ResearchMethodsForBusinessStudents_Saunders

Research methods for business students fifth edition Mark Saunders Philip Lewis Adrian Thornhill

Research Methods for Business Students Visit the Research Methods for Business Students, Fifth Edition Companion Website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders to find valuable student learning material including: ■ Multiple choice questions to test your learning. ■ Tutorials on Excel, NVivo and SPSS. ■ Updated research datasets to practice with. ■ Updated additional case studies with accompanying questions. ■ Smarter Online Searching Guide – how to make the most of the Internet in your research.

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Research Methods for Business Students Fifth edition Mark Saunders Philip Lewis Adrian Thornhill

Pearson Education LimitedEdinburgh GateHarlowEssex CM20 2JEEnglandand Associated Companies throughout the worldVisit us on the World Wide Web at:www.pearsoned.co.ukFirst published under the Pitman Publishing imprint in 1997Second edition 2000Third edition 2003Fourth edition 2007Fifth edition 2009© Pearson Professional Limited 1997© Pearson Education Limited 2000, 2003, 2007© Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009The rights of Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill to be identified as authorsof this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs andPatents Act 1988.All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or alicence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the CopyrightLicensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of anytrademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownershiprights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliationwith or endorsement of this book by such owners.ISBN: 978-0-273-71686-0British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSaunders, Mark, 1959- Research methods for business students / Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill. —5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-273-71686-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Business—Research. 2. Business—Research—Dataprocessing. I. Lewis, Philip, 1945- II. Thornhill, Adrian. III. Title. HD30.4.S28 2009 650.072—dc22 200805487710 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 113 12 11 10 09Typeset in ITC Slimbach Std 9.5/12.5 by 73Printed and bound by Rotolito Lombarda, ItalyThe publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

Brief ContentsHow to use this book xviiGuided tour xxiiPreface xxvContributors xxviiPublisher’s acknowledgements xxix1 The nature of business and management research 2 and structure of this book 20 582 Formulating and clarifying the research topic 1063 Critically reviewing the literature 1364 Understanding research philosophies and approaches 1685 Formulating the research design 2106 Negotiating access and research ethics 2567 Selecting samples 2888 Using secondary data9 Collecting primary data through observation 31810 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth 360 414 and group interviews 48011 Collecting primary data using questionnaires 52612 Analysing quantitative data13 Analysing qualitative data 56114 Writing and presenting your project report 573 587Bibliography 604AppendicesGlossaryIndex v



ContentsHow to use this book xviiGuided tour xxiiPreface xxvContributors xxviiPublisher’s acknowledgements xxix1 The nature of business and management 2 research and structure of this book 2 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2 Learning outcomes 41.1 Introduction 51.2 The nature of research 101.3 The nature of business and management research 101.4 The research process 151.5 The purpose and structure of this book 151.6 Summary 15 Self-check questions 16 Review and discussion questions 16 References 17 Further reading Case 1: Isabelle’s research dilemma 18 Michael Savvas 20 Self-check answers 202 Formulating and clarifying 20 the research topic 22 24 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 32 Learning outcomes2.1 Introduction vii2.2 Attributes of a good research topic2.3 Generating and refining research ideas2.4 Turning research ideas into research projects

Contents 2.5 Writing your research proposal 41 2.6 Summary 48 49 Self-check questions 49 Review and discussion questions Progressing your research project: from research ideas 50 to a research proposal 50 References 51 Further reading Case 2: Media climate change reporting and environmental 52 disclosure patterns in the low-cost airline industry in the twenty-first century 55 Richard Slack Self-check answers 3 Critically reviewing the literature 58 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 58 Learning outcomes 58 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 The critical review 68 3.3 Literature sources available 75 3.4 Planning your literature search strategy 80 3.5 Conducting your literature search 92 3.6 Obtaining and evaluating the literature 94 3.7 Recording the literature 97 3.8 Plagiarism 98 3.9 Summary 99 Self-check questions 100 Review and discussion questions Progressing your research project: critically reviewing 100 the literature 100 References 102 Further reading 102 Case 3: Complexity theory and emergent change Mike Wallace and Alison Wray 104 Self-check answers 4 Understanding research philosophies 106 and approaches 106 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 106 Learning outcomes 4.1 Introductionviii

Contents4.2 Understanding your research philosophy: why research 107 philosophy is important 124 1284.3 Research approaches 1294.4 Summary 129 Self-check questions 130 Review and discussion questions 131 Progressing your research project: diagnosing your 131 research philosophy 132 References Further reading 134 Case 4: Consultancy research for a not-for-profit organisation Karen Handley Self-check answers5 Formulating the research design 136 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 136 Learning outcomes 1365.1 Introduction 1385.2 The purpose of your research 1415.3 The need for a clear research strategy5.4 Multiple methods choices – combining data collection 151 techniques and analysis procedures 1555.5 Time horizons 1565.6 The credibility of research findings 1605.7 The ethics of research design 1605.8 Summary 161 Self-check questions 161 Review and discussion questions Progressing your research project: deciding on your 162 research design 162 References 164 Further reading 164 Case 5: Managing the acquisition from the middle David Coghlan 166 Self-check answers6 Negotiating access and research ethics 168 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 168 Learning outcomes 1686.1 Introduction 1696.2 Issues associated with gaining access ix

Contents 6.3 Strategies to gain access 173 6.4 Research ethics and why you should act ethically 183 6.5 Ethical issues at specific stages of the research process 187 6.6 Summary 201 202 Self-check questions 202 Review and discussion questions Progressing your research project: negotiating access 203 and addressing ethical issues 203 References 204 Further reading 205 Case 6: Gaining access to business angels networks Stephanie Macht 208 Self-check answers 7 Selecting samples 210 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 210 Learning outcomes 210 7.1 Introduction 214 7.2 Probability sampling 233 7.3 Non-probability sampling 243 7.4 Summary 243 Self-check questions 245 Review and discussion questions Progressing your research project: using sampling as part 246 of your research 246 References 248 Further reading 248 Case 7: Implementing strategic change initiatives Liz Lee-Kelley 251 Self-check answers 8 Using secondary data 256 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 256 Learning outcomes 256 8.1 Introduction 258 8.2 Types of secondary data and uses in research 263 8.3 Locating secondary data 268 8.4 Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data 272 8.5 Evaluating secondary data sourcesx

Contents8.6 Summary 280 Self-check questions 280 Review and discussion questions 281 Progressing your research project: assessing the suitability of secondary data for your research 282 References 282 Further reading 284 Case 8: Patent grants and the implications for business 284 Deli Yang 286 Self-check answers9 Collecting primary data through 288 observation 288 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 288 Learning outcomes 2899.1 Introduction 2939.2 Participant observation: an introduction 2969.3 Participant observation: researcher roles 3009.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis 3059.5 Structured observation: an introduction 3099.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis 3109.7 Summary 311 Self-check questions Review and discussion questions 311 Progressing your research project: deciding on the 311 appropriateness of observation 312 References 313 Further reading Case 9: Online images of tourist destinations 316 Mridula Dwivedi and Anil Yadav Self-check answers10 Collecting primary data using semi- 318 structured, in-depth and group interviews 318 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 318 Learning outcomes 32010.1 Introduction10.2 Types of interview and their link to the purposes of research and research strategy xi

Contents 10.3 When to use non-standardised (qualitative) interviews 323 10.4 Data quality issues and preparing for the interview 326 10.5 Interviewing competence 336 10.6 Managing logistical and resource issues 342 10.7 Group interviews and focus groups 343 10.8 Telephone, Internet- and intranet-mediated interviews 348 10.9 Summary 351 351 Self-check questions 352 Review and discussion questions Progressing your research project: using semi-structured 353 or in-depth interviews in your research 353 References 355 Further reading 355 Case 10: Students’ and former students’ debt problems Bill Lee 358 Self-check answers 360 11 Collecting primary data using 360 questionnaires 360 362 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 366 Learning outcomes 371 11.1 Introduction 395 11.2 An overview of questionnaire techniques 401 11.3 Deciding what data need to be collected 402 11.4 Designing the questionnaire 404 11.5 Administering the questionnaire 11.6 Summary 404 Self-check questions 405 Review and discussion questions 406 Progressing your research project: using questionnaires 407 in your research References 409 Further reading Case 11: Downsizing in the Middle East Mohammad Al-Kilani Self-check answers 12 Analysing quantitative data 414 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill 414 and Catherine Wang Learning outcomesxii

Contents12.1 Introduction 41412.2 Preparing, inputting and checking data 41612.3 Exploring and presenting data 42812.4 Describing data using statistics 44412.5 Examining relationships, differences and trends 449 using statistics 46712.6 Summary 468 469 Self-check questions Review and discussion questions 470 Progressing your research project: analysing your 470 data quantitatively 472 References Further reading 473 Case 12: Small business owner managers’ skill sets 476 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 480 Self-check answers 48013 Analysing qualitative data 480 48213.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 48513.2 Learning outcomes 48913.3 Introduction 49013.4 Differences between qualitative and quantitative data 49813.5 Preparing your data for analysis 50013.6 Approaches to qualitative analysis 50213.7 Types of qualitative analysis processes 51413.8 Analytical aids 51613.9 Deductively based analytical procedures 51713.10 Inductively based analytical procedures 517 Using CAQDAS for qualitative analysis Summary 517 Self-check questions 518 Review and discussion questions 520 Progressing your research project: analysing your data qualitatively 520 References Further reading 524 Case 13: The influence of film on tourist decision making xiii Peter Bolan Self-check answers

Contents 526 14 Writing and presenting your 526 project report 526 528 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 531 Learning outcomes 541 14.1 Introduction 544 14.2 Getting started with writing 550 14.3 Structuring your project report 550 14.4 Organising the project report’s content 555 14.5 Developing an appropriate writing style 555 14.6 Meeting the assessment criteria 556 14.7 Oral presentation of the report 14.8 Summary 556 Self-check questions 557 Review and discussion questions 557 Progressing your research project: writing your project report 558 References Further reading 560 Case 14: James’ consultancy report on managers’ 561 financial information needs Peter Harris 573 Self-check answers 581 Bibliography 583 584 Appendices 587 604 1 Styles of referencing 2 Calculating the minimum sample size 3 Random sampling numbers 4 Guidelines for non-discriminatory language Glossary Indexxiv

ContentsSupporting resourcesVisit www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders to find valuable online resources:Companion Website for students■ Multiple choice questions to test your learning.■ Tutorials on Excel, NVivo and SPSS.■ Updated research datasets to practice with.■ Updated additional case studies with accompanying questions.■ Smarter Online Searching Guide – how to make the most of the Internet in your research.For instructors■ Complete, downloadable Instructor’s Manual.■ PowerPoint slides that can be downloaded and used for presentations.Also – the regularly maintained Companion Website provides the followingfeatures:■ Search tool to help locate specific items of content.■ E-mail results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors.■ Online help and support to assist with website usage and troubleshooting.For more information please contact your local Pearson Education salesrepresentative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders xv



