FCE GRAMMAR QUICK SUMMARY

Cambridge English First (FCE) Tóm lược các điểm chı́nh văn phạm thường xuất hiện

Language reference 163 163 $POUFOUT 163 164 Adjectives with -ed and -ing 164 Articles 165 as and like 166 Causative have and get 167 Conditionals 168 Countable and uncountable nouns 168 Infinitive and verb + -ing forms 169 Linking words and phrases: when, if, in case, even if and even though 170 Linking words for contrast 172 look, seem and appear 172 Making comparisons 173 Modal verbs 175 Prepositions 176 Relative pronouns and relative clauses 177 Reported speech 177 so and such, too and enough 178 Spelling 178 The passive 180 Using commas 181 Using it, this, that or they 183 Verb tenses wish, if only and hope Word formation Words which are often confused 162

Language reference Adjectives with -ed and -ing t
with superlative adjectives: the best, the longest There are many adjectives which are formed with -ed or -ing. Some adjectives do not have both forms, t
with ordinal numbers (e.g. the first, the second, the third) e.g. living but not lived. used as adjectives: t
Adjectives with -ed express how the person feels about Manolo won the first prize and Igor won the second. something: t
with names of countries which include these words I was fascinated by the photos of her trip to Australia on Republic, Kingdom, States or Emirates: her Facebook page. The Czech Republic, The United Kingdom, The United t
Adjectives with -ing are used to describe the person or States, The United Arab Emirates thing which produces the feeling: Have you seen that amazing
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(I felt t
with names of rivers, mountain ranges, seas and oceans: amazed when I saw it.) the Nile, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pacific
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Spelling t
with many common expressions: at the moment, at the age of 15, in the end, on the one Articles hand … on the other hand 5IF
JOEFm
OJUF
BSUJDMF Do not use the, a or an: t
when talking in general and in the plural: We use a or an: t
with singular, countable nouns mentioned for the first Teachers are not paid enough. I can’t imagine offices without computers. time: t
with many common expressions: A blue car came round the corner. in bed/hospital/prison/school: He’s in bed. We have a new chemistry teacher. at home/university/work: I’m at university. t
to talk about jobs: (go) to bed/hospital/university/work: What time do you go His mother’s a doctor. UP
XPSL We do not use a or an with uncountable nouns or plural as and like countable nouns: Knowledge makes people powerful. as More women go to university in this country than men. t
Use an before words which begin with a vowel sound: an We use as: t
to say someone or something is that thing, or has that app, an email (but not when the letters ‘u’ or ‘e’ produce a ‘y’ sound: a useful tool, a European student, a university). function: t
When ‘h’ is silent, use an: an hour, an honest man He works as a nurse. She uses email as a way of keeping in touch with friends. 5IF
EFm
OJUF
BSUJDMF Can I give you some advice as a friend t
to mean the same as before a subject + verb or a past The is used: participle: t
with things we have mentioned before or when it’s clear Things happened exactly as I had predicted. The exam was as expected – very difficult! who or what we are referring to from the context: t
to mean ‘because’: I’ve got two new teachers. The maths teacher is from As tomorrow is a public holiday, I will not be giving you California and the English teacher is from Ireland. any homework to do. Could you go to the
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(i.e. the bank we t
after certain verbs including describe and regard: always use) The teachers regard you as the best group of students in t
when referring to particular things: the school. I love music, but I don’t like the music my sister listens to. The police are describing him as extremely dangerous. t
with things which are unique: the Internet, the moon t
with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons: t
with adjectives to express groups: Mike is not as clever as his sister. In this country, the rich are growing richer and the poor t
to mean ‘for example’ in the phrase such as: are growing poorer. I spent the summer travelling round Europe and visiting t
with nationalities: lots of places such as Venice, Florence and Barcelona. the French, the Spanish, the Italians t
with the same ... as: You’re wearing the same colour shirt as me! 163

Language reference t
in the phrases as far as I know (I think it’s true but I don’t Conditionals know all the facts), as far as I’m concerned (this is my personal opinion), as far as I can see/tell (this is what I’ve Conditional sentences express a condition (If ...) and the noticed or understood): consequence of the condition. The consequence can be As far as I know, my grandparents have always lived in the expressed before or after the condition: same house. If you come to Canada, we can visit Vancouver. I don’t mind how much money you spend on clothes – We can visit Vancouver if you come to Canada. you can spend all your money on clothes as far as I’m concerned. /PUF
If the condition comes first, a comma is used. If the Arsenal aren’t going to win the cup this year as far as I consequence comes first, no comma is used. can see. ;FSP
DPOEJUJPOBM like We use a zero conditional to express: t
things which are always or generally true: We use like: t
to mean ‘similar to’ (especially after the verbs be, seem, If the teacher is late, it sets a bad example to the class. People tend to get annoyed if/when you shout at them. feel, look, sound, smell and taste): t
scientific facts: He’s eating what looks like a hamburger. When/If water boils, it evaporates. This swimming pool is fantastic – the artificial waves mean it’s like swimming in the sea. /PUF
In zero conditionals, when and if often mean the same. t
to mean ‘for example’: He enjoys all sorts of adventure sports like paragliding, 'JSTU
DPOEJUJPOBM windsurfing and canoeing. We use a first conditional to express a future condition we Causative have and get think is possible or likely: If I get the job, I’ll buy myself a new car. We use have/get + something + done (cleaned / fixed / If you wash the car, it will look much smarter. made, etc.) when we ask someone else to do something I won’t phone you unless it’s urgent. for us: You can have an ice cream if you behave well. I’ve just had my bike mended. (i.e. Someone has mended You shouldn’t go swimming unless you think it’s safe. my bike for me.) If he phones, tell him I’m busy. t
get is less formal than have: /PUF
unless means ‘except if’. We can often use unless My dad has just got some new furniture delivered. instead of if not: t
It’s not usually necessary to say who did it for us, but it is I can’t watch the football with you unless I finish my school work beforehand. (I can’t watch the football with you if I possible: don’t finish my school work before the game begins.) I’m going to have my hair dyed blonde this afternoon by my sister. (i.e. My sister is going to dye my hair for me.) 4FDPOE
DPOEJUJPOBM t
have/get + something + done can be used in any tense or form: We use a second conditional to express a present or I’m going to get my suit dry-cleaned for the wedding. future condition which is imaginary, contrary to the facts, t
We can also use this structure to say we have been the impossible or improbable: victim of something: I would go for a walk if it wasn’t so cold. Tim had his wallet stolen while he was waiting for the bus. If I was as rich as Bill Gates, I wouldn’t work. (Being as rich as Bill Gates is imaginary.)
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The passive I wouldn’t fly in a helicopter unless I was sure it was completely safe. (This is how I would feel in this situation.) We’d win more matches if we trained harder. (This is contrary to the facts – we don’t train hard enough.) 164

Language reference 5IJSE
DPOEJUJPOBM Countable and uncountable nouns We use a third conditional to talk about: Nouns can be either countable [C] or uncountable [U]. t
something which did not happen in the past and However, some nouns can be both countable [C] and t
its results, which are imaginary. uncountable [U], but with a difference in meaning: They say it’s healthy to drink tea. (tea in general, If you had gone to the concert, you would have enjoyed it. uncountable) If you had phoned me this morning, I would not have been Would you like a tea
(a cup of tea, countable) late for school. Living in a large house is a lot of work. (work in general, If I had lived in the 19th century, I would have gone to uncountable) school by horse. (If I had lived in the 19th century (something That picture is a work of art. (a particular work, countable) which did not happen – I am alive now), I would have gone to school by horse (an imaginary consequence because I The grammar for countable nouns is different from the didn’t live in the 19th century).) grammar for uncountable nouns. If he hadn’t reacted quickly, the hippo would have killed countable nouns uncountable nouns him. (He reacted quickly, so the hippo didn’t kill him.) t
use a or an in the t
do not use a or an /PUF
We can contract the third conditional as follows: singular: a job, t
cannot be made plural: If I’d lived in the 19th century, I’d have gone to school by horse. an animal If he hadn’t been in such a hurry, he wouldn’t have had an work, music accident. t
can be made plural: t
use verbs in the singular: cars, books We can use could and might instead of would: The news is good, Music t
use some and any in the helps me relax. If our team had played harder, they could have won the plural: some friends, t
use some and any in the match. (They had the ability to win the match, but they any answers singular: some food, any didn’t, because they didn’t play hard enough.) advice If our team had played harder, they would have won the t
use few and many in t
use little and much in the match. (They were sure to win, but they didn’t because they the plural: few students, singular: little information, didn’t play hard enough.) many years much homework If the weather had been better, we might have gone t
use other words to refer swimming. (Swimming was a possibility.) to a quantity: a piece of If the weather had been better, we would have gone advice, a small amount of swimming. (Swimming was a certainty.) money .JYFE
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&OHMJTI accommodation advice behaviour countryside When we want to use a conditional sentence to talk damage equipment experience food furniture about both the past and the present, we can use second homework housework information knowledge conditional in one part of the sentence and third conditional luggage media music news paper pollution in the other: research scenery smoke software stuff transport work If tickets weren’t so expensive, I’d have gone to the cinema 2nd conditional (present time) last night. 3rd conditional (past time) t
The tickets are expensive and that is why the speaker didn’t go to the cinema. If Mar hadn’t fallen off her bike, she’d be champion now. 3rd conditional (past time) 2nd conditional (present time) t
Mar fell off her bike and that is why she isn’t champion. /PUF
You cannot use zero or first conditionals in mixed conditionals. 165

Language reference Infinitive and verb + -ing forms 7FSC

-ing *Om
OJUJWF We use a verb + -ing: t
after prepositions: We use the infinitive: t
to say why we do something: He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club. We watched a film about climbing in the mountains. I’ve just gone running to get some exercise. He’s taken up tennis to make friends. /PUF
We also use a verb + -ing after to when to is a t
to say why something exists: preposition: There’s an example to help you. I’m looking forward to going on holiday. t
after too and enough: She’s used to studying everything in English. It’s too cold to go swimming today. He isn’t good enough to make the national team. t
as subjects or objects of a sentence: Climbing is safer than it looks. t
We use the infinitive in the following verb patterns: He decided to take up running. verb + to agree appear She agreed to We use a verb + -ing after these verbs: infinitive bother decide meet him after demand fail hope work. admit appreciate avoid celebrate consider learn manage offer delay deny dislike enjoy finish imagine plan refuse seem involve keep mind miss postpone practise be supposed regret risk stop suggest threaten I really enjoyed winning that match. verb + ask choose expect She expected to She suggested playing a game of squash after school. We can use these verbs from the list above in reported (somebody/ help intend promise win the race. speech: something) want I expect you to admit deny regret suggest + to infinitive play in the match.
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reporting verbs We use a verb + -ing after these expressions: verb + advise allow enable The money somebody/ encourage forbid enabled him to go something + force invite order to university. to infinitive permit persuade recommend remind teach tell warn t
We use these verbs from the lists above to report speech: it’s no good it’s not worth it’s no use it’s a waste of time can’t stand can’t bear can’t help advise agree allow ask decide encourage forbid invite offer order permit persuade It’s not worth joining that sports club. promise recommend refuse remind It’s a waste of time entering the competition unless you’re tell threaten warn really fit. I can’t bear watching my team when they play badly.

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Reported speech Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with almost the same meaning: love begin continue hate prefer like start I love playing tennis. I love to play tennis. It continued raining all day. It continued to rain all day. /PUF
When love, hate, prefer and like are used with would, they are always followed by the infinitive: I wouldn’t like to do an adventure race. I’d prefer to watch it on television. 166

Language reference 7FSCT
GPMMPXFE
CZ
FJUIFS
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JOm
OJUJWF
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B
Linking words and phrases: when, WFSC

-ing
XJUI
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NFBOJOH if, in case, even if and even though verb + infinitive verb + -ing We use when to talk about: t
a situation: remember Did you remember I remember feeling to bring your running very tired at the I feel very uncomfortable when the weather is so hot. TIPFT (an action you end of the race. t
something we know will happen at some point in time: have to do) (a memory of something in the I’m writing an essay at the moment. When I finish, I’ll past) phone you back. forget Don’t forget to bring I’ll never forget We use if to describe: your tennis racket. winning my first t
something we are not sure will happen: (an action you have tennis championship. to do) (a memory of We’ll miss the beginning of the film if the bus is late. something in the t
Compare: past) If I get a place at university, my parents will buy me a new regret I regret to tell you I regret not training car. (I’m not sure if I’ll get a place at university.) the race has been harder before the When I get a place at university, my parents will buy me a cancelled. (regret + race. (I’m sorry I didn’t new car. (I’m confident I’ll get a place at university.) to say / to tell / to do this.) inform means ‘I’m We use in case with the: sorry to give you this t
present tense to talk about something which might information’.) happen in the future: try I’m running every day If you want to get I’ll take a book to read in case I have to wait a long time for the train. because I’m trying to fit, why don’t you Take a bottle of water with you in case you get thirsty. t
past simple to explain why someone did something: get fit. (My objective USZ
TXJNNJOH
Clara turned off her mobile phone in case it rang during the exam. (She thought it might ring during the exam, so is to get fit.) (Swimming is a she turned it off.) method to reach your in case and if are different. Compare: t
I’ll take my swimming costume in case we go to the beach. objective.) (I’ll take it now because we might go to the beach later.) mean Mario means to win I wanted to be a t
I’ll take my swimming costume if we go to the beach. the championship. swimming champion, (This is his intention.) but it meant going to (I won’t take my swimming costume now, because I don’t the pool every day at know if we’ll go to the beach – we might not go.) 5.30. (it involved) We use even though as a stronger way of saying although stop Halfway through the When he realised when we are certain about something: marathon, he stopped he couldn’t win, he t
He bought a new computer, even though his old one was to drink some water. stopped running. (in order to drink (He didn’t continue.) working perfectly. (The speaker is certain the old one was some water) working perfectly.) t
I’m really looking forward to my holiday, even though /PUF
The form forget + verb + -ing is unusual. It is more the weather forecast is for rain. (The speaker knows the normal to use (not) remember: weather forecast is for rain.) I forget riding a bike the first time. I don’t remember riding a bike the first time. We use even if as a stronger way of saying if, when we are not certain about something: t
I’m going to have a holiday in the USA this summer even if I fail all my exams. (I’m not sure if I’m going to fail my exams – but I’m going to have the holiday anyway.) t
I’ll come to your party even if I have to walk there. (I don’t know if I’ll have to walk there, but I’ll make sure I come to your party.) 167

