. Technology is often a factor, but so are reduced propellant charge (typically black military–social issues, the relationships between powder), and no projectile; used for training, artillery and other arms, and the criteria by which demonstration or ceremonial use. military capability, efficiency, and effectiveness are judged. Cost is also an issue because artillery is expensive due to the large quantities of ammunition that it uses and its level of manpower.Field Artillery System The M982 “Excalibur” (previously XM982) is a 155mm extended rangeBecause most of the field artillery using indirect guided artillery shell developed by Raytheon Missile Systems and BAEfire, the guns should be part of a system thatallows them to attack targets in a condition of Systems AB.beyond the horizon, according to the battle plan,established between the other branches of thearmy. The main functions in the field artillerysystem are:Communications to create an interlink secure andreliable between the command and fieldpersonnel; MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 48

Target Acquisition undergone increasing refinement as technologyCan take many forms, it is usually observation in has improved. These were joined by radar inreal time, but may be the product of analysis. World War II. In the mid-1970s several armiesArtillery observation teams are the most common started equipping their artillery observation teamsmeans of target acquisition. However, air with laser rangefinders, ground surveillanceobservers have been use since the beginning of radars and night vision devices; these were soonindirect fire and were quickly joined by air followed by inertial orienting and navigatingphotography. Target acquisition may also be by devices to improve the accuracy of targetanyone that can get the information into the locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS)artillery system. Targets may be visible to forward provided a smaller and cheaper means of quicktroops or in depth and invisible to them. Accurate and accurate fixation for target acquisitionfire control systems were introduced in the early devices.20th century. Specialized units with ground surveillance radars,Observation equipment can vary widely in its unattended ground sensors or observationcomplexity: patrols operating in depth have also been used.Unmanned air vehicles are the latest form of air Targets in depth may also be 'acquired' byobservation, having been first introduced in the intelligence processes using various sources andearly 1960s. agencies such as HUMINT, SIGINT, ELINT andThe equipment available to observation teams IMINT.has progressed from just prismatic compass, Laser guided shells require laser targethand-held or tripod mounted binoculars and designators, usually with observation teams onsometimes optical range-finders. the ground but UAV installations are possible.Special equipment for locating hostile artillery, Specialized artillery observation vehiclesflash spotting and notably sound ranging appeared in World War II and have greatlyappeared in World War I the latter has been increased in sophistication since that time. To be continued. 37mm US M3 anti-tank cannon projectiles types 1 Armour Piercing Capped (APC); 2 Armour Piercing; 3 High Explosive; 4 Canister (anti-personnel ammunition). MILITARY JOURNAL 2018 49

Many organized activities and gatherings No Annualmembership fee ! Feel welcome at one Only Transatlantic Allied one-time registration fee network of a from € 15,00Association of Friends p.p.. Objective,to promoteand stimulate friendly AFEAmrusirseoeroicnpciedasaht-iipon and mutual relations Interested in joining between America and a fun and international Europe organization? Have more information or do you want to sign up for a membership? Please contact our International President Dr. Arthur Lieuwen at email address: [email protected] MILITARY JOURNAL 2018