How to use this bookThis book is written with a progressive logic, which means that terms and concepts aredefined when they are first introduced. One implication of this is that it is sensible for youto start at the beginning and to work your way through the text, various boxes, self-checkquestions, review and discussion questions, case studies and case study questions. Youcan do this in a variety of ways depending on your reasons for using this book. However,this approach may not necessarily be suitable for your purposes, and you may wish toread the chapters in a different order or just dip into particular sections of the book. If thisis true for you then you will probably need to use the glossary to check that you under-stand some of the terms and concepts used in the chapters you read. Suggestions forthree of the more common ways in which you might wish to use this book are givenbelow.As part of a research methods courseor for self-study for your research projectIf you are using this book as part of a research methods course the order in which you readthe chapters is likely to be prescribed by your tutors and dependent upon their perceptionsof your needs. Conversely, if you are pursuing a course of self-study for your research proj-ect, dissertation or consultancy report, the order in which you read the chapters is yourown choice. However, whichever of these you are, we would argue that the order in whichyou read the chapters is dependent upon your recent academic experience. For many students, such as those taking an undergraduate degree in business or man-agement, the research methods course and associated project, dissertation or consultancyreport comes in either the second or the final year of study. In such situations it is proba-ble that you will follow the chapter order quite closely (see Figure P.1). Groups of chapterswithin which we believe you can switch the order without affecting the logic of the flowtoo much are shown on the same level in this diagram and are:• those chapters associated with data collection (Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11);• those associated with data analysis (Chapters 12 and 13). In addition, you might wish to read the sections in Chapter 14 on writing prior to start-ing to draft your critical review of the literature (Chapter 3). Alternatively, you may be returning to academic study after a gap of some years, totake a full-time or part-time course such as a Master of Business Administration, a Masterof Arts or a Master of Science with a Business and Management focus. Many students insuch situations need to refresh their study skills early in their programme, particularlythose associated with critical reading of academic literature and academic writing. If youfeel the need to do this, you may wish to start with those chapters that support you in xvii

How to use this book Chapter 1: The nature of business and management research Chapter 2: Formulating and clarifying the research topic Chapter 3: Critically reviewing the literature Chapter 4: Understanding research philosophies and approaches Chapter 5: Formulating the research design Chapter 6: Negotiating access and research ethics Chapter 7: Selecting samples Chapter 8: Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Chapter 11: Using secondary Collecting primary Collecting primary Collecting primary data using interviews data data through and focus groups data using observation questionnaires Chapter 12: Analysing Chapter 13: Analysing quantitative data qualitative data Chapter 14: Writing and presenting your project reportFigure P.1 Using this book in your second or final year of study developing and refining these skills (Chapters 3 and 14), followed by Chapter 8, which introduces you to the range of secondary data sources available that might be of use for other assignments (Figure P.2). Once again, groups of chapters within which we believe you can switch the order without affecting the logic of the flow too much are shown onxviii

How to use this book Chapter 1: The nature of business and management research Chapter 3: Critically reviewing the literature Chapter 14: Writing and presenting your project report Chapter 8: Using secondary data Chapter 2: Formulating and clarifying the research topic Chapter 4: Understanding research philosophies and approaches Chapter 5: Formulating the research design Chapter 6: Negotiating access and research ethics Chapter 7: Selecting samples Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Collecting Chapter 11:Collecting primary primary data Collecting primary data through using interviews and data using observation focus groups questionnairesChapter 12: Analysing Chapter 13: Analysing quantitative data qualitative data Chapter 14: Writing and presenting your project report Figure P.2 Using this book as a new returner to academic studythe same level in the diagram and are:• those chapters associated with primary data collection (Chapters 9, 10 and 11);• those associated with data analysis (Chapters 12 and 13). xix

How to use this book In addition, we would recommend that you re-read Chapter 14 prior to starting to write your project report, dissertation or consultancy report. Whichever order you choose to read the chapters in, we would recommend that you attempt all the self-check questions, review and discussion questions and those ques- tions associated with the case studies. Your answers to the self-check questions can be self-assessed using the answers at the end of each chapter. However, we hope that you will actually have a go at each question prior to reading the answer! If you need further information on an idea or a technique, then first look at the references in the further read- ing section. At the end of Chapters 2–14 the section headed ‘Progressing your research project’ lists a number of tasks. Such tasks might involve you in just planning a research project or, alternatively, designing and administering a questionnaire of your own. When completed, these tasks will provide a useful aide-mémoire for assessed work and can be used as the basis for the first draft of your project report. It is worth pointing out here that many con- sultancy reports for organisations do not require you to include a review of the academic literature. As a guide through the research process If you are intending to use this book to guide you through the research process for a research project you are undertaking, such as your dissertation, we recommend that you read the entire book quickly before starting your research. In that way you will have a good overview of the entire process, including the range of techniques available, and will be better able to plan your work. After you have read the book once, we suggest that you work your way through the book again following the chapter order. This time you should attempt the self-check ques- tions, review and discussion questions and those questions associated with each case study to ensure that you have understood the material contained in each chapter prior to applying it to your own research project. Your responses to self-check questions can be assessed using the answers at the end of each chapter. If you are still unsure as to whether particular techniques, procedures or ideas are rel- evant, then pay special attention to the ‘focus on student research’, ‘focus on manage- ment research’ and ‘focus on research in the news’ boxes. ‘Focus on student research’ boxes are based on actual students’ experiences and illustrate how an issue has been addressed or a technique or procedure used in a student’s research project. ‘Focus on management research’ boxes discuss recent research articles in established refereed aca- demic journals, allowing you to see how research is undertaken successfully. These arti- cles are easily accessible via online databases. ‘Focus on research in the news’ boxes provide topical news stories of how particular research techniques, procedures and ideas are used in the business world. You can also look in the ‘further reading’ for other exam- ples of research where these have been used. If you need further information on an idea, technique or procedure then, again, start with the references in the further reading section. Material in some of the chapters is likely to prove less relevant to some research topics than others. However, you should beware of choosing techniques because you are happy with them, if they are inappropriate. Completion of the tasks in the section headed ‘Progressing your research project’ at the end of Chapters 2–13 will enable you to gener- ate all the material that you will need to include in your research project, dissertation or xx

How to use this bookconsultancy report. This will also help you to focus on the techniques and ideas that aremost appropriate to your research. When you have also completed these tasks for Chapter14 you will have written your research project, dissertation or consultancy report.As a reference sourceIt may be that you wish to use this book now or subsequently as a reference source. If thisis the case, an extensive index will point you to the appropriate page or pages. Often youwill find a ‘checklist’ box within these pages. ‘Checklist’ boxes are designed to provideyou with further guidance on the particular topic. You will also find the contents pagesand the glossary useful reference sources, the latter defining over 400 research terms.In addition, we have tried to help you to use the book in this way by including cross-references between sections in chapters as appropriate. Do follow these up as necessary.If you need further information on an idea or a technique then begin by consulting thereferences in the further reading section. Wherever possible we have tried to referencebooks that are in print and readily available in university libraries. xxi

Guided tour 3Chapter Critically reviewing the literature tutor, will argue that this critical review of the literature is necessary. Although you may feel that you already have a good knowledge of your research area, we believe that reviewing the Learning outcomes literature is essential. Project assessment criteria usually require you to demonstrate awareness of the current state of knowledge in your subject, its limitations, and how your research fits in By the end of this chapter you should: this wider context (Gill and Johnson 2002). In Jankowicz’s (2005:161) words: • understand the importance and purpose of the critical literature review There is little point in reinventing the wheel . . . the work that you do is not done in a to your research project; vacuum, but builds on the ideas of other people who have studied the field before you. • be able to adopt a critical perspective in your reading; This requires you describe what has been published, and to marshal the information in • know what you need to include when writing your critical review; a relevant and critical way. • be aware of the range of primary, secondary and tertiary literature Recently, we were discussing the difficulties students A page from a book catalogue Chapter openers sources available; have when writing their literature reviews for their Source: Pearson Education Ltd provide a clear and • be able to identify key words and to undertake a literature search using research projects. Mark summarised what he felt we concise introduction and fellow project tutors were saying: critical review of the literature. We obviously need to to the topics to be a range of methods; explain better what we mean by a critical review of covered, together • be able to evaluate the relevance, value and sufficiency of the literature ‘So what happens sometimes is . . . a student the literature to our students.’ with a list of comes to see their project tutor having obviously Learning outcomes found; done a great deal of work. The student presents the that you should • be able to reference the literature found accurately; tutor with what they say is the finished literature have achieved by • understand what is meant by plagiarism; review. Yet, the purpose of their review is unclear. It is the end of the • be able to apply the knowledge, skills and understanding gained to your little more than a summary of the articles and books chapter. read, each article or book being given one paragraph. own research project. Some students have arranged these paragraphs alphabetically in author order, others have arranged 3.1 Introduction them in chronological order. None have linked or jux- taposed the ideas. Their literature reviews look more As part of your studies, you have almost certainly already been asked by your tutors to ‘review like adjacent pages from a catalogue rather than a the literature’, ‘write a literature review’ or ‘critically review the literature’ on topics they have critical review. Just like the items on these pages, each specified. Indeed, you may be like many students and have grown to fear the literature review, article or book has some similarities in terms of not because of the associated reading but because of the requirement both to make judgements subject matter and so are grouped together. As in the as to the value of each piece of work and to organise those ideas and findings that are of value catalogue, the reasons for these groupings are not into a review. It is these two processes in particular that people find both difficult and time made explicit. In addition, like the summary descrip- consuming. tions of items on the pages of a home shopping cata- logue, each book or article is accorded equal status Two major reasons exist for reviewing the literature (Sharp et al. 2002). The first, the prelim- rather than the amount written reflecting its value to inary search that helps you to generate and refine your research ideas, has already been dis- the student’s research project.’ cussed in Section 2.3. The second, often referred to as the critical review or critical literature He concluded: review, is part of your research project proper. Most research textbooks, as well as your project ‘Whilst such an approach obviously makes good sense for a shopping catalogue, it does not work for the58 59 Attributes of a good research topic Case 12: Small business owner managers’ skill setsPractical illustra- Box 2.1 Archive the questions Case 12tions bring to life Focus on student Small business owner managers’ skill setssome of the issues research Next Zaynab recorded who originally asked the ques-and challenges you tion and left a space by each one to record answers Since arriving at university, Ishmael had become increasingly interested in small businesses.will encounter dur- Turning ideas into a viable project or places to look for answers. Then she highlighted He had taken all the modules concerned with Small Businesses and Entrepreneurship anding your course and the questions that she found most challenging, the chosen to answer a question about small business owner managers for his researchbeyond. These Zaynab was not short of ideas for her research. But ones that really grabbed her attention. She thought project:include short Focus she was much less sure about how she would move that archiving questions would encourage her toon student research from a topic of interest for her research to a question articulate them well. Forming thoughts as questions ‘How important do small business owner managers consider the different skill sets neededand longer Cases. that could be answered for her research project. It helped her to be clear about what she needed to to run a small business and why?’ was emphasised to her by her tutors that ideas were research. easy, turning them into viable research projects was Although the project tutor had felt Ishmael’s question needed more refinement and sug- another matter altogether. Blog it gested that he needed to read widely before collecting any data, Ishmael was pleased with his research question and his method. During his reading to prepare his research proposal Having explored various websites and looked at Zaynab was a keen blogger so she posted summaries he had come across a paper by Brown et al. (2006) in the journal Accounting Forum. This some publications in the library, she drew up a plan of of her ideas and questions on a weblog. She asked included, as an appendix, the questions Brown and colleagues had asked small business action which she was sure would give her the mate- for site visitors to suggest further reading, new managers in their questionnaire. He had decided to adapt some of these questions for his rial necessary to write her research proposal. research methods or for answers to answer her own Internet-mediated questionnaire that he administered to small business managers questions. She received a healthy amount of feedback including: Charting the ideas from which she made real progress in turning favourite idea into question that could be answered Source: question layout created by SurveyMonkey.com (2008), Portland, Oregon, USA; author/owner: At the start her project, Zaynab got a huge sheet of for her research project. Ryan Finley. Reproduced with permission. paper to make a map of all of her ideas, questions, associations, sources and leads. She marked her most Thinking about the application In his initial analysis, Ishmael used SPSS to produce a set of descriptive statistics for each of compelling thoughts in a red. Then she marked the of the findings his questions. For questions three and four these were: main links to those ideas in that red too. She was careful not to throw out the weaker or isolated Zaynab knew that she would be expected to com- 473 thoughts. She felt this map would help her know the ment on the practical implications of her findings place of all her thoughts. She thought that she could when writing up her research. Therefore, an impor- make another map later in the project if she felt there tant part of her plan of action at the outset was to ask was too much information. herself what would be the implications for practice for the various outcomes that might be expected. knowledge of the literature, enable you to assess the extent to which your research is likely to provide fresh insights into the topic. Many students believe this is going to be dif- ficult. Fortunately, as pointed out by Phillips and Pugh (2005), there are many ways in which such insight can be defined as ‘fresh’ (Section 2.5). If you have already been given a research idea (perhaps by an organisation) you will need to ensure that your questions and objectives relate clearly to the idea (Kervin 1999). It is also important that your topic will have a symmetry of potential outcomes: that is, your results will be of similar value whatever you find out (Gill and Johnson 2002). Without this symmetry you may spend a considerable amount of time researching your topic only to find an answer of little importance. Whatever the outcome, you need to ensure you have the scope to write an interesting project report. Finally, it is important to consider your career goals (Creswell 2002). If you wish to become an expert in a particular subject area or industry sector, it is sensible to use the opportunity to develop this expertise. It is almost inevitable that the extent to which these attributes apply to your research topic will depend on your topic and the reasons for which you are undertaking the 23xxii