Language reference Linking words for contrast despite
BOE
in spite of We use these linking words to show contrast: t
despite and in spite of mean ‘without taking any notice of or being influenced by’; ‘not prevented by’: although even though while whereas but He got into the basketball team despite being quite however despite in spite of short. on the one hand, … (on the other hand,) She went swimming in spite of the cold weather. although, even though, while BOE whereas t
They can be placed at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle. They are followed by a noun or a verb + -ing. t
We use although, even though, while and whereas to put two contrasting ideas in one sentence: t
When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is I didn’t buy the dress although I thought it was beautiful. also used to separate the two parts of the sentence: Despite working all day, Teresa didn’t feel at all tired. t
They can be placed at the beginning of the sentence or in We got to school on time in spite of the heavy traffic. the middle, between the two contrasting ideas: It was late. She decided to phone him. ➔ Although it on the one hand
y
on the other hand was late, she decided to phone him. OR She decided to phone him although it was late. t
on the one hand … (on the other hand) normally start new sentences and can be used to balance two contrasting t
When the sentence begins with although, even though, ideas or points of view: while or whereas, we separate the two parts with a I’m not sure whether to go to the seaside for my holidays comma. When these words are placed in the middle, the this year. On the one hand, most of my friends are going. comma is optional: On the other hand, it’s time to have a change and go Berlin is a noisy city. My home village is quite peaceful. somewhere different. ➔ While Berlin is a noisy city, my home village is quite peaceful. OR Berlin is a noisy city whereas my home t
on the other hand can be used to introduce a contrasting village is quite peaceful. idea even if you haven’t used on the one hand: Doing sport can be a great way to relax. On the other t
even though is stronger than although: hand, it can cause quite serious injuries. I didn’t buy the car, even though I had the money ready in my pocket. look, seem and appear but We use these verbs to express our impressions of something or someone: t
but can be used to join two sentences. In this case, it is I haven’t talked to him very much, but he seems very used in the middle of the sentence and it often follows a intelligent. comma: You still look tired, even if you have slept all night. We warned her, but she didn’t pay any attention. We use these with the following patterns: t
but can sometimes be used at the beginning of a new sentence: look/seem/appear She looks very old. He likes romantic films. But don’t tell anybody! + adjective He seems hungry. Marga appeared tired.

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Using commas subject + look + as The car looks as if it needs washing. however if + sentence You look as if you’ve had a bad day. t
however normally starts a new sentence and refers to the sentence before. it looks/seems/ It looks as if the car needs washing. appears + as if + It seems as if you’ve had a bad day. t
It is usually followed by a comma: sentence He decided to go out to the cinema. However, he didn’t tell his family where he was going. seem/appear + The weather seems to have infinitive changed. She appeared to be crying. look/seem + like + He looks like my uncle. noun It may seem like an impossible task, but it isn’t really. 168

Language reference Making comparisons $PNQBSJTPO
PG
BEWFSCT $PNQBSBUJWF
BOE
TVQFSMBUJWF
GPSNT
PG
BEKFDUJWFT
BOE
Add -er and t
one-syllable adverbs, e.g. hard, fast, BEWFSCT -est with: straight: My mum works harder than my dad. comparative adjective/adverb + Tennis is cheaper Use more and forms -er + than than golf. most with: t
two-syllable adverbs including more + adjective/ Marina works harder adverbs ending in -ly: adverb + than than before. Maria read the text more quickly than Golf is more Susanna. expensive than She visits me more often than in the tennis. past. It rains more often than in the past. These adverbs form irregular comparisons: superlative the + adjective/ Chess is one of the well – better – best badly – worse – worst forms adverb + -est cheapest hobbies. the most + Playing team sports adjective/adverb is the most sociable To say two things are the same, use as + adverb + as: free-time activity. Julia finished the exercise as quickly as Mark. (Julia and Mark finished the exercise equally quickly.) $PNQBSJTPO
PG
BEKFDUJWFT To say that we do one thing differently from another, use: Add -er and t
one-syllable adjectives: t
not so/as + adverb + as: -est with: Fiona is fitter than last year. Sophie doesn’t speak Spanish so/as well as Gordon. Use more and t
two-syllable adjectives ending in -y most with: and -ly, e.g. happy, friendly: We can use words and phrases with comparative forms to My brother’s the friendliest person in express large and small differences. These are some ways of my family. expressing a large difference: t
much / far / a lot / considerably + adjective/adverb + -er/ t
adjectives of two syllables or more (except two-syllable adjectives ending more + adjective/adverb: in -y and -ly): Playing team sports is much riskier than many people Biking is the most dangerous activity. imagine. t
not nearly as + adjective/adverb + as:

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Spelling Some mobile apps are not nearly as difficult to use as These form irregular comparisons: normal computer programs. good – better – best bad – worse – worst These are some ways of expressing a small difference: well – better – best badly – worse – worst t
slightly / a bit / a little + adjective/adverb + -er/more + much – more – most many – more – most little – less – least far – farther/further – farthest/furthest adjective/adverb: People drive slightly slower than they did in the past. t
not quite as + adjective/adverb + as: I don’t find running quite as enjoyable as cycling. To say two things are the same, use as + adjective + as: She finds doing aerobics as interesting as playing team sports (this means ‘She finds doing aerobics and playing team sports equally interesting’). To say that one thing is less than another, use: t
not so/as + adjective + as: Window shopping is not so/as enjoyable as clubbing. t
less/least + adjective: Playing chess is less healthy than playing team sports. Clubbing is the least healthy activity you can do. 169

Language reference Modal verbs t
We use be able to after an infinitive: She hopes to be able to study medicine when she goes We use modal verbs to express the speaker’s view of to university. ability, certainty and possibility, obligation, prohibition and permission. t
We use be able to after modal verbs (might, should, may, t
These modal verbs are always followed by the infinitive etc.): If I’m free this weekend, I might be able to help you paint without to: your house. can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would When you’ve finished this course, you should be able to t
These modal verbs are always followed by the infinitive speak English very well. with to: have to, ought to t
We usually use can and could with see, hear, smell, feel /PUF
Modal verbs always have the same form, i.e. no ‘s’ in and taste: the third person singular (He can come) or -ed in the past From the top of the mountain we could see for miles. (except for have to, which changes in the same way as have). I can hear a strange noise coming from upstairs. &YQSFTTJOH
BCJMJUZ t
However, we use manage when we succeed in doing something quite difficult to do: To say someone has an ability, we use can, can’t, could, I know you’ve been busy, but did you manage to phone couldn’t and be able to. NZ
NVN In the present, we use: He managed to pass the exam, although he was feeling ill t
can or am/is/are able to to express ability when he did it. t
can’t or am not/isn’t/aren’t able to for things which are not /PUF
could is not possible in this example: possible. He could pass the exam, although he was feeling ill when he did it. Liz can speak five languages, but she can’t speak Russian. The doctor’s able to see you now, but she isn’t able to see &YQSFTTJOH
DFSUBJOUZ
BOE
QPTTJCJMJUZ you tomorrow. To express certainty about the present, we use: /PUF
We usually use can and can’t when speaking because t
must: they are shorter and less formal than able to. She’s been in over 15 films, so she must be very well In the past, we use: known. t
could only when speaking in general: /PUF
We usually have a good reason for expressing this When I was a child, I could read without glasses. certainty, e.g. She’s been in over 15 films. t
was/were able to when speaking about something t
can’t or couldn’t for the negative (not mustn’t): someone succeeded in doing on one particular occasion: You can’t be tired. You’ve just got out of bed! Dad didn’t have any money on him, but fortunately he Mark couldn’t have been at the party – he’s on holiday in was able to use his credit card to pay the bill. (not He America at the moment. could use his credit card to pay the bill.) t
couldn’t and wasn’t/weren’t able to when speaking in To express certainty about the past, we use: general and also when speaking about one particular t
must have + past participle: occasion: Pascual wasn’t able to / couldn’t do all the questions in You have a very big part in the play. It must have taken the maths exam. you ages to learn all the lines. Olga couldn’t / wasn’t able to ride a bike till she was 18. t
can’t have and couldn’t have + past participle in negative sentences: When talking about ability, we use can only in the present She can’t have left her glasses at home – I saw her and could only in the past. For perfect and future tenses, we wearing them on the bus. use able to: She couldn’t have stolen the money because she’s far too I’ve been very busy so I haven’t been able to finish reading honest! the novel. (present perfect) When you finish the course, you’ll be able to speak English To express possibility about the present or future, we use: really well. (future simple) t
may, might or could: /PUF
We do not use be able to in the continuous. I may come and visit you next summer. We might go to the cinema if we finish all our work in time. We’d better go for a walk now because it could rain later. 170

Language reference t
may not and might not (or mightn’t) in negative sentences 1SPIJCJUJPO (not can’t or couldn’t which express certainty): Frankie is looking very pale. He may not be very well. We use these modal verbs and phrases to express Don’t cook any dinner for me because I might not be prohibition: can’t, mustn’t, not let, (be) not allowed to, don’t back in time. allow (somebody) to. You can’t go in there – it says ‘No entry!’ To express possibility about the past, we use: You mustn’t speak during the exam – it’s forbidden. t
may have, might have, could have, may not have, might My sister won’t let me listen to her CDs. I’m not allowed to use the kitchen in my host family’s house. not have + past participle: My parents didn’t allow me to play computer games when I It’s unlike Sally to be late. She may have overslept, or she was small. might not have remembered the appointment. &YQSFTTJOH
PCMJHBUJPO
QSPIJCJUJPO
BOE
We do not use don’t have to to express prohibition: QFSNJTTJPO You mustn’t use your mobile phone in class. (It’s not allowed.) 0CMJHBUJPO
o
must
BOE
have to Compare this with: You don’t have to use your mobile phone to speak to Fayed. We can often use must and have to without any difference in Look! He’s over there. (i.e. It’s not necessary.) meaning: Teachers must / have to try to make their lessons as In the past, we use: couldn’t, didn’t let, wasn’t allowed to, interesting as possible. didn’t allow (somebody) to: I couldn’t leave the room until the end of the meeting. However, we use: She wasn’t allowed to invite her boyfriend to the party. t
must + infinitive without to in the present tense. For other We don’t use mustn’t to talk about the past: tenses, we use have to + infinitive: I mustn’t couldn’t ride my bike to school because my mum I’d like to go camping, but I’ll have to ask my parents. thought it was dangerous. In order to get the holiday job I had to fill in an We mustn’t weren’t allowed to use our dictionary in the application form and do an interview. exam last week. t
have to more often in questions: Do we have to answer BMM
UIF
RVFTUJPOT 1FSNJTTJPO t
must for a goal (or an obligation) that we give ourselves: I must go to the supermarket later. To express permission, we use: can (past could), let, am t
have to when the obligation comes from someone else: allowed to and may (past was/were allowed to). My teacher has given me a lot of homework which I have You can only use your phone during the break, not in class. to do for Monday. Are we allowed to use
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NBUIT
FYBN t
must for strong advice: She let him borrow her bicycle to get to the station. You must be careful if you stay out late at night. Other ways of expressing obligation: We only use may in formal situations: t
We use be supposed to + infinitive to talk about an It’s not necessary to stay until the end of the examination. When you have answered all the questions, you may leave obligation which is different from what really happens: the room. We’re supposed to do five writing tasks each term. (But most people only do two or three.) To say that there is no obligation, or it’s not necessary, we Aren’t you supposed to be
JO
DMBTT
SJHIU
OPX (i.e. not out use: don’t have to, don’t need to and needn’t: here playing football) This is a really good exercise on phrasal verbs for anyone t
We use should + infinitive without to to talk about the who’s interested, but it’s not for homework, so you don’t right thing to do, but which is different from what really have to do it if you don’t want to. You needn’t learn all happens: the vocabulary on this page – only the words you think are You should answer using your own ideas, not things you useful. have memorised beforehand. t
The past of should is should have + past participle: I didn’t need to means ‘It wasn’t necessary and I didn’t do You shouldn’t have tried to answer all three questions in it’; I needn’t have means ‘It wasn’t necessary but I did it’: Writing Part 2! I didn’t need to buy a newspaper to find out the story t
We can use ought to to mean ‘should’: because I’d already heard it on the radio. You ought to be more polite to the people you deal with. What lovely roses! You needn’t have bought me so many, but it was very generous of you. 171

Language reference Prepositions We use on: t
to talk about a position in contact with a surface: at, in BOE
on
JO
UJNF
FYQSFTTJPOT
There’s an insect on your forehead. We use at with: She lay on the beach all day. t
points of time: t
with coast, road to, the outskirts of, the edge of, border, the way to/from, etc: at three o’clock, at the end of the lesson, at midnight We can stop at my village, which is on the way to Madrid. t
mealtimes: t
with means of transport apart from cars and taxis (see above): I always get frightened on planes. We can meet at breakfast. t
GPS
UFDIOPMPHZ t
the weekend, Christmas and Easter: He’s been on the phone for hours. I found out about it on Facebook. Why don’t we go to the cinema at the weekend
t
with left and right: t
night when talking about nights in general: Talk to the student on your right. t
with premises, farm, floor, island and list: I prefer to study at night because it’s quieter. It’s on the fifth floor. You’re not on my list of students for this class. /PUF
on the weekend is common in American English. at in on We use in: t
for periods of time: at your/my house in the world on the beach at the festival in the city on the/a train in 2014, in April, in the summer, in the 19th century at the party in the mountains on the island t
for parts of the day: at the theatre in the country on the/a farm at the/your hotel in the town on the outskirts Paola often has a short sleep in the afternoon. (But Paola at the concert in the sky on the floor slept for two hours on Sunday afternoon. See below.) at my school in the hotel on the stage t
to say the period of time before something happens or at the camp in a car on the bus how long something takes: at the university in this area on the road(s) I’ll be going to university in six weeks’ time. at the beach in the countryside on the plane He did the writing task in just 13 minutes. at the airport in the street at the seaside in the sea We use on: in traffic jams t
for particular dates, days, parts of days or types of days: Relative pronouns and relative He was born on July 13th. clauses What are you doing on Sunday night? I got married on a sunny day in August. A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb in a tense which form a sentence or part of a sentence. at, in BOE on
UP
FYQSFTT
MPDBUJPO Relative clauses start with these relative pronouns: who, which, that, whose, where, when and why. We use at: t
when we think of a place as a point, not an area (including relative clause at home, at school, at work, at university): The man who phoned you is my doctor. The postman is at the front door. t
to talk about an event with a number of people: %Fm
OJOH
SFMBUJWF
DMBVTFT I’ll see you at the party tonight! t
for addresses: Relative clauses which tell us which particular person or The party is at 367 Wood Avenue. thing the speaker is talking about are called defining relative clauses. They give essential information: We use in: The doctor who treated me is my cousin. t
when we think of a place as an area or space: The relative clause tells us which doctor we are talking about. Olga lives in St Petersburg. Sonia lives in a large house in the country. t
for cars and taxis: I love listening to music when I’m in the car. t
normally with in class, in hospital, in prison, in court: Patrick is in hospital with a broken leg. t
with people or things which form lines: We stood in the ticket queue for four hours. t
for the world: He’s reputed to be one of the richest men in the world. 172

Language reference /POEFm
OJOH
SFMBUJWF
DMBVTFT We also change these modal verbs: Relative clauses which give us extra information are called can ➔ could ‘I can She said she could non-defining relative clauses: may ➔ might understand understand German must ➔ had to German, but I but she couldn’t My doctor, XIP
CFMPOHT
UP
UIF
TBNF
UFOOJT
DMVC
BT
ZPV, can’t speak it.’ speak it. vaccinated me yesterday. ‘I may give the book to John.’ Sam suggested he We already know which doctor (it’s my doctor); who belongs might give the book to the same tennis club as you does not tell us which doctor ‘I must cook to John. we are talking about; it just adds extra information. dinner.’ Tanya said she had to There are differences in grammar: cook dinner. defining non-defining We do not change these modal verbs in reported speech: relative clauses relative clauses could, would, should, might, ought to and used to: ‘I would prefer to study in London.’ ➔ She said that she t
Don’t have commas. t
Use commas (or would prefer to study in London. t
Use the following relative pauses in spoken English). must can change to had to: pronouns: who, which, whose, ‘You must read this text for the next lesson.’ ➔ My teacher where, when and why. t
Use the following told me I had to read the text for the following lesson. t
Can use that instead of who or relative pronouns: which. who, which, whose, But we don’t change must when: t
who, which or that can be where and when. t
it’s negative: omitted when they are the object of the clause: The t
Don’t use that. ‘You mustn’t tell Katya our secret.’ medicine ( – / which / that) t
The relative ➔ Ana told Stefan he mustn’t tell Katya their secret. the doctor gave me should be t
it expresses a deduction: taken twice a day (the doctor is pronoun cannot be ‘Arturo must still be asleep.’ the subject and – / which / that omitted. ➔ She said that Arturo must still be asleep. the object of the clause). /PUF
If the reporting verb is in a present tense, no tense Reported speech changes are necessary: ‘I’ll help you with your homework.’ ➔ She says she’ll help me with my homework. 5FOTF
DIBOHFT
JO
SFQPSUFE
TQFFDI 2VFTUJPOT
JO
SFQPSUFE
TQFFDI If the reporting verb (said, told, admitted, warned, etc.) is in To report a question, we make the following changes. the past, we tend to change the original verb to a past form t
We change the word order in the question to the same as as well. Here are some changes we make: a normal sentence. present simple ‘I live in Berlin.’ She said she lived in t
We make the same tense changes as in reported speech ➔ past simple Berlin. ‘I’m watching (see above). present TV.’ He said he was t
We use the same question words (when, how, etc.). continuous ➔ watching TV. t
We use a full stop (.), not a question mark (?): past continuous ‘I’ve seen the She said she had seen A)PX
MPOH
IBWF
ZPV
CFFO
MJWJOH
JO
-POEPO 
➔ She asked present perfect film already.’ the film already. me how long I had been living in London. ➔ past perfect A8IFO
DBO
*
QIPOF
ZPV 
➔ Abdullah asked Magdi when ‘I missed the He told me he had he could phone him. past simple ➔ concert.’ missed the concert. t
We do not use the auxiliary verbs do, does and did; the past perfect question has the same form as a normal sentence: ‘I’ll phone you She promised she ‘What time does the lesson start 
➔ Ludmila asked what will ➔ would soon.’ would phone me time the lesson started. soon. t
We use if or whether with Yes/No questions: A$BO
*
DPNF
UP
ZPVS
QBSUZ  ➔ Aniela wanted to know whether she could come to our party. We often use these verbs and phrases to introduce reported questions: ask, wonder, want to know, enquire. 173

Language reference 1SPOPVO
BEKFDUJWF
BOE
BEWFSC
DIBOHFT
JO
WFSC

JOm
OJUJWF
SFQPSUFE
TQFFDI t
agree: Magda agreed to look after the children. t
offer: She offered to take the children to the zoo. We usually make the following changes: t
promise: She’s promised to phone me later. you ➔ he/she/they ‘I spoke to you He said he had spoken WFSC

PCKFDU

JOm
OJUJWF
t
advise: The doctor advised Mrs Carter to take a long earlier.’ to her earlier. holiday. t
ZPVS
➔ his/her/ ‘I saw your He mentioned that he t
ask: The neighbours asked us to turn our music down. their brother had seen her brother t
invite: Patsy has invited me to go to the party with her. earlier.’ earlier. t
order: The police ordered everyone to leave the building. t
PVS
➔ their t
persuade: I persuaded my mother to take a holiday. t
remind: Can you remind me to phone
4UFQIFO this/that ‘You should She told him he should t
tell: Carl told Jane to close all the windows. give it to Joan. t
warn: They warned us not to walk on the ice. (as pronouns) ➔ it give this to WFSC

QSFQPTJUJPO

OPVO
PS
WFSC

-ing
Joan.’ t
accuse of: Sophie accused Marcel of stealing her books. t
admit to: Bill admitted to the mistake. this/that/these/ ‘This work is She told him the work those + noun ➔ very good.’ was very good. Sally admitted to taking the money. the + noun t
apologise for: Tommy apologised for the accident. Remember that references to times also need to change in Mandy apologised for being late. reported speech: t
complain about: The neighbours have been complaining ‘I saw Adam this morning.’ ➔ She said she had seen Adam that morning. about the noise. We complained about being given too much homework Other changes include: to do. present t
today t
that day WFSC

OPVO
PS
WFSC

-ing reference t
this week / t
that week / that month / t
admit: Danny admitted the theft. this month / that year Sue admitted stealing the money. this year t
deny: Silvia denied the crime. future t
tomorrow t
the next / the following day Sean denied causing the accident. reference t
next month/ t
the next / the following t
recommend: I can really recommend this book. past next year month/year I recommend cycling as a way of getting fit. reference t
yesterday t
suggest*: Jasmine suggested the solution to the problem. t
the day before OR the t
last week/ previous day Mike suggested going climbing at the weekend. month/year t
the previous week/month/ WFSC
 (that) 
TFOUFODF
year OR the week/month/ t
admit: Sally admitted (that) she had taken the money. year before t
agree: The headteacher agreed (that) the exam had been Descriptions of place also frequently change: ‘Did I leave my too difficult. book here 
)F
BTLFE
JG
IFE
MFGU
IJT
CPPL
there. t
complain: We complained that we had been given too *NQFSBUJWFT
JO
SFQPSUFE
TQFFDI much homework to do. t
deny: Pablo denied that he had caused the accident. We use verb + infinitive to report orders and commands: t
explain: She explained that she wasn’t feeling very well. ‘Fetch that book!’ ➔ She asked him to fetch the book. t
promise: Mandy promised (that) she would phone later. ‘Don’t look out of the window!’ ➔ She told him not to look t
recommend: The doctor recommended (that) I take more out of the window. exercise. 3FQPSUJOH
WFSCT t
say: Robin said (that) he was going swimming later. t
suggest*: Liz suggested (that) I should try the shopping There are many verbs which we can use to introduce reported speech, each followed by different grammatical centre on the edge of town. patterns. You will see that most verbs can be followed by more than one grammatical pattern. 174

Language reference WFSC

PCKFDU

(that)

TFOUFODF so and such, too and enough t
persuade: I persuaded my mother that she should take a so
BOE
such holiday. t
promise: Lynn promised Charlie (that) she would phone so and such (a/an) mean ‘very’, ‘extremely’: That was so kind of you! him later. I’ve had such a nice time. t
remind: Can I remind you (that) you’ve got to phone We use so and such (a/an) to talk about cause and effect: He was so late that he missed the beginning of the exam. 4UFQIFO She gave such a good performance that she won an Oscar. t
tell: The school told the students (that) they had the rest so + adjective or adverb such + adjective + of the day free. (+ that): uncountable noun / plural t
warn: Nobody warned me (that) my grandmother was noun (+ that) t
)F
XBT
so nervous visiting us today. before the exam that he t
4IF
UFMMT
such good jokes. couldn’t sleep at all. t
4XJU[FSMBOE
IBT
such */PUF
suggest is never followed by the infinitive. The following patterns are possible: t
5IBU
SFNBSL
XBT
KVTU
so spectacular scenery that t
suggest + verb + -ing: silly! we always choose it for our holidays. Maria suggested buying a new computer. t
)F
DPPLT
so well that t
suggest + noun: I think he’ll win the competition. Phil suggested the idea. t
suggest + (that) + sentence: so + much/many/few/little such a/an + adjective + + noun (+ that) singular countable noun Tony suggested that they played football that afternoon. (+ that); such a lot of ... t
suggest + (that) + should: t
8F
IBE
so little money left at the end of our t
8IZ
EJE
ZPV
DPNF
JO
such Chantal suggested (that) I should write a letter. holiday that we had to an old pair of jeans
sleep on a bench in the Other common patterns are: station. t
*U
XBT
such a beautiful day t
ask + if/what, etc. + sentence: that we decided to go for t
.BSUB
NBLFT
so many a picnic. She asked me what I was doing. mistakes when she’s He asked me if I was free. speaking! t
&MFOBT
HPU
such a lot of t
invite + object + to + noun: friends that the telephone Patsy has invited me to the party. never stops ringing.
4
FF
BMTP
QBHF

Infinitive and verb + -ing forms
4
FF
BMTP
QBHF

The passive – the passive with reporting verbs We also use such (+ noun) to mean ‘of a similar type’: When children commit crimes, adults are often shocked. Fortunately such behaviour is not as common as newspapers make us believe. 175

Language reference too
BOE
enough t
for a verb, the stress is not on the final syllable: open – opening t
too means ‘more than is needed or wanted’: She’s too old to join the police. t
the word ends in -w, -x or -y: slow – slower, relax – relaxing, display – displayed t
enough means ‘as much as is necessary or needed’: Have we got enough eggs
UP
NBLF
B
DBLF When adding -ed, a final ’y’ after a consonant becomes ‘i’: study – studied, lovely – loveliest too + adjective (+ noun) + adjective/adverb + enough + When adding -ing, a final ’y’ after a consonant does not (for somebody) (+ infinitive) (for somebody) (+ infinitive) change: study – studying He’s too young to drive. This coffee is not warm /PUF
Notice how the spelling of these words changes: That suitcase is too heavy enough! Please heat it up lie – lying – lied; die – dying – died; lay – laying – laid; for me to lift. again. try – trying – tried Franz didn’t answer the questions convincingly 4QFMMJOH
DIBOHFT
XIFO
BEEJOH
QSFm
YFT
enough to get the job. BOE
PUIFS
TVGm
YFT That hotel is not smart enough for her. We normally do not change the spelling of the base word when we add a prefix or a suffix: too + adverb + (for enough + noun + (for need – unneeded, arrange – arrangement somebody) (+ infinitive); somebody) (+ infinitive) too much / too many + However: noun + (for somebody) (+ Have you got enough money t
we drop the final ‘e’ when there is a consonant before it infinitive) to get
UP
-POEPO There isn’t enough cake in and the suffix begins with a vowel (-er, -ed, -ing, -ance, You’re driving too the cupboard for me to give -ation, etc.): irritate – irritating, fame – famous dangerously. Please slow some to everyone. t
we do not drop the final ‘e’ when the suffix begins with a down. consonant: safe – safety, manage – management They brought too much t
a final ‘y’ becomes ‘i’: industry – industrial food for us to eat. I’ve received too many \"EEJOH
QSFm
YFT
emails to answer. When we add a syllable like un-, dis-, or in- before the word Spelling to make it negative, we do not change the spelling, e.g. with dis- and un-: appoint – disappoint, satisfied – dissatisfied, 4QFMMJOH
DIBOHFT
XIFO
BEEJOH
-ed, -ing, like – unlike, necessary – unnecessary -er
BOE
-est
UP
XPSET /PUF
Before words beginning with ‘r’, we use ir-: irrelevant; We double the final consonant when we add -ed, -ing, -er or before words beginning with ‘m’ or ‘p’, we use im-: -est to words: immature, impatient; before words beginning with ‘l’, we use t
which are one syllable and end in a consonant-vowel- il-: illogical, illiterate. consonant: stop – stopped, hit – hitting, flat – flatter These words are frequently misspelled by exam candidates: t
which have two or more syllables which end in consonant- 5IF
NPTU
DPNNPO
TQFMMJOH
FSSPST
CZ vowel-consonant and the final syllable is stressed:

DBOEJEBUFT admit – admitted, occur – occurring accommodation advertisement beautiful because beginning believe between children /PUF
In British English, we always double a final ‘l’ after a comfortable communicate convenient single vowel: travel – travelling, cancel – cancelled country/countries course different embarrassed/embarrassing environment excellent We don’t double the final consonant when: experience government loose lose necessary t
there are two final consonants: send – sending, nowadays opinion opportunity/opportunities prefer receive recommend restaurant society hard – hardest their until wealthy which t
there are two vowels before the final consonant: appeal – appealed, mean – meanest t
the word ends in a vowel: strike – striking, safe – safest 176

Language reference The passive We use three possible forms: t
He/She is said/thought/considered, etc. + infinitive: The passive is formed by the verb to be + past participle (done/eaten/cleaned, etc.). Lions are known to hunt in this area. Elena is thought to be highly intelligent. active passive t
Verbs that we can use with this pattern are: t
They ate all the food t
\"MM
UIF
GPPE
was eaten consider expect feel know say suppose think very quickly. very quickly. understand t
We’ve sold the car. t
5IF
DBS
has been sold. t
To talk about the past, we can use: She is said to have t
*UT
OJDF
XIFO
people t
*UT
OJDF
XIFO
I’m invited played/eaten/been, etc.: The Prime Minister is understood to have spoken to the invite me to dinner. to dinner. rebels on the phone. t
0O
B
DMFBS
EBZ
you t
0O
B
DMFBS
EBZ
*CJ[B
t
It is said/thought/considered, etc. + that + a sentence: can see Ibiza from the can be seen from the It is thought that Elena is highly intelligent. mainland. mainland. It is known that lions hunt in this area. We use the passive when: t
Verbs that we can use with this pattern are: t
what happens is more important than who does it: agree announce consider decide expect feel The car has been repaired, so we can go away this find know propose recommend say suggest weekend. suppose think understand t
we don’t know who or what does/did something: My mobile phone has been stolen! t
It is agreed/planned, etc. + infinitive: t
we don’t need to say who or what does/did something It has been agreed to change the dates of the meeting. because it’s obvious from the situation or context: The law was passed earlier this year (obviously by a t
Verbs that we can use with this pattern are: government). t
when writing in an official style: agree decide forbid hope plan propose Your ticket has been booked and can be collected from our office. Using commas 5IF
QBTTJWF
XJUI
get We use commas (,): t
when we make lists: t
We can use get instead of be to form the passive, especially when we want to say that something happened I like playing tennis, listening to music, chatting with to someone or something: friends and watching TV. He got hurt playing football yesterday. (He was hurt.) I’m afraid we were playing football and one of your /PUF
We don’t use a comma with the final item on the list; windows got broken. (One of your windows was broken.) we use and. t
get is used mainly in informal spoken English. t
to separate adjectives when there are a number of t
We only use get when something happens or changes: adjectives before the noun: He’s an enthusiastic, hard-working student. He got arrested by the police. t
It is not possible with state verbs: /PUF
With short common adjectives, commas are not necessary: The car got owned by a film star. The car was owned by a My village is quite a friendly little place. film star. t
after an adverb or a short introductory phrase at 5IF
QBTTJWF
XJUI
SFQPSUJOH
WFSCT the beginning of a sentence such as first, as a result, consequently, for this reason, all in all, generally, finally, We often use the passive to report what people say, think, however, in my opinion, etc.: etc., especially when we don’t know who said it or thought Generally, people in my country start university aged 19. it, or it’s not important: In my opinion, young people should help their parents to The Queen is thought to be suffering from a heavy cold. do the housework. Fernando Alonso is considered to be the best Spanish Formula One driver of all time. This use of the passive is common in news reports. 177

Language reference t
after a time phrase at the beginning of a sentence: 4UBUF
WFSCT In 2014, he left school and went to university. We do not usually use verbs which describe states, not t
after clauses at the beginning of sentences starting actions, in the continuous. These verbs describe: with if, unless, when, while, after, before, although, even though, whereas, as, etc.: t
thoughts: believe, know, remember, think (meaning When everyone in a family helps with the housework, they ‘believe’), feel (meaning ‘believe’), suppose, etc. have a better relationship. t
feelings: love, like, hate, want, prefer, etc. t
when we join two sentences with but, we often put a t
senses: smell, hear, taste, see, feel, touch comma before but: t
possession: have, belong, own, etc. He got quite good marks in his exams, but he wasn’t t
the verb to be happy with his results. Using it, this, that or they /PUF
t
When think means ‘to use your brain to plan something, We use it, this and that (in the plural they, these and those) to refer to something we have already mentioned. Often solve a problem, make a decision’, etc., it can be used in more than one of them is correct in the context. However: the continuous: t
we use it when we are not making any emphasis: I’m thinking about what to do today. (I’m planning.) t
When feel means ‘to experience something physical or I prefer listening to live music. It’s more spontaneous. emotional’, it can be used in the continuous: t
this and that are more emphatic in drawing attention to I don’t want to come to the party because I’m feeling tired. the thing just mentioned: Candidates often spell these words wrong:
People usually listen to music through headphones. writting writing studing studying comming coming There’s some evidence that this damages their hearing. t
we often use this when:

4FF
BMTP
QBHF

Spelling
– we still have something more to say about the thing 1SFTFOU
QFSGFDU
TJNQMF
BOE
DPOUJOVPVT we are referring to:
File sharing has become a common activity. This is Both the present perfect simple and present perfect continuous talk about something which started in the past having serious effects on the music industry. and:
– we refer to the second of two things mentioned in t
either has a result in the present: the previous sentence. Compare: He’s twisted his ankle, so he can’t play football with us
1 While many festivals are welcomed by local this afternoon. I’ve been partying all weekend, so I’m feeling tired now. people, they are usually very noisy. This means t
or is still happening now: that people living in the district find it hard to We’ve been building an extension to our house (and we sleep. (This = the noise) haven’t finished yet).
2 While many festivals are welcomed by local people, they are usually very noisy. Also, they are Often they are interchangeable. However: normally held in the summer. (they = the festivals) t
we often use that in conditional sentences: The present The present I think that every town and village should have a festival if perfect simple perfect continuous that is what local people want. emphasises the SFTVMU: emphasises the BDUJPO: Verb tenses I’ve phoned all my friends I’ve been phoning my friends and they’re coming to the (and that’s why I haven’t 4JNQMF
BOE
DPOUJOVPVT
GPSNT party. done my homework). t
Present simple describes a situation which is permanent, says how much of an says how long the activity or happens regularly: activity is DPNQMFUF: has been JO
QSPHSFTT: Paul lives in London. I’ve written two essays. I’ve been studying all He catches the bus at eight every morning. afternoon. t
Present continuous describes a temporary situation or one in progress: I’m staying with my aunt while Mum and Dad are away. He’s playing tennis at the moment. 178

Language reference may give the idea that may give the idea that used to something is QFSNBOFOU something is UFNQPSBSZ (and (and may be accompanied may be accompanied by a We use used to to talk about: by a time expression which time expression which shows t
situations or states in the past which are not true now: shows this): this): My dad has worked in the I’ve been working here for My maths teacher used to be in the army. same shop all his life. I’ve the last two months until I go t
repeated activities or habits in the past which do not always lived here. to university. We’ve been eating dinner in happen now: the garden during the warm She used to run in the London Marathon every year until weather. she injured her leg. is used when we want to when we want to emphasise /PUF
We only use used to in the past: She used to run in marathons. say IPX
NBOZ
UJNFT
an UIF
QSPDFTT
PG
DIBOHF
PWFS
B
Did you use to SVO
JO
NBSBUIPOT I didn’t use to run in marathons. action has been repeated: QFSJPE
PG
UJNF and that these t
When we want to talk about habits in the present, we use I’ve invited her two or three changes are not finished: the present simple with an adverb like usually, every day, etc.: times, but she always says My teacher says my English I usually drink tea with my lunch. He catches the same train every day. she’s busy. has been improving since I 1BTU
QFSGFDU
TJNQMF
BOE
DPOUJOVPVT started doing my homework! 1BTU
QFSGFDU
TJNQMF 3FNFNCFS State verbs are not normally used in the continuous. We use the past perfect simple: t
to indicate that we are talking about something which
4
FF
BMTP
QBHF

Verb tenses – state verbs happened before something which is described in the 1BTU
TJNQMF
QBTU
DPOUJOVPVT
BOE
used to past simple: When he got to the station, his train had already left. 1BTU
TJNQMF Compare this with: When he got to the station, his train left. We use the past simple to talk about: This indicates that the train left at the time he arrived. t
actions or events in the past: I visited Egypt last year. t
typically with time expressions such as when, as soon as, t
actions or events which happened one after another: after, before, etc.: She started driving before he’d fastened his seatbelt. I saw the Pyramids, then I went round the Cairo Museum t
often with these adverbs: already, just, never: and later I went to a traditional restaurant. He’d never eaten steak and kidney pie until he came to t
things which happened for a long time in the past: England. She lived in Zurich for ten years from 2003 to 2013. 1BTU
QFSGFDU
DPOUJOVPVT 1BTU
DPOUJOVPVT We use the past perfect continuous to show that we are We use the past continuous to talk about: talking about something which happened before something t
an activity which started before and continued until an which is described in the past simple, but it: t
focuses on the length of time: event in the past: He was riding to school when his motorbike broke down. Mandy needed a walk because she’d been sitting down (The activity of riding was interrupted by the problem all day. with the motorbike.) t
says how long something happened up to a point in the t
an activity which started before and continued after an past: event in the past: It was two months before any of the teachers noticed that I was watching television when the news was announced. Paula hadn’t been coming to school. (I continued to watch television afterwards.) He’d been playing for Arsenal for only two games when he scored his first goal. 3FNFNCFS State verbs are not normally used in the continuous.

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Verb tenses – state verbs 179

Language reference wish, if only and hope /PUF
This use of wish / if only is similar to third conditional, i.e. it uses a past perfect tense to refer to something which We use wish / if only + past simple to say we would like a is contrary to the facts in the past. present situation to be different: I wish I had a warmer jacket. (This one doesn’t keep me warm.) If only means ‘I wish’. When talking about other people, we If only it was the summer holidays! (But it isn’t – I’m still at use he wishes, they wish, etc. We use if only when we feel school.) something very strongly. Otherwise we use I wish. /PUF
This use of wish / if only is similar to second We use hope when we want something to happen or to be conditional, i.e. it uses a past tense to refer to something true, and usually have a good reason to think that it might: which is contrary to the facts in the present. I hope you have a good holiday. She hopes her students will get a high grade in their exams. We use wish / if only + would to say: t
we want something to happen: /PUF
We use hope + present/future tense with a future meaning, especially when the subject of the two clauses is I wish my car would start. (I can’t make it start and I want different, i.e. I and you in I hope you have a good holiday. it to start.) We often use hope + infinitive when there is only one t
we want someone to start doing something they don’t do: subject to the sentence: If only you’d listen to me! He hopes to go into politics in the future. (He hopes he’ll go t
or we want someone to stop doing something which into politics in the future.) annoys us: If only my mum wouldn’t phone me every five minutes! We can use hope when we want something to be true about the past, but we don’t know if it is true: We use wish / if only + past perfect to talk about things I hope you had a good flight. (but I don’t know if you had a which we are unhappy about which happened in the past: good flight.) He wishes he had studied harder when he was at school. (He didn’t study hard enough – perhaps if he had studied harder he would have gone to university.) wish or Optimistic about I hope the weather hope? something? Use will improve so we hope. can go fishing this afternoon. Talking about I wish I lived in a present London. She situation? Use wishes she had wish + past more money. simple. Pessimistic Talking about I wish you wouldn’t about something play such loud something you would like music. He wishes happening, or to happen or his daughter would sure it won’t something come home earlier. happen? Use you would like wish. someone to do? Use wish + would. Talking about I XJTI I hadn’t past time? Use eaten so much cake wish + past – I’m feeling sick. perfect. She wished she had gone to university. 180