Planning your literature search strategy Box 3.8 • Material evaluation: the material was analysed and Literature sources available Focus on sorted according to the classification context. This management allowed identification of relevant issues and inter- Books research pretation of the results. Problem context and related methodology/approaches allowed classifi- Books and monographs are written for specific audiences. Some are aimed at the academicUsing an archival research method cation of the reviewed literature. Srivastava argues market, with a theoretical slant. Others, aimed at practising professionals, may be morein the framework for conducting that this can be derived deductively or inductively. applied in their content. The material in books is usually presented in a more ordered andand evaluating research accessible manner than in journals, pulling together a wider range of topics. They are, • Collecting publications and delimiting the field: therefore, particularly useful as introductory sources to help clarify your researchIn one of the most recently read articles from the Srivastava’s literature review focuses upon books, question(s) and objectives or the research methods you intend to use. Some academic text-International Journal of Management Reviews, edited volumes and journal articles only, from books, such as this one, are now supported by web pages providing additional information.Srivastava (2007) uses a sophisticated method of liter- 1990. Library databases were used where a key- However, books may contain out-of-date material even by the time they are published.ature review in a review of supply chain management. word search using some important keywords suchThe article argues that there is a growing need for as ‘green supply chain’, remanufacturing’, ‘green Newspapersintegrating environmentally sound choices into supply- purchasing’, ‘green design’, ‘industrial ecology’,chain management research and practice. The author ‘industrial ecosystems’, ‘RL’, ‘remanufacturing’ Newspapers are a good source of topical events, developments within business and govern-peruses the literature and concludes that a broad and ‘waste management’ were conducted. ment, as well as recent statistical information such as share prices. They also sometimesframe of reference for green supply-chain manage- review recent research reports (Box 3.6). The main ‘quality’ newspapers have websitesment (GrSCM) is not adequately developed and that To delimit the number of publications, empiricala succinct classification to help academicians, papers mainly addressing firm-level or specific Box 3.6 FT groups are also concerned that forests could be clearedresearchers and practitioners in understanding inte- operational issues were excluded from the review. for food crops that have been displaced by biofuel plan-grated GrSCM from a wider perspective is needed. Similarly, highly technical work on topics such as life- Focus on research tations. Corn and palm oil are among the most popular cycle assessment, inventory, pollution prevention and biofuel sources, though only sugar from Brazil is consid- Srivastava covers the literature on GrSCM exhaus- disassembly were also excluded from the review. in the news ered sufficiently ‘green’ by the Joint Research Centre astively from its conceptualisation, primarily taking a Research with a highly ecological rather than supply it grows quickly and produces a lot of energy.‘reverse logistics angle’. Using the rich body of avail- chain perspective (green purchasing, industrial ecology Biofuel targets in EU ‘will outweighable literature, including earlier reviews that had rela- and industrial ecosystems) was also excluded. Srivastava benefits’ A Commission spokeswoman said the centre’stively limited perspectives, the literature on GrSCM is used the published literature from 1990 onwards to go report had not been peer reviewed. She said: ‘It is aclassified on the basis of the problem context in sup- back to other papers by cross-referencing. As the pub- A plan to increase the use of biofuels in Europe may contribution to the debate. We are looking at theply chain’s major influential areas. It is also classified lished literature is interlinked to a considerable degree, do nothing to help fight climate change and incur whole picture and we will have sustainability criteria’.on the basis of methodology and approach adopted. one paper (stem) leads to others (branches). So, one costs that outweigh the benefits, says an internalVarious mathematical tools/techniques used in litera- thread, leads to others. As references accumulated, it European Union report. The unpublished study by the In the draft directive, only those biofuel sourcesture vis-à-vis the contexts of GrSCM are mapped. A was found that some of them were more central and Joint Research Centre, the European Commission’s grown on land that was not forest or peat bog can betimeline indicating relevant papers is also provided as useful than others. Srivastava considered such refer- in-house scientific institute, may complicate the counted. There would also be a minimum level ofa ready reference. ences as seminal papers. These were also found to be Commission’s plans to set a new biofuels target so greenhouse-gas saving, as some require more carbon generally referenced a number of times in subsequent that by 2020 they account for 10 per cent of trans- to make than fossil fuels burn. Countries would have The literature research is driven by theoretical precon- literature. Thus, within the defined objective, this work port fuels in the 27-member EU. to monitor imports to check their origin. However,siderations and may be classified as an archival research integrates and takes forward the literature on GrSCM since the World Trade Organisation governs trade inmethod in the framework for conducting and evaluat- since its conceptualisation. About 1500 books, articles ‘The costs will almost certainly outweigh the bene- biofuels, it is not possible to block them on environ-ing research suggested by Searcy and Mentzer (2003). from journals and edited volumes were covered and fits’, says the report, a copy of which has been obtained mental grounds.The process of analysis comprises the following steps: generated a list of 227 cited references which are given by the Financial Times. ‘The decrease in welfare caused at the end of the article. by imposing a biofuels target’ is between €33 bn ($48 bn, The Joint Research Centre suggests that it would• Defining unit of analysis: the unit of analysis was £25 bn) and €65 bn, the study says. ‘The uncertainty is be more efficient to use biomass to generate power defined as a single research paper/book. References too great to say whether the EU 10 per cent biofuel tar- and that the separate transport target be scrapped. It get will save greenhouse gas or not’, it adds. is even doubtful of the merits of using waste prod-• Classification context: the classification context to Searcy, D.L. and Mentzer, J.T. (2003) ‘A framework for ucts, such as straw, since transporting large quantities be applied in the literature review to structure and conducting and evaluating research’, Journal of EU leaders called for the target last year as part of to biofuel factories itself requires fuel. classify the material was selected and defined. Accounting Literature, 22, pp. 130–67. a move to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per There were two contexts: the problem context cent of 1990 levels by 2020. Adrian Bebb, of Friends of the Earth, said: ‘The and methodology/approach context. Srivastava, S. (2007) ‘Green supply-chain management: report has a damning verdict on the EU policy. It A state-of-the-art literature review’, International However, some commissioners have expressed con- should be abandoned in favour of real solutions to Journal of Management Reviews, 9(1), pp. 53–80. cern about the knock-on effects of using plants for fuel. climate change.’ Indonesia has seen mass street protests this week over 77 record soyabean prices triggered by US farmers opting Source: article by Bounds, Andrew (2008) Financial Times, 18 Jan. to grow corn to supply the biofuel industry. Green Copyright 2008 The Financial Times Limited Ltd.Explore recent articles and up-to-dateissues in research practice through the 73Focus on management research andResearch in the news features.Save time and improve your research results by using theTutorials on Excel, NVivo and SPSS, and the SmarterOnline Searching Guide. Both of these valuable resourcesare accessible at www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders. xxiii

Guided tour (continued ) 3Chapter Critically reviewing the literature 3Chapter Critically reviewing the literature • to discover explicit recommendations for further research. These can provide you with Review and discussion questions a superb justification for your own research question(s) and objectives; 3.6 Go to the website of the general search engine Google (http://www.google.com). Use the • to help you to avoid simply repeating work that has been done already; different Google services such as ‘Google Search’, ‘Google Scholar’ and ‘University Search’ to • to sample current opinions in newspapers, professional and trade journals, thereby search for articles on a topic which you are currently studying as part of your course. a Make notes regarding the types of items that each of these services finds. gaining insights into the aspects of your research question(s) and objectives that are b How do these services differ? considered newsworthy; c Which service do you think is likely to prove most useful to your research project? • to discover and provide an insight into research approaches, strategies (Section 4.3) and techniques that may be appropriate to your own research question(s) and 3.7 Agree with a friend to each review the same article from a refereed academic journal, which objectives. contains a clear literature review section. Evaluate independently the literature review in your chosen article with regard to its content, critical nature and structure using the checklists in Adopting critical perspective in your reading Boxes 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 respectively. Do not forget to make notes regarding your answers to each of the points raised in the checklists. Discuss your answers with your friend. Harvard College Library (2006) provides for its students a useful check list of skills to be practised for effective reading. These skills include: 3.8 Visit an online database or your university library and obtain a copy of an article that you think will be of use to an assignment you are both currently working on. Use the checklist Previewing, which is looking around the text before you start reading in order to in Box 3.16 to assess the relevance and value of the article to your assignment. establish precisely its purpose and how it may inform your literature search; Progressing your literature. Begin with those tertiary sources that Annotating; that is conducting a dialogue with yourself, the author, and the issues research project abstract and index academic journal articles and and ideas at stake. books. At the same time, obtain relevant literature Critically reviewing the literature that has been referenced in articles you have Here the Harvard advice, we think, is very useful. It urges readers to be ‘thinking- already read. Do not forget to record your intensive’ (see Box 3.1). • Consider your research questions and objectives. searches systematically and in detail. Use your lecture notes, course textbooks and • Expand your search via other sources such as the Summarising. The best way to determine that you’ve really got the point is to be relevant review articles to define both narrow Internet and by browsing and scanning. able to state it in your own words. Outlining the argument of a text is a version of and broader parameters of your literature search, • Obtain copies of items, evaluate them systemati- annotating, and can be done quite informally in the margins of the text. considering language, subject area, business cally and make notes. Remember also to record sector, geographical area, publication period and bibliographic details, a brief description of the Box 3.1 reading. Throughout your research these literature type. content and supplementary information on an Checklist annotations will be useful memory index card or in your reference database. triggers. • Generate key words and search terms using one • Start drafting your critical review as early as Annotating your critical reading. ✔ Develop your own symbol system: asterisk a key or a variety of techniques such as reading, possible, keeping in mind its purpose and Advice on how to read in a idea, for example, or use an exclamation point for brainstorming and relevance trees. Discuss your taking care to reference properly and avoid ‘thinking-intensive’ way the surprising, absurd, bizarre . . . Like your mar- ideas widely, including with your project tutor plagiarism. gin words, your hieroglyphs can help you recon- and colleagues. • Continue to search the literature throughout your ✔ First of all: throw away the highlighter in favour struct the important observations that you made research project to ensure that your review of a pen or pencil. Highlighting can actually at an earlier time. And they will be indispensable • Start your search using both database and printed remains up to date. distract from the business of learning and dilute when you return to a text later in the term, in tertiary sources to identify relevant secondary your comprehension. It only seems like an active search of a particular passage that you may want reading strategy; in actual fact, it can lull you into to include in your project report. References a dangerous passivity. ✔ Get in the habit of hearing yourself ask questions – ‘what does this mean?’ ‘why is he or Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project (4th edn). Maidenhead: Open University Press. ✔ Mark up the margins of your text with words: she drawing that conclusion?’ Write the questions Clausen, H. (1996) ‘Web information quality as seen from libraries’, New Library World 97: 1130, ideas that occur to you, notes about things down (in your margins, at the beginning or end that seem important to you, reminders of how of the reading, in a notebook, or elsewhere). They pp. 4–8. issues in a text may connect with your research are reminders of the unfinished business you still Dees, R. (2003) Writing the Modern Research Paper (4th edn). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. questions and objectives. This kind of interaction have with a text: to come to terms with on your Denyer, D. and Neely, A. (2004) ‘Introduction to special issue: innovation and productivity performance keeps you conscious of the reason you are own, once you’ve had a chance to digest the material further, or have done further reading. in the UK’, International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 5/6, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 131–5. 62 100 You will be given lots of opportunities to review your progress! Every chapter includes handy Checklists, tips on Progressing your research project, as well as Self-check questions (at the end of the chapter). There are additional interactive Multiple choice questions on the Companion Website. A Summary, Self-check questions Self-check questions and Review and discussion questions, and recommended Self-check questions Further reading at the end of each chapter enable you to reflect upon Help with these questions is available at the end of the chapter. key points and pursue topics in more depth. 3.1 The following extract and associated references are taken from the first draft of a critical literature review. The research project was concerned with the impact of direct insurers on the traditional motor insurer. List the problems with this extract in terms of its: a content; b structure. Jackson (1995) suggests that businesses must be developed from a customer rather than a product perspective. Lindesfarne (1994) demonstrates that direct selling gives the con- sumer increased control as it is up to them when and if they wish to respond to adverts or direct mail. MacKenzie (1995) comments that free gifts are useful for getting responses to adverts, which is ultimately what all direct insurers need. Bowen (1995) suggests that this type of company can be split into three equally important parts: marketing, insurance and information technology. Motor insurance is particularly price sensitive because of its com- pulsory nature and its perception by many to have no real ‘value’ to themselves. Bowen, I. (1994) ‘Short cut to success’, Post Magazine 2, 26 July. Jackson, D.R. (1995) ‘Prudential’s prudent parochialism’, Direct Marketing, 26–29 April. Lindisfarne, I. (1995) ‘Death of a salesman’, Post Magazine 15, 30–31 June. MacKenzie, G. (1995) ‘Rise of the freebie’, Post Magazine 2, 5–6 February. 3.2 Outline the advice you would give a colleague on: a how to plan her search; b which literature to search first. 3.3 Brainstorm at least one of the following research questions, either on your own or with a colleague, and list the key words that you have generated. a How effective is profit-related pay as a motivator? b How do the opportunities available to a first-time house buyer through interpersonal discussion influence the process of selecting a financial institution for the purposes of applying for a house purchase loan? c To what extent do new methods of direct selling of financial services pose a threat to existing providers? 3.4 You are having considerable problems with finding relevant material for your research when searching online databases. Suggest possible reasons why this might be so. 3.5 Rewrite the following passage as part of a critical literature review using the Harvard system of referencing: From what I’ve read, the English Language Teaching market, which this company serves, remains attractive for publishers despite a decline in growth as this quote shows: ‘Overall, the ELT materials market has continued to show growth, because, globally, the demand for English learning persists, albeit on a lower growth track than in the 1980s’.1 The latest published statistics that I’ve been able to find (1999) tell us that there are 1,300 million ELT learners worldwide.2 I therefore think that the need for good ELT authors is growing and, as Francis says: ‘the name of the author remains a critical success factor, and an important sub-brand in many cases’.3 1R. Francis, ‘Youngsters drive ELT growth’, Bookseller, 23 May 2003, p. 26. 2Gasson, C. (ed.), Book Publishing in Britain (London: Bookseller Publications, 1999). 3R. Francis ‘ELT Publishing’, p. 93 in C. Gasson (ed.), Book Publishing in Britain (London: Bookseller Publications, 1999) pp. 86–104. 99xxiv