Language reference Word formation Some of the most common suffixes are listed below. 'PSNJOH
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OPVOT EP WFSC
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OPVO You can form personal nouns (nouns which describe people suffix verb noun who do particular activities) by adding: -ment t
-er, -or, -ant, -ee to a verb, e.g. entertain – entertainer, -ation/-ition/ adjust adjustment -tion/-sion operate – operator, inhabit – inhabitant, refer – referee combine combination t
-ist, -ian, -man/-woman/-person to a noun, e.g. motor – -er/-or define definition create creation motorist, electricity – electrician, post – postman -ance/-ence divide division \"EEJOH
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NFBOJOHT -ee guide guidance You can give some words the negative meaning by adding exist existence a prefix (e.g. dis- + like = dislike) to the beginning of a word. Here are some common prefixes which give a negative inhabit inhabitant meaning: t
dis-: discourage approve approval t
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inexperienced t
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unbelievable employ employee Before many words beginning with: EP BEKFDUJWF
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OPVO t
‘l’ we add the prefix il-: illegal t
‘m’ and ‘p’ we add the prefix im-: impatient suffix adjective noun t
‘r’ we add the prefix ir-: irresponsible -ance/-ence relevant relevance Other prefixes and their meanings: -ness patient patience t
mis- usually means ‘wrongly’ or ‘badly’: -ity friendly friendliness misunderstand (= understand wrongly or badly) t
re- usually means ‘do again’ and is often added to verbs: popular popularity available availability rewrite (= write again) t
inter- means ‘between or among’: interact EP OPVO
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When you add a prefix to a word, the spelling of the suffix noun adjective original word does not change: dis + satisfied = dissatisfied -y boss bossy -ful meaning meaningful \"EEJOH
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YFT -ous fury furious -less hope hopeless You can form verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs from -al emotion emotional other related or base words by adding a suffix (e.g. appear -ic optimist optimistic + -ance = appearance) to the end of the word. There are no -ish child childish clear rules – each word and the words which can be formed from it must be learned individually. EP OPVO
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Spelling – spelling changes when adding suffix noun noun prefixes and other suffixes -ism critic criticism -ist motor motorist -ship partner partnership 181

Language reference EP BEKFDUJWFOPVO
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BEKFDUJWFOPVO suffix adjective / verb -ify noun -ise/-ize simplify simple classify class specialise/specialize criticise/criticize special critic EP WFSC
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BEKFDUJWF suffix verb adjective -ed educate educated -ing mislead misleading -able/-ible rely reliable respond responsible -ent confide confident -ive compete competitive EP BEKFDUJWF
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BEWFSC Adverbs are almost always formed by adding -ly. If the adjective ends in -ic, you change it to an adverb by adding -ally. suffix adjective adverb -ly / -ally simple simply organic organically 182

Language reference Words which are often confused These words are often confused by candidates at Cambridge English: First. 6OJU

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 food noun [U] something that people and animals eat, assist verb [I or T] formal: to help: You will be expected to or plants absorb, to keep them alive: baby food. assist the editor with the selection of illustrations for the There was lots of food and drink at the party. book. dish FOOD noun [C] food prepared in a particular way attend BE PRESENT verb [I or T] slightly formal: to go to as part of a meal: a chicken/vegetarian dish an event, place, etc.: The meeting is on the fifth and we’re hoping everyone will attend. meal FOOD noun [C] an occasion when food is eaten, or the food which is eaten on such an occasion: I have get to know sb/sth: to spend time with somebody or my main meal at midday. You must come round for a something so that you gradually learn more about them: meal sometime. The first couple of meetings are for the doctor and patient to get to know each other. 6OJU

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 join BECOME A MEMBER verb [I or T]: to become a fun or funny? member of an organisation: I felt so unfit after Christmas that I decided to join a gym. If something is fun, you enjoy doing it. I really liked the skating – it was such fun. take part: to be involved in an activity with other people: She doesn’t usually take part in any of the class activities. 1 If something is funny, it makes you laugh. It’s a very funny film. know or find out? 2 If something is funny, it is strange, surprising, If you know something, you already have the information. unexpected or difficult to explain or understand. Andy knows what time the train leaves. The washing machine is making a funny noise again. If you find something out, you learn new information for possibility, occasion or opportunity? the first time. I’ll ring the station to find out what time the train leaves. A possibility is a chance that something may happen or be true. Possibility cannot be followed by an infinitive. learn, teach or study? Is there a possibility of getting a job in your organisation? To learn is to get new knowledge or skills. An occasion is an event, or a time when something I want to learn how to drive. happens. Occasion does not mean ‘chance’ or ‘opportunity.’ Birthdays are always special occasions. When you teach someone, you give them new knowledge or skills. An opportunity is a possibility of doing something, My dad taught me how to drive. or a situation which gives you the possibility of doing something. When you study, you go to classes, read books, etc. to The trip to Paris gave me an opportunity to speak French. try to understand new ideas and facts. I have more opportunity to travel than my parents did. He is studying biology at university. work or job? Work is something you do to earn money. This noun is uncountable. She enjoys her work in the hospital. Job is used to talk about the particular type of work activity which you do. This noun is countable. He’s looking for a job in computer programming. 183

Language reference 6OJU

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 look, see or watch? stay verb to continue doing something, or to continue to See means to notice people and things with your eyes. be in a particular state: She saw a big spider and screamed. He’s decided not to stay in teaching. The shops stay open until nine o’clock. Look (at) is used when you are trying to see something or someone. If look is followed by an object, you must spend verb to use time doing something or being use a preposition. The usual preposition is at. somewhere: I’ve looked everywhere, but can’t find my keys. My sister always spends ages in the bathroom. I looked at the map to find the road. pass verb If you pass time, you do something to stop Watch means to look at something for a period of time, yourself being bored during that period: usually something which moves or changes. The visitors pass their days swimming, windsurfing and He watched television all evening. playing volleyball. listen, listen to or hear? make verb (+ noun/adjective) to cause to be, to become Use hear when you want to say that sounds, music, or to appear as: etc. come to your ears. You can hear something without It’s the good weather that makes Spain such a popular wanting to. tourist destination. I could hear his music through the wall. Don’t stand over me all the time – it makes me nervous. Use listen to say that you pay attention to sounds or try cause verb to make something happen, especially to hear something. something bad: The audience listened carefully. The difficult driving conditions caused several accidents. Use listen to when you want to say what it is that you are Some common collocations with cause: cause trouble, trying to hear. cause problems, cause damage, cause traffic jams, The audience listened to the speaker. cause stress, cause pollution. 6OJU

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 Note, however, these collocations: have an effect (on): The good weather has had a acting noun [U] the job of performing in films or plays: beneficial effect on his health and happiness. He wants to get into acting. have/make an impact (on): The anti-smoking campaign had/made quite an impact on young people. audience group noun [C] the group of people gathered in one place to watch or listen to a play, film, someone speaking, etc., or the (number of) people watching or listening to a particular television or radio programme, or reading a particular book performance noun [C] the action of entertaining other people by dancing, singing, acting or playing music play noun [C] a piece of writing that is intended to be acted in a theatre or on radio or television (the) public noun [U + singular or plural verb] all ordinary people scene noun [C] a part of a play or film in which the action stays in one place for a continuous period of time spectator noun [C] a person who watches an activity, especially a sports event, without taking part stage noun [C] the area in a theatre which is often raised above ground level and on which actors or entertainers perform 184

Language reference 6OJU

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 arrive (+ at) verb to reach a place, especially at the end space EMPTY PLACE noun [C or U] an empty area of a journey: which is available to be used: It was dark by the time we arrived at the station. Is there any space for my clothes in that cupboard? You arrive at a building or part of a building: place AREA noun [C] an area, town, building, etc.: We arrived at the theatre just as the play was starting. Her garden was a cool, pleasant place to sit. You arrive in a town, city or country: [U] a suitable area, building, situation or occasion: When did you arrive in London? University is a great place for making new friends. You arrive home/here/there: We arrived home yesterday. room SPACE noun [C or U] the amount of space that someone or something needs: get (+ to) verb to reach or arrive at a place: That sofa would take up too much room in the flat. If you get to the hotel before us, just wait at reception. area PLACE noun [C or U] a particular part of a place, You get home/here/there: piece of land or country: What time does he normally get home? All areas of the country will have some rain tonight. location POSITION noun [C or U] SLIGHTLY FORMAL reach verb to arrive at a place, especially after spending a place or position: a long time or a lot of effort travelling: The hotel is in a lovely location overlooking the lake. We finally reached the hotel just after midnight. A map showing the location of the property will be sent It is not normally followed by a preposition. It is not to you. normally used with here or there. square SHAPE noun [C] an area of approximately square-shaped land in a city or a town, often including 6OJU

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 the buildings that surround it: A band were playing in the town square. prevent verb to stop something from happening or someone from doing something: 185 Label your suitcases to prevent confusion. avoid verb to stay away from someone or something: We left early to avoid the traffic. protect verb to keep someone or something safe from injury, damage or loss: It’s important to protect your skin from the harmful effects of the sun. check verb to make certain that something or someone is correct, safe or suitable by examining it or them quickly: You should always check your oil, water and tyres before taking your car on a long trip. After I’d finished the exam, I checked my answers for mistakes. supervise verb to watch a person or activity to make certain that everything is done correctly, safely, etc.: The UN is supervising the distribution of aid by local agencies in the disaster area. control verb to order, limit, instruct or rule something, or someone’s actions or behaviour: If you can’t control your dog, put it on a lead! The temperature is controlled by a thermostat. keep an eye on to watch or look after something or someone: Will you keep your eye on my suitcase while I go to get the tickets?

Unit 1 3 not as ... as Comparison This structure is used to compare two things or people. A less common form is not so ... as. There are various ways of making comparisons in English. Sally is not as tall as her brother. Comparative and superlative adjectives 4 Comparative and superlative adverbs Regular adjectives of one syllable have forms like these: Comparative adverbs are usually formed by adding more to the existing adverb: Adjective Comparative Superlative commonly -7 more commonly yo ung yo u n g e r (the) yo ungest large larger (the) largest readily -7 more readily slim slimmer (the) slimmest Superlative adverbs are usually formed by adding (the) most to the existing adverb: ote that if an adjective ends in a single vowel and commonly -7 (the) most commonly consonant (not w), the final letter is doubled, as in slim above. Some common examples are: readily -7 (the) most readily sad, big, thin, fat, hot, wet. A few adverbs are not formed with more I most and consist Two-syllable adjectives ending in a consonant followed by of a single word for both the comparative and superlative the letter y are formed like this: forms. Here are some common examples: Adjective Comparative Superlative badly -7 worse -7 worst dirty dirtier (the) dirtiest close -7 closer -7 closest early -7 earlier -7 earliest Some common examples are: far -7 farther/further -7 farthest/furthest angry, busy, easy, funny, happy, heavy, silly, tiny. fast -7 faster -7 fastest Most other two-syllable adjectives and all longer adjectives hard -7 harder -7 hardest form their comparative and superlative fo rms like this: near -7 nearer -7 nearest well -7 better -7 best Adjective Comparative Superlative careful more careful (the) most careful casual more casual (the) most casual Unit 2 outrageous more outrageous (the) most Aaverbs outrageous Most regular adverbs are formed by adding -Ly to a related adjective: Some common two-syllable adjectives have both forms: quick -7 quickly, endless -7 endlessly Adjectives ending in double LI just add y: Adjective Comparative Superlative full -7 fully simple simpler OR (the) simplest OR However, there are sometimes spelling changes when an adverb more simple (the) most simple is formed in this way: -le becomes -ly: gentle -7 gently, remarkable -7 Other examples are: remarkably clever, common, cruel, ge ntle, likely, narrow, pleasant, polite. -y becomes -ily: easy -7 easily, cosy -7 cosily -ic becomes -ically: tragic -7 tragically, Irregular adjectives have the following forms: automatic -7 automatically -ue becomes -uly: true -7 truly Adjective Comparative Superlative good better (the) best Some irregular adverbs do not end in -ly: bad worse (the) worst fast, hard, late, well. far farther/ further (the) farthest/ furthest The adve rbs hardly and lately have different meanings from hard old older/ elder (the) oldest/ eldest and Late: 1 worked hard on the project all day. 2 Adverbs of degree I hardly had time to stop for a coffee all day. These adverbs of degree can be used in fro nt of comparative I finished the work Late in the evening. adjectives: I've put in some long hours at work Lately. a bit, a good deal, a great deal, a little, a lot, much, rather, slightly. This T-shirt is a bit cheaper than the others because it's Last year's design. Helen is much more intelligent than the rest of the group. These adverbs of degree can be used in front of superlative adjectives: by far, easily, much, quite. You're easily the cleverest person I know! GRAMMAR FOLDER

Review of present tenses 3 had to Had to is used to talk about past and reported obligations: Uses of the present simple tense I had to help on the farm when I was young. We were told we had to get a visa before we left on holiday. • Permanent situations There are also other ways to express obligation: Most people access the Internet for information. to make someone do something to be compulsory • Habitual situations I check my emails twice a day. Weak obligation: should ought to • In time clauses Present and future should do ought to do Once you finish your work, give me a ring. Past should have done We usually play tennis until it gets dark. ought to have done • In zero conditionals There is no d iffe rence in meaning between should and ought to. You ought to/should write home more frequently. Ifyou use all seven letters in the board game Scrabble, you get In the past should have done and ought to have done are often used for criticism or regret, because an action didn't happen: fifty extra points. We should have bought/ ought to have bought your sister a card for Stearn forms when water boils. her birthday. Uses of the present continuous tense Asking for and giving permission: can could may • Temporary situations Can is the more usual way of asking for and giving permission. I'm living at home until I find my own flat. Could is a bit more polite and may is quite formal : Can/ may/could I borrow your bike? • Developing situations Yes, you can/ may. Traffic is becoming heavier and heavier. Other ways of asking for and giving permission are: • Events happening now to allow someone to do Sit still while I'm talking to you! to permit someone to do to let someone do • Events in the near future Tim's leaving for Hanover next week. Prohibition: mustn't can't See Unit 10, Review offuture tenses (page 192), for further Present and future mustn't can't information about the present simple and present continuous Past was not to couldn't tenses . Mustn't and can't are used when something is forbidden: Stative verbs are not normally used in continuous tenses. The You mustn't cross the road without looking. commonest of these are: Elizabeth can't go out this evening - her father says so. admire be believe belong consist dislike doubt O ther verbs which can be used are: fit forget guess hate hear imagine include to forbid someone to do something to ban someone from doing something keep know like love mean prefer realise to not allow someone to do something to not permit someone to do something recognise remember seem smell sound to not let someone do something. suppose taste understand want wish She keep s talking when I'm trying to watch TV We wish we could be with you right now. Unit 3 It is also possible to use an imperative: Don't cycle on the pavement! Medals 1: Obligation, necessity and permission Strong obligation: must and have to, have got to Unit 4 (Informal) as and like Present and future must have to have got to (See also grammar summary in Unit 4) Past had to Like can be used as a preposition and is followed by a noun (like must a house), a pronoun (like it), or a gerund (like swimming) . It is Must is used to talk about strong obligations in the present used to give a comparison: and future that are imposed by the speaker. Your house is like our house/ ours. (is similar to ours) You must brush your teeth before you go to bed. My bed is so hard it's like sleeping on the ground. I must arrange to have my windows cleaned. (It is also used to talk about laws: Drivers must obey traffic As can be used as a preposition to tell you what job or function signals.) a person or thing has: As a chef, I have to cook one hundred meals a day. 2 have to/have got to I used the tin as a cup to drink out of Have to/have got to are used to talk about strong obligations in the present and future that are not imposed by the speaker. Please note these other uses of as and like. I've got to do some homework tonight. (My teacher says so.) It's like Living in a palace, living in your house. (It's not a palace.) If in doubt whether to use must or have to, use have to . Do As a palace, Windsor is very impressive. (It is a palace.) not use I've to, which is incorrect. GRAMMAR FOLDER

As is used in prepositional phrases: Review of past tenses At my school, as at most schools, pupils were expected to respect their teachers. Past simple Some verbs can be followed by an object and as: This is used to talk about events in the past which: He is known as a generous person. • occurred at a particular time I don't regard learning a language as optional. The Titanic sank in 1912. Like and such as can be used to mean 'for example': I drove back from London last night. I enjoy films like/such as thrillers. This indicates a completed action in the past with a fixed I dislike sports such as/ like skiing. time phrase. • happened regularly As can be a conjunction and is followed by a subject and verb: Matthew spent most weekends at tennis tournaments. She cut up the vegetables as I had taught her. (in the way I had She burst into tears every time she heard his name. taught her) Note that would and used to are also used to talk about the past in this way - this is dealt with in Unit 8 (page 191). In British English it is becoming more common to hear like followed by a subject and verb. Like followed by a subject and Past continuous verb is acceptable in American English: I don't speak like he does. This is used to talk about events in the past which: • had a longer duration than another action Units I was cutting up vegetables in the kitchen when Table of common irregular verbs I heard it on the six o'clock news. • were temporary INFINITIVE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE Norwich were losing two-nil, with only five minutes to go. become became (has/had) become bet bet bet It is also used to set the scene in a story: The sun was shining burst burst burst when the old man set offfrom the cottage. buy bought bought cut cut cut Present perfect draw drew drawn drive drove driven This is used to talk about events or a period of time which: eat ate eaten • started in the past but are still true or are still continuing feel felt felt find found found We've lived here for eight years. get got got Ellen has eaten no meat since she was six. hear heard heard • happened in the past but have an effect in the present hit hit hit They've cancelled tonight's concert so we'll have to do something hold held held else. keep kept kept I've heard from Iain again. know knew known leave left left Past perfect lose lost lost put put put This is used to talk about events which: run ran run • happened earlier than something else say said said see saw seen Ken sat in the dark miserably and thought about what he had send sent sent said to his girlfriend. set set set Once I had finished my exams, I started clubbing again. shake shook shaken shut shut shut Note that the past perfect needs to be used when it is sink sank sunk important to show a time difference. speak spoke spoken spend spent spent Unit 14 deals with the perfect tenses in more detail (page 194). swim swam swum take took taken Unit 6 tell told told think thought thought Conditionals with if and unless These are normally used to talk about possible events and the effects of them. There are four main types: • Zero conditional ot a true conditional, as the events described both happen. If I stay up late, I feel awful the next day. When the moon passes between the earth and the sun, there is an eclipse. If/ When + present tense I present tense • First conditional Used to talk about likely events in the future if something happens. If I pass Cambridge First, I'll have a big party! If you don't stop talking, I'll send you to the head teacher. If+ present tense I future tense will ~ GRAMMAR FOLDER

• Second conditional • after verb and preposition combinations Used to talk about unlikely or impossible situations. I don't approve of people drinking and driving. If I won the lottery, I'd give all the money to Oxfam. Common examples: People might behave differently if they had the chance to repeat insist on approve of apologise for consist of believe in succeed in their lives. accuse someone of congratulate someone on If+ past tense I would, could, might • after phrasal verbs I gave up playing tennis when I hurt my knee. • Third conditional Used to speculate about the past. The infinitive If we'd had more money, we'd have gone to the States last year. The infinitive is used: Ifyou'd told me the truth in the first place, I wouldn't have • after certain verbs asked the teacher. I learnt to speak Spanish in Valencia. If Tom had taken his guitar, he could have played with the Common examples: hope want afford agree ask choose help prefer used band that night. intend pretend promise expect If+ past perfect I would have, could have, might have + past • after certain adjectives I was surprised to see him at the party. participle (Unit 21 deals with mixed conditionals.) Common examples: difficult possible happy certain simple Unless is a conjunction meaning 'if no( so the clause following unless never contains a negative verb form: • after verbs which follow the pattern verb + someone I'll see you at the station at 7.00 unless I hear from you. + to do + something Unless we book train tickets in advance, we won't get a discount. I asked her to open the window. Unit 7 Common examples: encourage permit allow persuade teach force Gerunds and infinitives 1 • to express purpose The gerund I went to the shops to get some bread. The gerund is a verb which is used as a noun. It can be the The infinitive without to subject of a clause or sentence: Climbing the hill took them all This is also used after modal auxiliaries (can, must), after let, had day, or the object: I consider learning to save to be an essential better and would rather. part ofgrowing up. Make has no to in the active, but adds to in the passive: I made him go to school /He was made to go to school. You use the gerund: Unit 8 • after certain verbs and expressions, especially those expressing liking/disliking: used to and would I don't mind getting up early in the morning. Used to and would express habitual actions in the past. Common examples: • Used to is followed by the infinitive and is used for actions like Jove enjoy adore fancy feel don't mind detest hate loathe can't stand dislike which no longer happen. It is used for permanent situations finish avoid give up keep miss as well as habitual actions. suggest consider imagine I used to have a tricycle when I was five years old. it's not worth it's/there's no use there's no point (in) John used to have long hair before he joined the army. • after all prepositions except to The negative is didn't used to, though sometimes didn't use to (Some exceptions to this rule are: to look forward to doing, to is used. object to doing, to get used to doing.) I didn't used to go abroad for my holidays before I won the lottery. On hearing the news, she burst into tears. • Would is used for past habitual actions which were repeated. • after adjective and preposition combinations Would takes an infinitive without to. Steven is fantastic at cooking Thai food. I would get up for work at seven, then get the bus at seven-thirty. Common examples: • Get/ Be used to doing means to get or to be accustomed to. It good/wonderful/fantastic/bad/awful/ terrible at can be used with all tenses and is always followed by a gerund happy/pleased/glad/anxious/sad/worried about (an -ing word). afraid/frightened/scared/terrified of interested in keen on capable of proud of Another common use is with the noun difficulty (to have difficulty in). GRAMMAR FOLDER

Unit 9 • offers or promises relating to the future I'll prepare some salads for the party. Modals 2: Speculation and deduction I'll do my homework after this episode of 'The Simpsons'. • could, might, may are used to speculate about something the Remember that the future simple is also used in the first speaker or writer is unsure about: conditional. It could be a sea eagle, though the feathers look too dark. That star you're looking at might in fact be Jupiter. The 'going to' future can be used for: The answer may be to readvertise the job. • future plans, particularly if they are likely to happen soon • must is used to indicate certainty: I'm go ing to clear out the kitchen cupboards at the weekend. That car must be doing over 50 mph at least! • intentions It must be possible to make a booking on the Internet. James says he's going to work harder. • can't/cannot and couldn't/could not are also used to indicate • predictions based on facts or events in the present certainty, in relation to impossible ideas and situations: It can't be her birthday - she had a party in August. It's going to snow tonight. You cannot be serious! They couldn't possibly be here before lunchtime. The present continuous tense can be used for: • couldn't/could not can also be used in questions, sometimes • imminent future events with possibly, to speculate about something: I'm having a meeting with Charlotte at two o'clock. It couldn't possibly be a case of mistaken identity, could it? Couldn't it be a computer error? • definite future arrangements Johnny's starting school next September. • could have, might have, may have are used to express uncertainty about something in the past: The present simple can be used for: It could have been Greg you saw on the bus - he often catches • events based on a timetable or known date the 206. The dinosaurs might have survived without the meteor impact. The plane leaves at 09.45. I think I may have met you before. 'Twelfth Night' opens on Saturday at the Arts Theatre. • future intentions • couldn't have I can't have are used to express certainty that NASA plans to send further rockets to Mars. something in the past was impossible or didn't happen: • definite planned events He couldn't have damaged your bike - he was with me all The new pool is due to open in April. evening. It can't have been raining, as the path is completely dry. The future continuous tense is used: • to indicate certainty, when we are thinking ahead to a certain • must have is used to express near-certainty about something in the past: point in the future. It must have been cold that winter. Tom will be sharing an office with Fran. Jan must have arrived home by now. The future perfect simple is used: Order of adjectives • to refer to events that have not yet happened but will Opinion adjectives always come before descriptive adjectives: definitely do so at a given time. This tense also conveys the the brilliant French film 'Le Bossu' idea of completion at some point in the future. an appalling old brown tracksuit This time next year I'll have finished my course. Descriptive adjectives generally follow this order: Space tourism will have become a reality by 2030. size shape age colour nationality material a small oval brooch The future perfect continuous tense is used: the young American film star It is unusual to have four or more adjectives together - • to indicate duration. a separate phrase is more commonly used: At the end ofJune, Henry will have been working here for sixteen a slim-cut black leather jacket with a classic Italian look years. Unit 10 Unit 11 Review of future tenses Past and present participles There are many ways of talking about the future in English. The past participles bored, interested, thrilled, etc. are used when Sometimes, more than one tense is possible, with no change we want to talk about how people feel: of meaning. I was thrilled when I received her birthday invitation. The present participles boring, interesting, thrilling, etc. are used The future simple tense shall/will can be used for: to describe what causes the feeling: The film was so boring that I fell asleep. • future plans I'll give you a ring sometime. • definite future events Our representative will meet you at the airport. • predictions based on general beliefs Mass space travel will soon become possible. ~I GRAMMAR FOLDER

Unit 12 Robert's mother said that after he had left primary school, he had grown up very quickly. The passive When something is reported that is a general truth, there is often no tense change: The passive is used: 'Girls' exam results are generally better than boys',' the head teacher admitted. • when the action is more important than the person doing it: The head teacher admitted that girls' exam results are generally The film is loaded into the camera automatically. better than boys'. There are a number of different reporting verbs in English. Here • when we don't know who did something: is a list of common ones, showing the structures they can take: The camera was put together in a factory. accuse + of+ -ing • frequently, in news reporting, scientific writing and other Mary accused Nick of deliberately forgetting to tell her. kinds of writing where we are more interested in events and processes than in the person doing the action: admit+ to (optional)+ -ing; admit+ that (optional) A factory was set alight during the weekend and two million The company admitted to selling banned products. pounds' worth of damage was caused. I admit that I was to blame. Formation of the passive apologise + for+ -ing James apologised for being late. The passive is formed with the verb to be and the past participle of a transitive verb. For modals it is formed with the modal + be argue +for+ -ing; argue that (optional) + past participle. The department argued convincingly for having extra staff Get can sometimes be used informally instead of be. Sally argued that it was unnecessary to delay th e expedition. It is used with all tenses except for the present perfect continuous and the future continuous. claim+ that (optional) Compare these sentences: Newspapers are claiming that Mr Blair was told in advance. A George Eastman invented the Kodak camera. B The Kodak camera was invented by George Eastman. deny+ that (optional); deny+ -ing He denied his part in the crime. Sentence A is active and follows the pattern of Subject (George Kirsty denied hiding the files. Eastman), Verb (invented) and Object (the Kodak camera). Sentence Bis passive and the pattern is Subject (the Kodak explain +that (optional) Camera), Verb (was invented) and Agent (by George Eastman). Geoff explained that there was no more money available. Sometimes there are two objects: My uncle gave me some money for my birthday. insist+ on + -ing; insit +that (optional) It is more common to say: The children insisted on staying up late. I was given some money by my uncle. Keith insisted that the project was too difficult. than: Some money was given to me by my uncle. promise + that (optional); promise + to + infinitive Mum promised she would pick me up at 4 pm. The agent by Jackie has promised to look after the cats while we're away. It is sometimes unnecessary to include the agent - if for example refuse+ to + infinitive we don't know who did something or it is obvious from the The MP has refused to comment on these rumours. context of the sentence who did it: She was arrested for speeding. (It's obviously going to be by a say + that (optional); in passive, 'is said' + to + infinitive policeman so it's not necessary to include it.) People said that the flames were visible ten miles away. The CD is said to include many new songs. The infinitive suggest +that (optional); suggest + -i ng When the situation is in the present and the sentence needs to Vera suggested that they should seek sponsorship for the exhibition. be impersonal, you can use the passive form of the verb plus the Hugh suggested contacting everyone by phone. infinitive: The President is believed to be in contact with the astronauts. urge+ to+ infinitive In the past we use the passive plus the past infinitive: Owen urged them to keep calm. He is said to have poisoned his opponents in order to gain power. warn+ that (optional); warn + to+ infinitive Unit 13 His sister warned us that he might not come. The police warned people not to use that part of the motorway. Reporting When direct speech is reported, it becomes indirect speech. There is usually a change of tense in the indirect speech, which is called 'backshift': 'I want to go home straightaway,' said Jennifer. Jennifer said that she wanted to go home straightaway. 'Can I show you my stamp collection?' asked Billy. Billy asked if he could show me his stamp collection. 'After Robert left primary school, he grew up very quickly,' said his mother. GRAMMAR FOLDER