PrefaceFor WEB LIN In writing the fifth edition of Research Methods for Business Students we have responded to the many comments we have received regarding previous editions. In particular, this has.uk/saundersEB KS visit www led us to substantially revise Chapter 4 ‘Understanding research philosophies and.pearsoned.coW approaches’, Chapter 5 ‘Formulating the research design’ and discuss consultancy projects where appropriate (e.g. in Chapter 14 ‘Writing and presenting your project report’). We have also revised Chapter 13 ‘Analysing qualitative data’ to reflect the variety of types of processes to analyse these data. In our revisions throughout the book and our sourcing of all new cases we have taken into account the growing importance of the Internet as a means of accessing academic literature and research data sets. This has necessitated sub- stantial updating for Chapter 3, ‘Critically reviewing the literature’, and Chapter 8, ‘Using secondary data’. We have also taken the opportunity to check and revise the tables of Internet addresses fully and to further develop our discussions regarding issues associated with the use of email, Internet chat rooms in interviewing (Chapter 10) and Internet and intranet-mediated questionnaires (Chapter 11). The reality of relatively inexpensive and easily accessible computer processing power for almost all students has had significant implications for business and management students’ research. As in previous editions, we have taken a predominantly non-software- specific approach in our writing. By doing this, we have been able to focus on the general principles needed to utilise a range of analysis software and the Internet effectively for research. However, recognising that many students have access to sophisticated data- analysis software and may need help in developing these skills, we continue to provide access to ‘teach yourself’ guides to SPSS™, Excel™, NVivo™ and Internet searching via the book’s website (www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders). Where appropriate, these guides are provided with data sets. In the preparation of the fifth edition we were fortunate to receive considerable feedback from colleagues in universities throughout the world. We are extremely grateful to all the reviewers who gave their time and shared their ideas. Inevitably, the body of knowledge of research methods has developed further since 2006, and we have revised the chapters accordingly. Our experiences of teaching and supervising students and working through the methods in classes have suggested alterna- tive approaches and the need to provide additional material. Consequently, we have taken the opportunity to update and refine existing worked examples and develop new ones where appropriate. The new case studies at the end of each chapter have been developed with colleagues, providing up-to-date scenarios through which to illustrate issues associated with undertaking research. However, the basic structure remains much the same as the previous four editions. Other minor changes and updating have been made throughout. Needless to say, any errors of omission and commission are our responsibility. As with previous editions, much of our updating has been guided by comments from students and colleagues, to whom we are most grateful. We should like to thank students from Oxford Brookes University and on the Research Methods’ Summer Schools for their xxv

Preface comments on all of the chapters. Colleagues in both our own and other universities have continued to provide helpful comments and advice. We are particularly grateful to Levent Altinay (Oxford Brookes University), Murray Clark (Sheffield Hallam University), Joanne Duberley (Birmingham University), David Hart (Northumbria University), Tracey Panther (Oxford Brookes University) and Christine Williams (University of Gloucestershire). Colleagues and friends again deserve thanks for their assistance in providing examples of research across the spectrum of business and management, co-authoring chapters, writ- ing case studies and in reviewing parts of this book, in particular, Mohammad Al-Kilani (Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Jordan), Peter Bolan (University of Ulster), David Coghlan (Trinity College, Dublin), Mridula Dwivedi (Institute for International Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India), Karen Handley (Oxford Brookes University), Peter Harris (Oxford Brookes University), Bill Lee (University of Sheffield), Liz Lee-Kelley (Cranfield University), Stephanie Macht (Northumbria University), Michael Savvas (Aberystwyth University), Richard Slack (Northumbria University), Mike Wallace (Cardiff University and Advanced Institute of Management Research), Catherine Wang (Royal Holloway, University of London), Alison Wray (Cardiff University), Anil Yadav (Institute for International Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India) and Deli Yang (Bradford University). The contributions of Lynette Bailey, Darren Bolton and Martin Jenkins to Chapters 3 and 8 and of Andrew Guppy to Chapter 12 in earlier editions of this book are gratefully acknowledged. We would also like to thank all of the staff at Pearson Education (both past and pres- ent) who supported us through the process of writing the fifth edition. Our thanks go, in particular, to Matthew Walker, our commissioning editor, for his support and enthusiasm throughout the process and to Stuart Hay for his insightful comments. We would also like to express our thanks to Elizabeth Rix as desk editor. Once again, our thanks are due to Jane, Jenny, Jan, Jemma, Ben, Andrew and Katie, who still allow us the time to absent ourselves to think and write. MNKS PL AT July 2008xxvi

ContributorsMark N.K. Saunders BA, MSc, PGCE, PhD, FCIPD, is Professor of Business ResearchMethods in the School of Management at the University of Surrey. He was formerlyprofessor of Business Research Methods and Assistant Dean (Director of Research andDoctoral Programmes) at Oxford Brookes University Business School. He is a visiting pro-fessor at Newcastle Business School, University of Northumbria. He teaches researchmethods to masters and doctoral students as well as supervising masters dissertationsand research degrees. Mark has published articles on research methods, service quality,and trust and organisational justice perspectives on the management of change. He isco-author with Phil and Adrian of Employee Relations: Understanding the EmploymentRelationship; with Phil, Adrian, Mike Millmore and Trevor Morrow of Strategic HumanResource Management and with Adrian, Phil and Mike Millmore of Managing Change: AHuman Resource Strategy Approach, all published by Financial Times Prentice Hall. Hehas also co-authored two books on business statistics, the most recent being Statistics:What You Need to Know co-authored with Reva Berman-Brown. He continues to under-take consultancy in the public, private and not-for-profit sectors. Prior to becoming anacademic, he had a variety of research jobs in local government.Philip Lewis BA, PhD, MSc, MCIPD, PGDipM, Cert Ed, began his career in HR as a train-ing adviser with the Distributive Industry Training Board. He then taught HRM andresearch methods in three UK universities. He studied part-time for degrees with the OpenUniversity and the University of Bath, from which he gained an MSc in industrial relationsand a PhD for his research on performance pay in retail financial services. He is co-authorwith Adrian and Mark of Employee Relations: Understanding the Employment Relationshipand Managing Change: A Human Resource Strategy Approach; with Mark, Adrian, MikeMillmore and Trevor Morrow of Strategic Human Resource Management and with Adrian,Mark and Mike Millmore of Managing Change: A Human Resource Strategy Approach, allpublished by Financial Times Prentice Hall. He has undertaken consultancy in both publicand private sectors.Adrian Thornhill BA, PhD, PGCE, FCIPD, was formerly Head of the Department ofHuman Resource Management at Gloucestershire Business School, University ofGloucestershire. He has taught HRM and research methods to postgraduate, undergradu-ate and professional students, and supervised research degrees. Adrian has published anumber of articles principally associated with employee and justice perspectives relatedto managing change and the management of organisational downsizing and redundancy.He is co-author with Phil and Mark of Employee Relations: Understanding theEmployment Relationship; with Phil, Mark, Mike Millmore and Trevor Morrow of StrategicHuman Resource Management and with Phil, Mark and Mike Millmore of ManagingChange: A Human Resource Strategy Approach, all published by Financial Times PrenticeHall. He has also co-authored a book on downsizing and redundancy and undertakenconsultancy in both public and private sectors. xxvii

Contributors Dr Mohammad H. Al-Kilani is an Assistant Professor in Organisational Behaviour and Organisation Theory at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University. Peter Bolan is Director of International Travel and Tourism at the University of Ulster School of Hospitality and Tourism Management. Dr David Coghlan is a Lecturer in Organisational Development and Action Research at Trinity College Dublin School of Business Studies. Dr Mridula Dwivedi is Assistant Professor at the Institute for International Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India. Dr Karen Handley is a Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Management and Organisational Behaviour at Oxford Brookes University Business School. Professor Peter Harris is Professor of Management Accounting in the Department of Hospitality, Leisure and Tourism Management at the Business School, Oxford Brookes University Dr Bill Lee is a Senior Lecturer in Accounting and Financial Management at the Management School, University of Sheffield. Dr Liz Lee-Kelley is a Senior Lecturer in Programme and Project Management at Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield University. Stephanie Macht is a Lecturer in Strategic Management at Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University. Dr Michael Savvas is a Visiting Lecturer in International and Human Resource Management at the School of Management and Business, Aberystwyth University. Richard Slack is Reader in Accounting and Programme Director for Research Development PhD at Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University. Professor Mike Wallace is a Professor of Public Management at Cardiff Business School and Associate Director for Capacity Building, Advanced Institute of Management Research. Catherine L. Wang is a Senior Lecturer in Strategy at the School of Management, Royal Holloway, University of London. Professor Alison Wray is a Research Professor of Language and Communication at Cardiff University. Anil Yadav is Registrar at Institute for International Management and Technology, Gurgaon, India. Dr Deli Yang is Reader in International Business, Bradford University School of Management.xxviii