Unit 14 nouns, although it is usually better to use a more specific expression. all and the whole a piece/slice of cake a clap of thunder All is used with plural nouns and cannot be used on its own with an item of news a singular noun. You cannot say All company is moving. Instead a loaf of bread you say The whole company is moving. 4 Determiners can be used with countable and uncountable Th e whole is not used with plurals. You cannot say The whole nouns. businesses are affected by computerisation. Instead you say All Singular countable nouns can use a/ an and the. businesses are affected by computerisation . A new table was delivered this morning. The man next door is a chef Note that it is possible to say Whole businesses are affected .. . without the definite article, but this gives a change of meaning: with uncountable nouns with countable plurals you are now referring to each individual business. how much how many a lot of a lot of Possessive pronouns are also used with whole: lots of lots of Your whole career has been ruined. little few a little a few You can use of the with both all and the whole: some/any/ no several All of us were sad to leave. the some/ any/ no The whole of the world is watching the event. plenty of the a large amount of plenty of Perfect tenses a great deal of a large number of See other units for information about: 5 There is an important difference in meaning between a few/ • the present perfect tense, the past perfect simple tense few and a little/ little: a I've seen little improvement in your work recently. (Unit 5) b I've seen a little improvement in your work recently. • the future perfect simple and continuous tenses (Unit 10) Sentence a is considerably more negative than b in tone. Compare: Present perfect continuous tense a There were few people at the meeting. (It was disappointing because not many people were there.) This is used to emphasise the duration of a recent or ongoing b There were a few people at the meeting. (There weren't event: many people there, but there is no suggestion that more Lars has been talking about his own experience - does anyone were expected.) share his views? I've been learning Italian for six years. some, any and no Past perfect continuous tense In general we use some in positive sentences and any in negative sentences and questions: This is used to emphasise the duration of a past event: I bought some new CDs this morning. I'd been working for the same company for twelve years and it was Did you get any bread at the supermarket? time to move on. I haven't had any breakfast this morning. Unit 15 However, some is also used in questions when we offer something to someone: Countable and uncountable nouns Would you like some cake? A noun can be either countable or uncountable. Uncountable We also use some when we expect the answer to be 'yes': nouns cannot be made plural, and they only have one form. (In a tourist office) Do you have some information about the They take a singular verb. Uncountable nouns are often the museum? names of things or substances or abstract ideas which cannot be counted. Any is often used to show we don't have a preference: Examples of common uncountable nouns: You can take me to see any film at the cinema - I don't mind accommodation, traffic, news, bread, milk, wine, which. information, advice, electricity With no, nothing or nobody/ no one we use a positive verb: 2 Some nouns can be countable and uncountable and have a I saw nobody when I went swimming this morning. difference in meaning: a Her hair is very long. Uncountable noun meaning the hair Unit 16 on her head. b There's a hair in this sandwich! Countable noun~ The article a Coffee grows in Brazil. Uncountable noun for the product. We use the indefinite article a/an before a singular, countable b Would you like to come round for a coffee? Countable noun noun. It is used when we are talking about something in general or when it is mentioned for the first time: meaning 'a cup of coffee'. I saw a man outside the bank selling watches. A pet can be a good companion for the elderly. a I haven't got enough paper left to finish this composition. Uncountable noun. The indefinite article is also used for jobs: My aunt is a doctor. b Run out and buy me a paper will you? Countable noun meaning a newspaper. 3 Uncountable nouns can be limited by using a countable expression. A bit or a piece are often used with uncountable 4 GRAMMAR FOLOER

2 The definite article the is used in the following ways: Relative pronouns • when something has been referred to before or is common knowledge: In defining relative clauses, you can use: I wouldn't buy a watch from the man standing outside the • who or that when talking about people bank. • when there is only one of something: The boy who is playing is county champion. the Earth, th e Sydney Opera House. The teacher that I met is Head of Maths. • with rivers, seas, oceans, mountains, regions, national • which or that when talking about things groups and countries which are groups of states: Colours which can be worn are black, navy and grey. the United States, the Netherlands, the Atlantic, the The book that I recommend costs £8.50. Himalayas, the Irish • with buildings: The relative pronoun can be left out when it is the object of the I'm going to the prison to visit a prisoner. verb in the relative clause, as in the second example of each pair He's in the office at the moment. above. It must be included when it is the subject of the relative • with species: clause. the cat, the polar bear • with superlatives: In non-defining clauses, you use: the biggest tower in the world, the greatest sportsperson, the • who when talking about people most important question • with musical instruments: Ned, who plays the violin, is living above a music shop. I play the piano. • which when talking about things • when talking specifically about something: The life of an airline pilot is hard. The new brand of shampoo, which is selling well, contains only natural ingredients. 3 There is no article: • With most streets (except for the High Street), countries, That cannot be used, because there is no linking of the clauses, single mountains, towns, cities (except for The Hagu e), unlike in sentences containing a defining relative clause. lakes: Austria, Mont Blanc, Tokyo Instead of using a relative pronoun, where, when or why can be • When talking about sports: used after a noun . It is possible to omit when and why in I play football well. defining relative clauses: • When a noun is used generally: The hotel where we stayed had a beautiful garden. Life is hard. Christmas is the tim e (when) many people start thinking about • With illnesses: their next holiday. She's off school with chickenpox. That's the reason (why) she's so upset. In non-defining relative clauses, when and why cannot be omitted: 4 Expressions I moved to London in 1975, when I started teaching. You go to prison if you have been found guilty of a crime. You go to hospital if you are ill. Relative pronouns You go to the prison or to the hospital to visit someone there or to work. who or whom? Other expressions which don't take an article include: to go to bed, to have lunch/dinner/ breakfast, to go on holiday, Both pronouns are used in relative clauses. Whom is a formal to go to work, in October, to hold office, etc. word, which can only be used as the object of a verb or with a preposition: Unit 17 Ruth Gresham, who cannot sell her house as a result of this new rail route, says she will seek compensation. Relative clauses The people for whom this new housing development is planned are unhappy about the lack ofpublic transport. There are two types of relative clause: defining and non- defining. A defining relative clause gives essential information whose about the subject of the sentence. A non-defining relative clause gives additional but non-essential information. In other words, This pronoun is used to refer to both people and things: this information could be omitted without affecting the sense of Professor Newton , whose latest book on urban sprawl has had the sentence: excellent reviews, will open the conference. The girl who is studying to become a vet is called Sarah . This revolutionary new car, whose energy comes from solar panels, Sarah, who is 20, is studying to become a vet. is expected to go into production shortly. As these examples show, punctuation is used in non-defining clauses but is absent from defining clauses. It is very important Unit 18 to use commas accurately in relative clauses, as inaccurate use may change the meaning of the sentence: enough, too, very, so, such The sports facilities which are not in regular use will be sold. The sports facilities, which are not in regular use, will be sold. enough can be used: In the first example, only the sports facilities which are not being used will be sold, whereas in the second example, all the • after an adjective or adverb facilities will be sold, as none are being used. The room wasn't large enough to hold everyone. You haven't worked hard enough this term . • before an uncountable or plural countable noun The car has enough space for five people and their luggage. There are not enough girls doing science subjects. • as a pronoun Enough has been made of this in all the papers. GRAMMAR FOLDER

• with a modifying adverb It is also possible to use an infinitive with to after It's time if we There is hardly enough memory in the computer. are speaking in general terms rather than to particular people: It's time to go. - Everybody needs to go now. • with certain adverbs for emphasis Funnily enough, we heard from him only last week. to have/get something done too and very Compare: I cut my hair. - I did it myself. I had my hair cut. - Someone else did it for me. These words are often confused. Here are the main uses. A have + object + past participle • each can be used in front of an adjective or adverb, but too B get + object + past participle indicates an excessive amount of something, whereas very is Both of these forms are used, but B is more informal than A. just an intensifier: It is too cold in winter for many plants to survive. Unit 20 It is very cold in winter but a few plants do manage to survive. Gerunds and infinitives 2 • too can be used to show that two things or people have something in common: Some verbs can be followed by both a gerund and an infinitive. Dictionaries are useful at school and in the home too. Depending on the verb, this can result in a change in meaning. You're Swedish too, aren't you? Note that here too always comes at the end of a clause. No change in meaning Verbs such as start, begin, continue, attempt, intend, • too can be used for emphasis: be accustomed to, be committed to, can't bear. Computers are much more powerful than they were, and less These can be used with either a gerund or an infinitive with no expensive too. real change in meaning: The audience started to clap when the performance finished. • too can be used with a quantifier: The audience started clapping when the performance finished. There are too many loose ends to this story. A lot ofpeople earn too little money to pay tax. Slight change in meaning Verbs such as like, prefer, hate, love so and such Compare: I like swimming. - In general. These words are also confused sometimes. I like to swim in the morning. - Talking about a habit. • Both can be used for emphasis and to express the same idea, Note that in American English, the infinitive is used more often but in different grammatical structures: than the gerund for both meanings. It rained so much that most of the area was flooded. After would like, would prefer, would hate and would love, an There was such a lot of rain that most of the area was flooded. infinitive is used for a particular occasion or event: • such is used with as in giving an example of something: Would you like to dance? Dairy ingredients such as cheese and milk are best avoided. A change in meaning Unit 19 Verbs such as try, stop, regret, remember, forget, mean, go on. Modals 3: Advice and suggestion try I tried to open the window, but it was stuck. I couldn't do it as it Giving advice try to watch what you eat. was too difficult. to get some rest. It was hot, so I tried opening the window. I did it as an You should book a place in the gym. experiment to see if some fresh air would help. You ought I'd try to do more exercise. You'd better to go to the doctor's. stop If I were you, I stopped the car to get some petrol. Purpose. My advice to you is I stopped going to that garage when they put their prices up. I didn't go there any more. Making a suggestion (that) you (should) cut I suggest down on coffee. regret cutting down on coffee. I regret to tell you that we have no more rooms available. Giving I recommend (that) you (should) relax bad news. a little more. I regret not making more friends when I was at school. For past What about I How about relaxing . events. Why don't you try doing some reading? Have you thought of doing some reading? remember and forget playing a musical I remember/ never forget going to New York on Concorde when I instrument? was quite small. This happened in the past. I must remember I mustn't forget to buy a newspaper while I'm It's time .. ., It's about time ... , It's high time ... out shopping. This still hasn't happened. After these phrases we use the past simple tense, even when we are talking about the present or the future: It's time you went to bed. - You need to go to bed now. j ~ GRAMMAR FOLDER

mean Complex sentences I mean to work hard at university. Intention. It will mean going to the library more often. This is what it It is possible to draw attention to information by 'fronting' it in a involves. This is the result. sentence. Fronting often improves the cohesion and naturalness of a piece of writing. So, for example, a reason clause, which go on explains information in the main clause, can present information When I've finished shopping, I think J'/l go on to see a film. in a logical way by coming first: A change of activity. As the organisers had paid attention to detail, the festival was a Please don't stop, go on showing us your photos. Continue. great success. Since I had bought an extra ticket for the concert, I invited Mike to Unit 21 go with me. Mixed conditionals Conjunctions commonly used in reason clauses are: as, because, since • If+ past tense (second form) with would(n't)/ might(n't)/ could(n't)/ should(n't) (third form): Unit 23 If I weren't so busy all the time, I could have come along. This is used when a change in a present situation would have I wish I If only affected a past situation. Talking about the past - things you regret doing/not doing: • If+ past perfect tense (third form) with would(n't)/might(n't)/ could(n't)l should(n't) + infinitive (second form) : wish I if only + past perfect If you had told me about the skiing trip, I would be there with you now! I wish I hadn't been so rude to my mother last night. This is used when a change in a past situation would have caused a different present situation. Talking about the present - things that haven't come true now and things that might come true in the future: Unit 22 wish I if only + past simple Concessive clauses I wish I were/ was lying on a beach somewhere instead of being here. These are used in English to give contrasting information to the I wish I could speak Japanese. information in the main part of the sentence. Both were and was are acceptable but were is more formal. James insisted on playing in the match, despite feeling ill. A number of different conjunctions can be used in fro nt of the Talking about irritating habits - things which are annoying concessive clause: you: although even if even though much as though whereas while wish I if only + would Much as and whereas are less commonly used and occur mainly in formal written English. He wishes his daughter would wear smarter clothes. I prefer to buy free-range eggs, even though they are more expensive. as if I as though Although we were very tired, we watched the whole of the play. Both as if and as though mean the same. The prepositions despite and in spite of are also used to introduce To talk about 'unreal' situations you use the past tense after both contrasting information: Robyn went ahead with the concert despite having a sore throat. as if and as though: In spite ofarriving at the festival early, we couldn't get near the stage. He looks as if he's tired. He is tired. He looks as if he was/ were exhausted. He isn't tired. Sometimes it is possible to reduce the concessive clause by leaving out the main verb. would rather Although very tired, we watched the whole of the play. You should only do this when the concessive clause refers to the Would rather+ past simple is used to talk about the present or subject of the main clause. So, for example, you would not say: futu re: Although very boring, we watched the whole of the play. I'd rather you didn't go to the disco tonight. Would rather + past perfect is used to talk about the past: Remember that despite and in spite of cannot be followed by a She'd rather they had gone to an Italian restaurant. main verb. You cannot say: Despite he was late, John had another cup of coffee. Would rather+ infinitive without to is used to talk generally Both can be followed by a gerund or a noun: about the present and future: In spite of being late, John had another cup of coffee. The government would rather not give out too many benefits to Despite the time, John had another cup of coffee. young people. You can add the fact that and follow this by a verb clause: Do not confuse this phrase with had better, which means 'should'. Despite the fact that he was late, John had another cup of coffee. GRAMMAR FOLDER