Publisher’s acknowledgementsReviewersWe would like to express thanks to the reviewers who have been involved in the devel-opment of the fifth edition of this book. We are grateful for their insight and helpfulrecommendations.Ragnhild Silkoset, BI Norwegian School of ManagementKristian Nielsen, Rotterdam Business SchoolPoul Houman Andersen, The Aarhus School of BusinessFrits Wijbenga, Durham Business School, Durham UniversityLoic Ple, IESEG School of ManagementJudith Thomas, Oxford Brookes UniversityDavid Douglas, Staffordshire UniversityAngela Byrne, Manchester Met UniversityAileen Corley, Liverpool John Moores UniversityJeff Newall, University of Derby xxix

Publisher’s acknowledgements We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Illustrations Figure 1.2 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009; Figure 3.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill and Martin Jenkins 2003; Figure 3.3 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill and Martin Jenkins 2003; Figure 4.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Figure 5.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Figure 8.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006; Figure 9.2 from Management and Organisational Behaviour, 6e Financial Times Prentice Hall; (Mullins, L.J., 2002); Chapter 11 unnumbered screenshot, page 361: Extract from Nando’s online questionnaire (2008), reproduced with permission; Figure 11.2 from Constructing Questions for Interviews and Questions, Cambridge University Press, Foody, W., 1993); Chapter 11 unnumbered screenshot, page 383: Question layout created by SurveyMonkey.com (2008), reproduced with permission; Chapter 11 unnumbered screenshot, page 386: Question layout created by SurveyMonkey.com (2008), reproduced with permission. Tables Table 1.1 from Realigning the stakeholders in management research: lessons form indus- trial, work and organizational psychology in British Journal of Management Vol. 12 Special issue, pp. 41–8, Blackwell Publishing, (Hodgkinson, G.P., Herriot, P. and Anderson, N., 2001; Table 3.1 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 7.2 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 9.3 from Real WorldResearch: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner – Researchers, 2e Blackwell Publishing, (Robson 2002); Table 11.4 from Translation techniques for questionnaires in International and Cross-Cultural Management Research, Sage Publications, (Usunier, 1998); Table 12.2 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 12.4 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 12.5 Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008; Table 14.1 from How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper 5e, Phoenix. AZ: Oryx Press, Greenwood Publishing Group Inc., Westport CT, (Day, R., 1998:160). Photos 3 Mark Saunders;17 Alamy Images: Baron Bratby; 21 Alamy Images: Nicholas Linton (b); 52 Alamy Images: Anthony Kay; 102 Alamy Images: Rob Judges/Oxford; 107 Science Photo Library Ltd: Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler; 132 Alamy Images: David Hoffmann Photo Library; 137 Philip Lewis; 163 Getty Images/Lifestock; 164 Alamy Images: Paul Repson; 205 Alamy Images: Freddie Jones; 211 Rex Features: Giuseppe Aresu; 248 Corbis: Leif Skoogtors; 257 Philip Lewis, 284 Corbis: E Streichan/Zefa; 289 Philip Lewis, 313 Mridula Dwivedi; 319 Getty Images: Eamonn McCormack; 355 Corbis: Gregor Schuster/Zefa; 407 Mohammad Al Kilani; 415 Mark Saunders; 481 Alamy Images: Marshall Ikonography; 520 Mark Saunders; 527 Ben Saunders; 558 Alamy Images: Alex Segre. xxx

Publisher’s acknowledgementsFor WEB LIN Text.uk/saundersEB KS visit www Box 3.5 from Structure of the literature review, Taylor & Francis Ltd (Williams, C.S, and.pearsoned.coW Saunders M.N.K, 2006); Box 3.15 from Microsoft reveals answer to Google Scholar Candace Lombardi, ZDNet News, 12th April 2006, The YGS Group; Box 14.2 from How to . . . . write an abstract from http://www.emeraldinsight.com; Box 14.3 from The chang- ing travel behaviour of Austria’s ageing population and its impact on tourism in Tourism Review. 62 (3/4): 15–20, Emerald Group Publishing, (Moller, C, Weiermair, K and Wintersberger, E 2008); Box 14.5 from Real World Research 2e, Blackwell Publishing, (Robson, 2002). We are also grateful to the Financial Times Limited for permission to reprint the follow- ing material: Box 1.1 Research that aids publicists but not the public, © FT.com, 30 October 2007; Box 2.6 Many workers feel too qualified for jobs, © Financial Times, 29th October 2007; Box 2.9 The e-sport revolution Korean-style, © Financial Times, 15 September 2007; Box 3.6 Biofuel targets in EU will outweigh benefits, © Financial Times, 18 January 2008; Box 3.9 Google in challenge to Wikipedia, © Financial Times, 15 December 2007; Box 6.3 Star performers on back of the Internet, © Financial Times, 14 April 2007; Box 6.16 Watchdog in call for crim- inal sanctions, © Financial Times, 22 November 2007; Box 7.1 You don’t need to be a mechanical engineer to drive a car, © Financial Times, 12 February 2007; Box 7.15 ‘How I did it’ books give me a sinking feeling, © Financial Times, 28 August 2007; Box 10.13 Sir Adrian’s thorn, © Financial Times, 29 May 2008; Box 10.18 BT keeps an eye on surfing habits in quest for better advert targeting, © Financial Times, 24 May 2008; Box 11.6 George Lucas is a god in Britain. Literally, © Financial Times, 14 February 2003; Box 11.8 TNS warns over reliability of data collected online, © Financial Times, 4 September 2007; Box 12.21 Rock faces FTSE 100 exit, © Financial Times, 12 December 2007; Box 13.1 Wide range of weapons in analysts’ armoury, © Financial Times, 16 May 2008; Box 13.10 Sales Manager wins ‘Apprentice’, © Financial Times, 12 June 2008; Box 12.10 FSA warns on derivatives dangers, © Financial Times, 11 February 2008. In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so. xxxi

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book Learning outcomes By the end of this chapter you should: • be able to outline the purpose and distinct focus of management research; • be able to place your research project on a basic-applied research continuum according to its purpose and context; • understand the stages you will need to complete (and revisit) as part of your research process; • have an overview of this book’s purpose, structure and features; • be aware of some of the ways you can use this book. 1.1 Introduction This book is designed to help you to undertake your research project, whether you are an under- graduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a manager. It provides a clear guide on how to undertake research as well as highlighting the realities of undertaking research, including the more common pitfalls. The book is written as an introductory text to provide you with a guide to the research process and with the necessary knowledge and skills to undertake a piece of research from thinking of a research topic to writing your project report. As such, you will find it useful as a manual or handbook on how to tackle your research project. After reading the book you will have been introduced to and explored a range of approaches, strategies and methods with which you could tackle your research project. Of equal importance, you will know that there is no one best way for undertaking all research. Rather you will be aware of the choices you will have to make and how these choices will impact upon what you can find out. This means you will be able to make an informed choice about the approaches, strategies and methods that are most suitable to your own research project and be able to justify this choice. In reading the book you will have been introduced to the more frequently used tech- niques and procedures for collecting and analysing different types of data, have had a chance to practise them, and be able to make a reasoned choice regarding which to use. When selecting and using these techniques you will be aware of the contribution that the appropriate use of information technology can make to your research.2

However, before you continue, a word of caution. In your study, you will inevitablyread a wide range of books and articles. In many of these the terms ‘research method’ and‘research methodology’ will be used interchangeably, perhaps just using methodology asa more verbose way of saying method. In this book we have been more precise in our useof these terms. Throughout the book we use the term methods to refer to techniques andprocedures used to obtain and analyse data. This, therefore, includes questionnaires,observation and interviews as well as both quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (non-statistical) analysis techniques and, as you have probably gathered from the title, is themain focus of this book. In contrast, the term methodology refers to the theory of howresearch should be undertaken. We believe that it is important that you have some under-standing of this so that you can make an informed choice about your research. For thisreason, we also discuss a range of philosophical assumptions upon which research can bebased and the implications of these for the method or methods adopted.The Post-it® note is one of the best known and most the company,widely used office products in the world. Yet, despite Post-it® notesthe discovery of the repositionable adhesive that were launchedmade the Post-it® note possible in 1968, it was not in 1980. Oneuntil 1980 that the product was introduced to the year after theirmarket (Lemelson-MIT Program 2007). In the 1960s launch, they3M research scientist, Spence Silver, was looking for were namedways to improve the adhesive used in tapes. However, 3M’s out-he discovered something quite different from what he standing newwas looking for, an adhesive that did not stick product.strongly when coated onto the back of tapes! Whatwas unclear was how it might be used. Over the next Whilst yourfive years he demonstrated and talked about his new research proj- Post-it® notes in useadhesive to people working within the company. ect will be Source: © Mark Saunders 2006 within the busi- Most people working for 3M know the story of what ness and management discipline rather than naturalhappened next and how the Post-it® note concept science (such as developing a new adhesive), ourcame about. A new product development researcher introductory example still offers a number of insightsworking for 3M, Art Fry, was frustrated by how the into the nature of research and in particular the busi-scraps of paper he used as bookmarks kept falling out ness and management research you will be undertak-of his church choir hymn book. He realised that Silver’s ing. In particular, it highlights that when undertakingadhesive would mean his bookmarks would not fall research we should be open to finding the unex-out. Soon afterwards the Post-it® note concept was pected and how sometimes the applicability of ourdeveloped and market research undertaken. This was research findings may not be immediately obvious. Itextremely difficult as the product was revolutionary and also emphasises the importance of discussing yourwas, in effect, designed to replace pieces of torn scrap ideas with other people.paper! However, despite some initial scepticism within 3

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book 1.2 The nature of research When listening to the radio, watching the television or reading a daily newspaper it is difficult to avoid the term ‘research’. The results of ‘research’ are all around us. A debate about the find- ings of a recent poll of people’s opinions inevitably includes a discussion of ‘research’, nor- mally referring to the way in which the data were collected. Politicians often justify their policy decisions on the basis of ‘research’. Newspapers report the findings of research companies’ surveys (Box 1.1). Documentary programmes tell us about ‘research findings’, and advertisers may highlight the ‘results of research’ to encourage you to buy a particular product or brand. However, we believe that what these examples really emphasise is the wide range of meanings given to the term ‘research’ in everyday speech. Box 1.1 FT they present to potential clients and conducting these surveys is an increasingly large part of the activity of Focus on research market research organisations. in the news There is even a term for this kind of activity. It is called ‘thought leadership’. That term illustrates theResearch that aids publicists problem. It probably does not matter much thatbut not the public the bogus survey is used to generate spurious news. The danger is that opinion polls designed to produceThis is the age of the bogus survey. I woke up recently eye-catching answers displace serious thought andto the news that 95 per cent of children in Britain had analysis. The organisation that announced that 95been victims of crime. Of course they had. From a cent of children had been victims of crime judged,legal perspective, pushing a classmate or taking a correctly, that its survey better served its needs thanpencil without the intention of returning it is a crime. serious research into the problems with which it wasSchool playgrounds are hotbeds of crime and always concerned, that had not been done.have been. The study of business is afflicted by confusion The difference between the bogus survey and real between the results of a survey of what people thinkresearch is that real research has the objective of about the world and a survey of what the world isyielding new information, while bogus surveys are really like. At another recent meeting I heard a plat-designed to generate publicity. The organisation that form speaker announce that 40 per cent of bookshad undertaken this bogus survey – I forbear from would be electronically published by 2020. A peskymentioning its name – did not disguise that it had academic asked exactly what this number meant anddone so in order to draw attention to the problem of what evidence it was based on. The speaker assuredabuse of children. the audience that the number had been obtained in a survey by eminent consultants of the opinions of the Statistics about the incidence of real criminal activity industry’s thought leaders.against and among children are hard to come by andhard to interpret. We do not really know whether Newspapers, broadcasters and consultants willthings are getting better or worse, or by how much – at start to distinguish bogus surveys from substantiveleast not without careful research and analysis, which knowledge only when their audience demonstrateswould be hard to explain on television. Programme that it knows the difference. When you are asked forproducers will not ask you to appear to spell out these your opinion in your role as thought leader, put thecomplexities, but will allow you to horrify viewers and phone down. You will be serving the public interest aslisteners with alarming news. well as saving your time. Public relations professionals understand these Source: article by John Kay, Financial Times, FT.Com site. 30 Oct. 2007.triggers, to such an extent that commissioning a Copyright © 2007 The Financial Times Ltd.bogus survey is now a standard element in the pitch4

The nature of business and management research Walliman (2005) argues that many of these everyday uses of the term ‘research’ are not research in the true meaning of the word. As part of this, he highlights ways in which the term is used wrongly: • just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose; • reassembling and reordering facts or information without interpretation; • as a term to get your product or idea noticed and respected. The first of these highlights the fact that, although research often involves the collec- tion of information, it is more than just reading a few books or articles, talking to a few people or asking people questions. While collecting data may be part of the research process, if it is not undertaken in a systematic way, on its own and, in particular, with a clear purpose, it will not be seen as research. The second of these is commonplace in many reports. Data are collected, perhaps from a variety of different sources, and then assembled in a single document with the sources of these data listed. However, there is no interpretation of the data collected. Again, while the assembly of data from a variety of sources may be part of the process of research, without interpretation it is not research. Finally, the term ‘research’ can be used to get an idea or product noticed by people and to suggest that people should have confidence in it. In such instances, when you ask for details of the research process, these are either unclear or not forthcoming. Based upon this brief discussion we can already see that research has a number of characteristics: • Data are collected systematically. • Data are interpreted systematically. • There is a clear purpose: to find things out. We can therefore define research as something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge. Two phrases are impor- tant in this definition: ‘systematic way’ and ‘to find out things’. ‘Systematic’ suggests that research is based on logical relationships and not just beliefs (Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005). As part of this, your research will involve an explanation of the methods used to collect the data, will argue why the results obtained are meaningful, and will explain any limitations that are associated with them. ‘To find out things’ suggests there are a multiplicity of pos- sible purposes for your research. These may include describing, explaining, understand- ing, criticising and analysing (Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005). However, it also suggests that you have a clear purpose or set of ‘things’ that you want to find out, such as the answer to a question or number of questions.1.3 The nature of business and management research Using our earlier definition of research it would seem sensible to define business and management research as undertaking systematic research to find out things about busi- ness and management. Easterby-Smith et al. (2008) argue that four things combine to make business and management a distinctive focus for research: • the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on knowledge developed by other disciplines; 5

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book • the fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people. Therefore, they are unlikely to allow research access unless they can see personal or commercial advantages. • The fact that managers are educated. Many now have undergraduate and postgraduate degrees and, as such, tend often to be as well educated as those conducting research about them. • The requirement for the research to have some practical consequence. This means it either needs to contain the potential for taking some form of action or needs to take account of the practical consequences of the findings. Ongoing debate within the British Academy of Management has explored the status of management research. One feature, which has gained considerable support, is the trans- disciplinary nature of such research. While this has similarities to Easterby-Smith et al.’s (2008) point regarding the use of knowledge from other disciplines, it also emphasises that the research ‘cannot be reduced to any sum of parts framed in terms of contributions to associated disciplines’ (Tranfield and Starkey 1998:352). In other words, using knowl- edge from a range of disciplines enables management research to gain new insights that cannot be obtained through all of these disciplines separately. Another feature of manage- ment research highlighted in the debate is a belief that it should be able to develop ideas and to relate them to practice. In particular, that research should complete a virtuous circle of theory and practice (Tranfield and Starkey 1998) through which research on man- agerial practice informs practically derived theory. This in turn becomes a blueprint for managerial practice, thereby increasing the stock of relevant and practical management knowledge. Thus, business and management research needs to engage with both the world of theory and the world of practice. Consequently, the problems addressed should grow out of interaction between these two worlds rather than either on their own. In the past decade debate about the nature of management research has focused on how it can meet the double hurdle of being both theoretically and methodologically rigor- ous, while at the same time embracing the world of practice and being of practical rele- vance (Hodgkinson et al. 2001). Much of this debate has centred around the work by Gibbons et al. (1994) on the production of knowledge and, in particular, the concepts of Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge creation. Mode 1 knowledge creation emphasises research in which the questions are set and solved by academic interests, emphasising a fundamental rather than applied nature, where there is little if any focus on utilisation of the research by practitioners. In contrast, Mode 2 emphasises a context for research gov- erned by the world of practice, highlighting the importance of collaboration both with and between practitioners (Starkey and Madan 2001) and the need for the production of practical relevant knowledge. Based upon this, Starkey and Madan (2001) observe that research within the Mode 2 approach offers a way of bringing the supply side of knowl- edge represented by universities together with the demand side represented by businesses and overcoming the double hurdle. Drawing from these debates, it could be argued that business and management research not only needs to provide findings that advance knowledge and understanding, it also needs to address business issues and practical managerial problems. However, this would negate the observation that Mode 2 practices develop from Mode 1. It might also result in business and management research that did not have obvious commercial bene- fit not being pursued. This, Huff and Huff (2001) argue, could jeopardise future knowl- edge creation as research that is currently not valued commercially might have value in the future. Building upon these ideas Huff and Huff, rather like Fukami (2007) who found a third road in addition to the two academic career roads of research and teaching, high- light a further form of knowledge production: Mode 3. Mode 3 knowledge production focuses on an appreciation of the human condition as it is and as it might become, its6

The nature of business and management researchpurpose being to ‘assure survival and promote the common good at various levels ofsocial aggregation’ (Huff and Huff 2001:53). This emphasises the importance of broaderissues of human relevance of research. Consequently, in addition to research that satisfiesyour intellectual curiosity for its own sake, the findings of business and managementresearch might also contain practical implications, and these findings may have societalconsequences far broader and complex than perhaps envisaged by Mode 2. Tranfield and Denyer (2004) draw attention to concerns resulting from the separation ofknowledge producers from knowledge users. This had the effect of introducing a schism,or what (Starkey and Madan 2001) call the ‘relevance gap’ which, they argue, has becomemore marked over recent years. More encouragingly, academic management research canbe seen as a design science (Huff et al. 2006), its mission being to develop valid knowledgeto support thoughtful, designing practitioners. From the design science perspective, themain purpose of academic management research is to develop valid knowledge to supportorganisational problem solving in the field. That support can be direct, instrumental ormore indirect – giving general enlightenment on the type of problem at hand. Rousseau (2006) has drawn attention to ways of closing what she terms the prevailing‘research-practice gap’ – the failure of organisations and managers to base practices onbest available evidence. She extols the virtues of ‘evidence-based management’, whichderives principles from research evidence and translates them into practices that solveorganisational problems. Rousseau’s argument is that research findings do not appear tohave transferred well to the workplace. Instead of a scientific understanding of humanbehaviour and organisations, managers, including those with MBAs, continue to relylargely on personal experience, to the exclusion of more systematic knowledge. However, perhaps the most telling comment on the so-called ‘relevance gap’ is fromTranfield and Denyer (2004:13) who assert that ignoring such a gap would be ‘unthink-able in other professional fields, such as medicine or engineering, where a national scan-dal would ensue if science base and practice were not inextricably and necessarilyinterlinked’. The article by Hodgkinson et al. (2001) offers a useful four-fold taxonomy forconsidering this in relation to managerial knowledge. Using the dimensions of theoreticaland methodological rigour and of practical relevance they identify four quadrants (seeTable 1.1). Hodgkinson et al. argue that pedantic science is characterised by a focus on increasingmethodological rigour at the expense of results that are relevant and can sometimes befound in refereed academic journals. In contrast, popularist science is characterised by afocus on relevance and usefulness whilst neglecting theoretical and methodologicalrigour, examples being found in some books targeted at practising managers.Consequently, whilst findings might be useful to managers, the research upon which theyare based is unlikely to be valid or reliable. Puerile science both lacks methodologicalrigour and is of limited practical relevance and, although unlikely to be found in refereedTable 1.1 A taxonomy for considering the ‘relevance gap’ in relationto managerial knowledgeTheoretical and methodological rigour Practical relevance QuadrantHigherLower Lower Pedantic scienceLowerHigher Higher Popularist science Lower Puerile science Higher Pragmatic scienceSource: developed from Hodgkinson et al. (2001). 7

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book Box 1.2 different questions. To say that the knowledge of Focus on theory and practice are different is not to say that they management are in conflict, or that they substitute for each other; research rather, they complement one another.In an Academy of Management Review article Van De This leads to a third view – namely, that the gapVen and Johnson (2006) examine three related ways in between theory and practice is a knowledge-which the gap between theory and practice has been production problem which questions the traditionalframed. One approach views it as a knowledge trans- mode of research practised in business and profes-fer problem. Practitioners fail to adopt the findings of sional schools and has led to the proposal that a keyresearch in fields, such as management because defining characteristic of management research is itsthe knowledge is produced in a form that cannot be applied nature.readily applied in practical contexts. Having reviewed the problems and assumptions of A second approach views knowledge of theory and the first two approaches, Van De Ven and Johnsonpractice as distinct kinds of knowledge. Each reflects propose a method of engaged scholarship in whicha different fundamental approach for addressing researchers and practitioners coproduce knowledge that can advance theory and practice in a given domain. academic journals, can be found in other media. Finally, pragmatic science is both theo- retically and methodologically rigorous and relevant. Within these boundaries of advancing knowledge, addressing business issues, solving managerial problems and promoting the common good, the purpose and the context of your research project can differ considerably. For some research projects your purpose may be to understand and explain the impact of something, such as a particular policy. You may undertake this research within an individual organisation and suggest appropri- ate action on the basis of your findings. For other research projects you may wish to explore the ways in which various organisations do things differently. In such projects your purpose may be to discover and understand better the underlying processes in a wider context, thereby providing greater understanding for practitioners. For yet other research projects you may wish to place an in-depth investigation of an organisation within the context of a wider understanding of the processes that are operating. Despite this variety, we believe that all business and management research projects can be placed on a continuum (Figure 1.1) according to their purpose and context. At one extreme of the continuum is research that is undertaken purely to understand the processes of business and management and their outcomes. Such research is undertaken largely in universities and largely as the result of an academic agenda. Its key consumer is the academic community, with relatively little attention being given to its practical applications. This is often termed basic, fundamental or pure research. Given our earlier discussion it is unlikely that Mode 2 and Mode 3 business and management research would fulfil these criteria due to at least some consideration being made of the practical consequences. Through doing this, the research would start to move towards the other end of the continuum (Figure 1.1). At this end is research that is of direct and immediate relevance to managers, addresses issues that they see as important, and is presented in ways that they understand and can act on. This is termed applied research. In our view applied research is very similar to consultancy in many cases, particularly when the latter is conducted in a thorough manner.8

The nature of business and management researchBasic research Applied researchPurpose: Purpose:• Expand knowledge of processes of business • Improve understanding of particular business and management or management problem• Results in universal principles relating to the • Results in solution to problem process and its relationship to outcomes • New knowledge limited to problem• Findings of significance and value to society in • Findings of practical relevance and value to general manager(s) in organisation(s)Context: Context:• Undertaken by people based in universities • Undertaken by people based in a variety of• Choice of topic and objectives determined by settings including organisations and universities the researcher • Objectives negotiated with originator• Flexible time scales • Tight time scalesFigure 1.1Basic and applied researchSources: authors’ experience; Easterby-Smith et al. 2008; Hedrick et al. 1993. Research by Shapiro et al. (2007) indicates that many managers and academics do per-ceive a problem with a gap between basic, fundamental or pure research and appliedresearch. Clearly this has implications for the take up of research findings. Echoing thework of Van De Ven and Johnson (2006) (see Box 1.1 above), Shapiro et al. (2007:250)argue that if managers and academics believe that there is problem in which managementresearch is ‘lost in translation’, then proposed solutions might focus on changes in theway research findings are disseminated. Alternatively, if the belief is that there is a knowl-edge production problem, so that any chance for impact on practice is ‘lost before trans-lation’ (Shapiro et al. 2007:250), then proposed solutions might focus on ways to fostermore researcher practitioner collaboration as research programs are developed and car-ried out. Wherever your research project lies on this basic–applied continuum, we believe thatyou should undertake your research with rigour. To do this you will need to pay carefulattention to the entire research process. Inevitably, your own beliefs and feelings will impact upon your research. Althoughyou might feel that your research will be value neutral (we will discuss this in greaterdetail later, particularly in Chapter 4), it is unlikely that you will stop your own beliefsand feelings influencing your research. Your choice of what to research is also likely to beinfluenced by topics that excite you, and the way you collect and analyse your data by theskills you have or are able to develop. Similarly, as we discuss in Chapter 2, practical con-siderations such as access to data and the time and resources you have available will alsoimpact upon your research process. 9

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book 1.4 The research process Most research textbooks represent research as a multi-stage process that you must follow in order to undertake and complete your research project. The precise number of stages varies, but they usually include formulating and clarifying a topic, reviewing the literature, designing the research, collecting data, analysing data and writing up. In the majority of these the research process, although presented with rationalised examples, is described as a series of stages through which you must pass. Articles you have read may also suggest that the research process is rational and straightforward. Unfortunately, this is very rarely true, and the reality is considerably messier, with what initially appear as great ideas some- times having little or no relevance (Saunders and Lewis 1997). While research is often depicted as moving through each of the stages outlined above, one after the other, this is unlikely to be the case. In reality you will probably revisit each stage more than once. Each time you revisit a stage you will need to reflect on the associated issues and refine your ideas. In addition, as highlighted by some textbooks, you will need to consider ethical and access issues during the process. This textbook also presents the research process as a series of linked stages and gives the appearance of being organised in a linear manner. However, as you use the book you will see from the text, extensive use of cross-referencing, examples of research by well- known researchers and how research is reported in the news, examples of student research and case studies that we have recognised the iterative nature of the process you will follow. As part of this process, we believe that it is vital that you spend time formulating and clarifying your research topic. This we believe should be expressed as one or more research questions that your research must answer, accompanied by a set of objectives that your research must address. However, we would also stress the need to reflect on your ideas continually and revise both these and the way in which you intend to progress your research. Often this will involve revisiting stages (including your research question(s) and objectives) and working through them again. There is also a need to plan ahead, thereby ensuring that the necessary preliminary work for later stages has been undertaken. This is emphasised by Figure 1.2, which also provides a schematic index to the remaining chap- ters of the book. Within this flow chart (Figure 1.2) the stages you will need to complete as part of your research project are emphasised in the centre of the chart. However, be warned: the process is far messier than a brief glance at Figure 1.2 suggests! 1.5 The purpose and structure of this book The purpose As we stated earlier (Section 1.1), the overriding purpose of this book is to help you to undertake research. This means that early on in your research project you will need to be clear about what you are doing, why you are doing it, and the associated implications of what you are seeking to do. You will also need to ensure that you can show how your ideas relate to research that has already been undertaken in your topic area and that you have a clear research design and have thought about how you will collect and analyse your data. As part of this you will need to consider the validity and reliability of the data you intend to use, along with associated ethical and access issues. The appropriateness and suitabil- ity of the analytical techniques you choose to use will be of equal importance. Finally, you will need to write and present your research project report as clearly and precisely as possible.10

The purpose and structure of this book Wish to do research Formulate and clarify your research topic (Chapter 2) Critically review the literature (Chapter 3) Understand your philosophy and approach (Chapter 4) Formulate your research design (Chapter 5) Negotiate access and address ethical issues (Chapter 6) Plan your data collection and collect data using one or more of: Sampling Secondary Observation Semi- Questionnaires(Chapter 7) data (Chapter 9) structured, (Chapter 11) in-depth and (Chapter 8) group interviews (Chapter 10) Analyse your data using one or both of: Quantitative methods Qualitative methods (Chapter 12) (Chapter 13) Write your project report and prepare your presentation (Chapter 14)Forward Submit your project Reflectionplanning report and give and revision your presentation 11Figure 1.2The research processSource: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009.

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this bookEB EB The structure of each chapterW W Each of the subsequent chapters deals with part of the research process outlined in Figure 1.2. The ideas, techniques and methods are discussed using as little jargon as is possible. Where appropriate you will find summaries of these, using tables, checklists or diagrams. When new terms are introduced for the first time they are shown in bold, and a definition or explanation follows shortly afterwards. They are also listed with a brief definition in the glossary. The application of appropriate information technology is considered in most instances as an integral part of the text. Discussion of information technology is not software specific but is concerned with general principles. However, we recognise that you may wish to find out more about how to use data analysis software packages and so have included tutorials for the quantitative data analysis software SPSS™, the spread sheet Excel™ and the qualitative data analysis software NVivo™ (with practice data sets) on this book’s Companion Website. These will enable you to utilise whatever software you have available most effectively. We have also included the Smarter Online Searching Guide to help you with your Internet searches. Chapters have been cross-referenced as appropriate, and an index is provided to help you to find your way around the book. Included within the text of each chapter is a series of boxes which are called Focus on stu- dent research. These are based on actual research projects, undertaken by students, in which points made in the text are illustrated. In many instances these examples illustrate possible pitfalls you may come across while undertaking your research. Further illustrations are provided by Focus on management research and Focus on research in the news boxes. Focus on management research boxes discuss recent research in business and management. These are normally derived from refereed academic journal articles and you are likely to be able to download the actual articles from online databases at your university. Focus on research in the news boxes provide topical newspaper articles that illustrate pertinent research-related issues. All these will help you to understand the technique or idea and to assess its suitability or appropriateness to your research. Where a pitfall has been illus- trated, it will, it is hoped, help you to avoid making the same mistake. There is also a series of boxed Checklists to provide you with further focused guidance for your own research. At the end of each chapter there is a Summary of key points, which you may look at before and after reading the chapter to ensure that you have digested the main points. To enable you to check that you have understood the chapter a series of Self-check questions is included at the end. These can be answered without recourse to other (external) resources. Answers are provided to all these self-check questions at the end of each chapter. Self-check questions are followed by Review and discussion questions. These suggest a variety of activities you can undertake to help you further develop your knowledge and understanding of the material in the chapter, often involving discussion with a friend. Self-test multiple choice questions are available on this book’s Companion Website. Each chapter also includes a section towards the end headed Progressing your research project. This contains a series of questions that will help you to consider the implications of the material covered by the chapter for your research project. Answering the questions in the section Progressing your research project for each chapter will enable you to generate all the material that you will need to include in your project report. Each chapter’s questions involve you in undertaking activities that are more complex than self-check questions, such as a library-based literature search or designing and piloting a questionnaire. They are designed to help you to focus on the techniques that are most appropriate to your research. However, as emphasised by Figure 1.2, you will almost certainly need to revisit and revise your answers as your research progresses.12

EB The purpose and structure of this bookW Each chapter is also accompanied by References, Further reading and a Case study. Further reading is included for two distinct reasons: • to direct you to other work on the ideas contained within the chapter; • to direct you to further examples of research where the ideas contained in the chapter have been used. The main reasons for our choice of further reading are therefore indicated. The new case studies at the end of each chapter are drawn from a variety of business and management research scenarios and have been based on the case study’s authors’ and students’ experiences when undertaking a research project. They have been written to highlight real issues that occur when undertaking business and management research. To help to focus your thoughts or discussion on some of the pertinent issues, each case is followed by evaluative questions. Additional case studies relating to each chapter are available from the book’s companion website. A case study follows every chapter. An outline of the chapters The book is organised in the following way. Chapter 2 is written to assist you in the generation of ideas, which will help you to choose a suitable research topic, and offers advice on what makes a good research topic. If you have already been given a research topic, perhaps by an organisation or tutor, you will need to refine it into one that is feasible, and should still therefore read this chapter. After your idea has been generated and refined, the chapter discusses how to turn this idea into clear research question(s) and objectives. (Research questions and objectives are referred to throughout the book.) Finally, the chapter provides advice on how to write your research proposal. The importance of the critical literature review to your research is discussed in Chapter 3. This chapter outlines what a critical review needs to include and the range of primary, secondary and tertiary literature sources available. The chapter explains the purpose of reviewing the literature, discusses a range of search strategies, and contains advice on how to plan and undertake your search and to write your review. The processes of identifying key words and searching using online databases and the Internet are outlined. It also offers advice on how to record items and to evaluate their relevance. Chapter 4 addresses the issue of understanding different research philosophies, includ- ing positivism, realism, interpretivism, objectivism, subjectivism and pragmatism. Within this the functionalist, interpretive, radical humanist and radical structuralist paradigms are discussed. Deductive and inductive approaches to research are also considered. In this chapter we challenge you to think about your own values and how you view the world and the impact this will have on the way you undertake your research. These ideas are developed further in Chapter 5 which explores formulating your research design. As part of this, a range of research strategies are discussed and the differ- ence between quantitative and qualitative methods explained. The use of multiple meth- ods is explored and consideration given to the implications of design choices for the credibility of your research findings and conclusions. Chapter 6 explores issues related to gaining access and to research ethics. It offers advice on how to gain access both to organisations and to individuals. Potential ethical issues are discussed in relation to each stage of the research process and different data collection methods. Issues of data protection are also introduced. A range of the probability and non-probability sampling techniques available for use in your research is explained in Chapter 7. The chapter considers why sampling is neces- sary, and looks at issues of sample size and response rates. Advice on how to relate your choice of sampling techniques to your research topic is given, and techniques for assess- ing the representativeness of those who respond are discussed. 13

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 are concerned with different methods of obtaining data. The use of secondary data is discussed in Chapter 8, which introduces the variety of data that are likely to be available and suggests ways in which they can be used. Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data are discussed, and a range of techniques for locating these data, including using the Internet, is suggested. Chapter 8 also offers advice on how to evaluate the suitability of secondary data for your research. In contrast, Chapter 9 is concerned with collecting primary data through observation. The chapter examines two types of observation: participant observation and structured observation. Practical advice on using each is offered, and particular attention is given to ensuring that the data you obtain are both valid and reliable. Chapter 10 is also concerned with collecting primary data, this time using semi- structured, in-depth and group interviews. The appropriateness of using these interviews in relation to your research strategy is discussed. Advice on how to undertake such inter- views is offered, including the conduct of focus groups, Internet-mediated (including online) and telephone interviews. Particular attention is given to ensuring that the data collected are both reliable and valid. Chapter 11 is the final chapter concerned with collecting data. It introduces you to the use of both self-administered and interviewer-administered questionnaires, and explores their advantages and disadvantages. Practical advice is offered on the process of design- ing, piloting and administering Internet-mediated, postal, delivery and collection, and telephone questionnaires to enhance their response rates. Particular attention is again given to ensuring that the data collected are both reliable and valid. Analysis of data is covered in Chapters 12 and 13. Chapter 12 outlines and illustrates the main issues that you need to consider when preparing data for quantitative analysis and when analysing these data by computer. Different types of data are defined, and advice is given on how to create a data matrix and to code data. Practical advice is also offered on the analysis of these data using computer based analysis software. The most appropriate dia- grams to explore and illustrate data are discussed, and suggestions are made about the most appropriate statistics to use to describe data, to explore relationships and to examine trends. Chapter 13 outlines and discusses the main approaches available to you to analyse data qualitatively both manually and using computer aided qualitative data analysis soft- ware (CAQDAS). The nature of qualitative data and issues associated with transcription are discussed. Following an overview of the analysis process, the use of deductively based and inductively based analytical procedures is discussed. These include pattern matching, explanation building, data display and analysis, template analysis, analytic induction, grounded theory, discourse analysis and narrative analysis. Chapter 14 helps you with the structure, content and style of your final project report and any associated oral presentations. Above all, it encourages you to see writing as an intrinsic part of the research process that should not be left until everything else is completed. Appendices and glossary This book contains four appendices designed to support you at different stages of your research project. In the early stages, as you begin to read, you will need to keep a refer- ence of what you have read using a recognised system, the most frequently used of which are detailed in Appendix 1. When selecting your sample you may need to calculate the minimum sample size required and use random sampling numbers (Appendices 2 and 3). Finally, when designing your data collection tools and writing your project report you will need to ensure that the language you use is non-discriminatory. Guidelines for these are given in Appendix 4. A separate glossary of over 400 research-methods-related terms is also included for quick reference.14

Review and discussion questions1.6 Summary • This book is designed to help you to undertake a research project whether you are an under- graduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a manager. It is designed as an introductory text and will guide you through the entire research process. • Business and management research involves undertaking systematic research to find out things. It is transdisciplinary, and engages with both theory and practice. • All business and management research projects can be placed on a basic–applied continuum according to their purpose and context. • Wherever your research project lies on this continuum, you should undertake your research with rigour. To do this you will need to pay careful attention to the entire research process. • In this book, research is represented as a multi-stage process; however, this process is rarely straightforward and will involve both reflecting on and revising stages already undertaken and forward planning. • The text of each chapter is supported through a series of boxed examples. These include, focus on student research and focus on research in the news. In addition, there are checklists, self-check questions and review and discussion questions, an assignment and a case study with questions. Answers to all self-check questions are at the end of the appropriate chapter. • Answering the questions in the section ‘Progressing your research project’ for Chapters 2–13 will enable you to generate all the material that you will need to include in your project report. When you have also answered the questions in this section for Chapter 14, you will have writ- ten your research report. Self-check questions Help with these questions is available at the end of the chapter. 1.1 Outline the features that can make business and management research distinctive from research in other disciplines. 1.2 What are the key differences between basic and applied research (and consultancy)? 1.3 Examine Figure 1.2. What does this suggest about the need to plan and to reflect on and revise your ideas? Review and discussion questions 1.4 Agree with a friend to each read a different quality newspaper. Make a note of at least 10 articles in your newspaper that mention the word ‘research’. Now examine the articles one at a time. As you examine each article, does the reference to research . . . • . . . refer to the collection of facts or information with no clear purpose? • . . . refer to the reassembling and reordering of facts or information without interpretation? • . . . provide a means of getting the reader to respect what is being written? • . . . refer to the systematic collection and interpretation of data with a clear purpose? Discuss your answers with your friend. 1.5 Obtain a copy of one or two of the articles referred to in Section 1.3. Read the article carefully. To what extent do you believe that business and management research should always meet the twin requirements of rigour and relevance? Give reasons for your answer. 15

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book References Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. Jackson, P. and Lowe, A. (2008) Management Research (3rd edn). London: Sage. Fukami, C. (2007) ‘The third road’, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 31, pp. 358–64. Ghauri, P. and Grønhaug, K. (2005) Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practical Guide (3rd edn). Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Gibbons, M.L., Limoges, H., Nowotny, S., Schwartman, P., Scott, P. and Trow, M. (1994) The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage. Hedrick, T.E., Bickmann, L. and Rog, D.J. (1993) Applied Research Design. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hodgkinson, G.P., Herriot, P. and Anderson, N. (2001) ‘Re-aligning the stakeholders in management research: Lessons from industrial, work and organizational psychology’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 41–8. Huff, A.S. and Huff, J.O. (2001) ‘Re-focusing the business school agenda’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 49–54. Huff, A., Tranfield, D. and van Aken, J. (2006) ‘Management as a design science mindful of art and surprise. A conversation between Anne Huff, David Tranfield, and Joan Ernst van Aken’, Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 15. No. 4, pp. 413–24. Lemelson-MIT Program (2007) ‘Art Fry and Spencer Silver’. Available at: http://web.mit.edu/invent/ iow/frysilver.html [Accessed 19 December 2007.] Rousseau, D. (2006) ‘Is there such a thing as “evidence-based management?”’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 256–69. Saunders, M.N.K. and Lewis, P. (1997) ‘Great ideas and blind alleys? A review of the literature on starting research’, Management Learning, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 283–99. Shapiro, D., Kirkman, B. and Courtney, H. (2007) ‘Perceived causes and solutions of the translation problem in management research’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 249–66. Starkey, K. and Madan, P. (2001) ‘Bridging the relevance gap: aligning stakeholders in the future of management research’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 3–26. Tranfield, D. and Starkey, K. (1998) ‘The nature, social organization and promotion of management research: towards policy’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 9, pp. 341–53. Tranfield, D. and Denyer, D. (2004) ‘Linking theory to practice: a grand challenge for management research in the 21st century?’, Organization Management Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 10–14. Van De Ven, A. and Johnson, P. (2006) ‘Knowledge for Theory and Practice’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 802–21. Walliman, N. (2005) Your Research Project: A Step by Step Guide for the First-Time Researcher (2nd edn). London: Sage. Further reading Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. Jackson, P. and Lowe, A. (2008). Management Research. (3rd edn). London: Sage. Chapter 1 provides a very clear and readable introduction to manage- ment research and how it is distinct from other forms of research. Starkey, K. and Madan, P. (2001) ‘Bridging the relevance gap: aligning stakeholders in the future of management research’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, Special Issue, pp. 3–26. This paper argues the need for relevant management research within a Mode 2 framework, emphasising a need for research partnership.16

Case 1: Isabelle’s research dilemmaCase 1Isabelle’s research dilemma Isabelle was very thoughtful. She had a puzzled look on her face. The dilemma she had was one experienced by many students in conducting research for a dissertation. Her research was concerned with managers and how they coped with pressure in the workplace. She particularly wanted to find out the coping strategies they used. This required consideration of theory and method and whether the research would have practical relevance. After her preliminary reading around the topic she decided that it was necessary to engage in both the world of theory and the world of practice and that the problems addressed would develop out of the interaction between these two worlds. Theory in management could be seen as problematic, because for some researchers management is not a discipline. It is perceived as multi- disciplinary with many of its early practitioners receiving their training in the social sciences (Pettigrew 2001). Isabelle thought this could be advantageous in that it enables management research to gain new insights that may not be obtained through a number of disciplines sepa- rately. She also considered that a topic on pressure and coping could be understood at a number of levels of analysis from an individual to a structural level. In doing this she would be considering theoretical ideas and attempting to perceive them in a pragmatic way. It also meantSource: Baron Bratby/Alamy looking at them anew which would provide some imaginative and original insights for her dissertation.Isabelle found that more traditional research on managing pressure focused on positivisticapproaches with an emphasis on being scientific and rigorous. This approach often usesquantitative methods with an emphasis on measuring and the use of factor analysis.Researchers hope this allows them to find statistical correlations between two variables anddemonstrate some relationship between sources of pressure and possible physical, psychologicalor even physiological outcomes, if coping strategies were not successful. Research of this kindcan be found in the work of Sadri and Marcoulides (1997) and Wheatley (2000).Isabelle decided she would not use this approach. She felt that a number of students’ disser-tations had already used this approach and she wanted to get away from statistical analysis andexamining pressure on managers using a positivistic approach. She also thought that thistraditional research ignored the managers’ biography which could prove to be important inunderstanding how the manager coped with pressure. The more traditional approach seems toperceive the individual as passive and playing little part in making and constructing his/herreality. It was as if the researcher with questions asked in the questionnaire had alreadystructured the reality. However, people working in organisations do have histories, futures andexpectations and pursue their individual goals. For example, long-term sources of a person’sdistress may be traced back to experiences at work many years before. To study this wouldrequire Isabelle to use a different method. She decided to adopt in-depth interviews as primarysources so that she could study the turning-points in the lives of her participants over a periodof time. This may indicate why they took particular decisions and the consequences of makingthose decisions. In terms of method Isabelle decided that the approach she would adopt would be qualita-tive rather than quantitative. This would involve using in-depth interviews. She would also uselife stories and family histories because this kind of biographical approach was more holistic 17

1Chapter The nature of business and management research and structure of this book (Miller 2007). This holistic viewpoint manifested itself in two ways. Firstly, biographical data range across time. Hence, ‘a biographical approach is indicated where the area of interest is either the effect of change across time, historical events as these events have impinged upon the individual, or his or her movement along their life course’ (Miller 2007:74). Secondly, the biographical approach is a bridge between social structure and the individual. Social structure is a complex concept in which there was some disagreement among social scientists. But it can be understood to mean a relative enduring pattern of social arrangements within a particular soci- ety, group or social organisation. Thus, social structures may constrain the individual’s behaviour and expectations. Discussing your biography means telling about the constraints and opportuni- ties, and turning-points that were available in the past and how one dealt with them. The biog- raphical approach is about the intersection between the individual and social structure. In conducting such research Isabelle knew she had to deal with complex issues with the subject-matter and the method she wanted to adopt. The relationship between the interviewee and interviewer is central to this type of research. She felt she had the emotional maturity to manage the process. Most importantly she felt that the research was rigorous, systematic and relevant to managers in the workplace. References Miller, R.L. (2007) Researching Life Stories and Family Histories. London: Sage Publications. Pettigrew, A.M. (2001) ‘Management research after modernism’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 12, pp. 61–70. Sadri, G. and Marcoulides, G.A. (1997) ‘An examination of academic and occupational stress in the USA’, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 32–43. Wheatley, R. (2000) Taking the Strain. A Survey of Managers and Workplace Stress. London: Institute of Management. Questions 1 How do you think Isabelle’s understanding of theory and method changed in adopting the approach she chose? 2 What particular knowledge and skills did she develop in preparing this research? 3 What problems do you think she would have anticipated in conducting research into pressure and coping among managers that her literature review may not have identified? Self-check answers 1.1 The features you outline are likely to include the: • transdisciplinary nature of business and management research; • development of ideas that are related to practice and in particular the requirement for the research to have some practical consequence; • need for research to complete the virtuous circle of theory and practice; • addressing of problems that grow out of the interaction between the worlds of theory and practice. 1.2 The key differences between basic and applied research relate to both the purpose and the context in which it is undertaken. They are summarised in Figure 1.1.18

EB Self-check answers1.3 Figure 1.2 emphasises the importance of planning during your research project. ForwardW planning needs to occur at all stages up to submission. In addition, you will need to reflect on and to revise your work throughout the life of the research project. This reflec- tion needs to have a wide focus. You should both consider the stage you have reached and revisit earlier stages and work through them again. Reflection may also lead you to amend your research plan. This should be expected, although large amendments in the later stages of your research project are unlikely. Get ahead using resources on the Companion Website at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders • Improve your SPSS and NVivo research analysis with practice tutorials. • Save time researching on the Internet with the Smarter Online Searching Guide. • Test your progress using self-assessment questions. • Follow live links to useful websites. 19