Unit 24 Uses of rather • Used as an adverb, in the same way as quite: Eddie Izzard's humour is rather surreal at times - elephants on skis, that sort of thing. Some comedians are quite direct and indeed rather rude to their audiences. • Used with would to mean 'prefer': I'd rather go to a live show than watch a video. John says he'd rather not come with us, as he's very tired. • Used as a prepositional phrase to contrast two things or situations: The jokes were about society in general rather than being purely political. Rather than stay at home watching TV, he got changed and went off to the party. • Rather can also be used as an adverb immediately before a verb of thought or feeling, to express an opinion politely: I rather think his recent success has gone to his head. I rather like you r hair cut short. The grammar of phrasal verbs Phrasal verbs consist of a main verb and a particle (which is an adverb or a preposition). • When used intransitively (that is, without an object), the verb and particle of a phrasal verb cannot be separated: The engine cut out and they drifted on the waves. • When the particle is an adverb, transitive phrasal verbs can usually either be separated or followed by a noun as object; they are always separated by a pronoun as object. He keyed the number in carefully. He keyed in the number carefully. He keyed it in carefully. Cou ld you put the drinks down on that table? Could you put down the drinks on that table? Could you put them down on that table? • When the particle is a preposition, no separation is possible: The lorry ploughed into a barrier. My older sister keeps getting at me! • For three-part phrasal verbs, no separation is possible: The sparkling blue sea more than made up for their difficult journey. I was really looking forward to that concert - what a shame it's been cancelled. ~ GRAMMAR FOLDER

Sit THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE IS USED: THE PRESENT SIMPLE IS USED: • for temporary states and actions / events happening at or around the time of speaking. • for habits, permanent situations and general truths We're staying at my grandmother's at the moment. in the present. / usually travel alone. • for planned future actions related to personal Water boils at 100° C. arrangements. I’m going to the cinema tonight. • for future actions related to timetables and programmes. now at the moment tonight at present The ship sails at 9 o 'clock. nowadays this month etc. usually always often never sometimes rarely seldom hardly ever every day/week etc. THE PAST PROGRESSIVE IS USED: THE PAST SIMPLE IS USED: • for actions that were in progress at a definite tim e in the past. • for completed actions that happened at a definite I was washing my hair at 9:00 o ’clock last night. tim e In the past. When I was five, my father gave me a bicycle. • for lengthy past actions that were interrupted by short sudden ones (Past Simple). • for habits, repeated actions or permanent situations I was driving along the street, when a rabbitjumped in the past. in front o f my car. Last summer we went swimming every day. • for actions happening at the same time in the past. yesterday then ago last month/night/week etc. While my sister was cooking, I was reading a magazine. THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE IS USED: • for background scenes to a story. • for tem porary past states or actions. • for actions which started in the past and are still happening or have just finished. while as etc. I've had this car since 1995. THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IS USED: • with adjectives in the superlative degree or expressions like: the only/first/second etc.. • to emphasise the duration of actions that started in This is the best film I've ever seen. the past and are still happening or have just finished. Ian has been watching TV all day. • for past actions the results of which are connected to the present. • actions the results of which are obvious in the present. Mum! The dog has spilt the milk on the floor! (The floor Her car is so shiny! She's been waxing it all morning! is dirty). how long for since all day/morning etc. • to announce news, changes or events that affect the present. THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IS USED: since for just yet already how long ever never etc. • to emphasise the duration of actions that had been in progress up to a time in the past or before THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE IS USED: another past event. He had been driving for 20 years when he had his first • for past events that were completed before other car accident. past events or by/at a definite tim e in the past. By Monday, we had finished rehearsing the school play. • for lengthy past actions with visible results in the past. The children were exhausted because they had been by + time after before when by the time etc. playing football all morning. by when for since after before how long etc.

Grammar Review THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE IS USED: THE FUTURE SIMPLE IS USED: • for already planned future actions or events that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. • for decisions made at the mom ent of speaking. This time next month, 1will be sending you a 1like this dress. 1think I ’ll buy it. postcard from Hawaii. • to make predictions based on personal opinions; tom orrow in a week/m onth/year etc. promises; requests or offers. 1think Grandpa will live to be 100. next week month/year etc. THE FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE IS USED: THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IS USED: • for actions that will be completed by a specific time • to emphasise the duration of actions up to a point of time in the future or before another future action. in the future. 1will have finished this project by next week. By next July, they will have been living in this house for ten years. by by the time before by THE FUTURE \"Going to\" IS USED: WAS/WERE \"Going to\" IS USED: • for predictions based on evidence. • for actions that had been planned in the past The acrobat is losing his balance; he's going to fall. BUT did not eventually happen. They were going to go to Chris'party, but they changed • for plans or decisions that have already been made. their mind. We're going to renovate our summer house during the holidays. Stative Verbs The following groups of verbs express states -not actions- and are not used in the progressive tenses. • verbs of the senses (feel, hear, see, smell, taste etc.) • Some stative verbs are used in the progressive forms when • verbs of emotions and preferences (like, dislike, love, hate, they express actions rather than states. fear, mind, want, wish, need, prefer etc.) I see you've cut your hair. I'm seeing an old friend tonight. • verbs of perception, belief, knowledge and ownership (think, / think her cooking is delicious. I'm thinking o f moving into a new apartment. believe, know, understand, expect, remember, forget, hope, have, own, belong (to) etc.) • Listen, look and watch, though verbs of the senses, are used • other verbs which describe permanent states (be, cost, weigh, seem, appear, consist (of) etc.) in the progressive tenses because they describe voluntary actions. This pizza tastes delicious. It costs £10. I didn't hear the telephone ring because I was listening to At the moment, I think we should keep calm. music. Unit 2 Relative Clauses - Clauses of Time RELATIVE CLAUSES Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) and relative adverbs (where, when, why). Defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses • provide information which is essential to the meaning of the • provide additional information which is not essential to the sentence. meaning of the sentence. • are not put between commas. • are put between commas. • the relative pronouns cannot be omitted; neither can we use 'that' instead of them. PEOPLE ANIMALS/THINGS The man who/that is standing next to her is her father. Her parents gave her a cat which/that had lovely grey fur. (Defining) (Defining) The man, who was found guilty of m any crimes, was Her cat, which had lovely grey fur, was a gift from her parents. sentenced to life imprisonment. (Non-Defining) (Non-Defining) The man who/whom/that (*) she is expecting is her father. The cat which/that (*) she is holding has lovely grey fur. (Defining) (Defining) Her father, who/whom we met at the party last week, is sick. Her cat, which was given to her six months ago, has already (Non-Defining) had kittens. (Non-Defining) (*) The pronouns may be omitted. (*) The pronouns may be omitted. I met a girl whose father is a pilot. (Defining) I've just finished a novel whose main character/the main Coco Chanel, whose original first name was Gabrielle, was character of which is an animal. (Defining) His latest book, whose main character/the main character of the first to design simple women's clothes. (Non-Defining) which is an animal, immediately became a best-seller. (Non- Defining)

Grammar Review VC1><D>oL1OdC1) Ul He was born on the day when/that/on which (*) his father died. (Defining) walked on th e moon for the first time. H<-QH1£I S A new age in space exploration started in 1969, when Neil A rm strong the emperors used to live. (Non-Defining) P (Non-Defining) a-L<U1U. (*) may be omitted. zo This is the house where/in which John lives. (Defining) This is the house which/that (*) John lives in. (Defining) One of the most famous areas in China is the Forbidden City in Beijing, where (*) may be omitted. <M0£J Expressions of quantity+of (some of, all of, many of, any of, IL. 1 That is used only in defining relative clauses and can replace: much of, each of, a few of, most of, half of, either of, neither of, • who/which/whom when they refer to the object of the none of, a number of, one of, the majority of etc.) can be used verb. before whom, which and whose. • when. They have three children, two o f whom have already • where ('that' must be followed by a preposition) finished school. That is never used after a comma. Present and past participles can be used instead of relative 2 Which sometimes refers to the whole previous sentence and clauses. cannot be omitted. • Present participles (-ing) replace relative clauses in the He never tidies his desk, which really annoys me. active voice. The man who is cleaning the garden is the gardener. 3 Prepositions are used: 4 The man cleaning the garden is the gardener. • before or after which and whom. • Past participles (-ed/irregular forms) replace relative The hotel at which we stayed/which we stayed at was not clauses in the passive voice. very expensive. Cars which are produced in Germany are rather expensive. • only after who and that. 4 Cars produced in Germany are rather expensive. The man who she came to the party with is her husband.' • never with when, where, why. CLAUSES OF TIME • Clauses of tim e are introduced by when, while, as, just as, the moment (that), till/until, as soon as, before, after, once, whenever, every time etc. • Clauses of time go before the main clause (separated by a comma) or after the main clause (no comma). Meaning Use/Significance ___ _________ Time words Examples when, as, while for two events happening at the same time While my brother was waxing the car, 1 was preparing dinner. just as, for two short actions happening at the same time Just as 1entered the room, the phone rang. the moment (that) for events happening one after the other They le ft as soon as they heard about the when, as soon as, accident. before, after, once by the time \"not later than\" You should have finished by the time we return. till, until \"up to a point of tim e” I'll stay at the office until 1finish my work. • Will and would are never used in clauses of time. • Will can be used after when only if it is a question word. • The present participle (-ing) can be used instead of clauses Call me when you^mH get back, (clause of time). When will you get back? (question) of ti me. Examples Significance As she was driving home, she had a te rrib le accident. a lengthy action interrupted by a short/sudden one. 4 Driving home, she had a terrible accident. /4s / was walking along, 1 felt that someone was follow ing me. an action happening at the same tim e as another one. 4 Walking along, 1had the feeling that.... As 1 closed the door, 1 rem em bered where m y keys were: an action happening immediately before another one. 4 Closing the door, 1....

Grammar Review Unit 3 Adverbs-Comparisons-Articles-Uncountables ADVERBS • General order of adverbs: manner-place-time. Did you sleep well at your hotel last night? • Order of adverbs after verb of movement: place-manner-time. Did you arrive at your hotel safely last night? Special Cases Types of adverbs Position Examples Adverbs of frequency ■before the main verb We often play basketball together. ■after the (first) auxiliary I've never liked yoghurt. always, occasionally, often, ■after the verb \"to be\" She is always late for school. rarely, seldom, etc. He was partly involved in this. Adverbs of degree • usually before the word they modify It was a rather difficult subject. • a+rather+adjective+noun It was rather a difficult subject. absolutely, hardly, quite, • rather+a/an+adjective+noun It was a quite difficult subject. rather, very, etc. • a+quite+adjective+noun It was quite a difficult subject. • quite+a/an+adjective+noun It was a fairly difficult subject. • a+fairly/pretty+adjective+noun Formation Positive Comparative Superlative Pay attention to Degree of fat-fatter-fattest I comparison close-closer-closest Types of dry-drier-driest adjectives/adverbs . one-syllable clean clean-er clean-est long (adj / adv) long-er long-est shy shy-er shy-est two-syllable heavy (adj) heav-i-er heav-i-est ending in-y early (adj/adv) earl-i-er earl-i-est more-than-one syllable creative (adj) more creative most creative quiet-quieter-quietest or creatively (adv) m ore creatively most creatively quiet-more quiet-most quiet But: recent-more recent-most recent Irregular forms Positive good/well bad/badly old far m u c h /m an y little Comparative better worse older/elder farther/further more less Superlative best worst oldest/eldest farthest/ most least furthest Elder/Eldest describe close family relations. Elder is not Farther / Farthest is used for distances only. Further / followed by than. Furthest is used for distances or additional information. My elder sister is a vegetarian. Pluto is the farthest / furthest planet from Earth. My sister Ann, who is older than me, is a vegetarian. For further information please contact 9312. Comparative+than Jim is fatter than Peter. o f all/the decade, She's the most famous runner in her country/her team. 'o f all/period Nicky is the more beautiful o f the two sisters. The+superlative + 1 „in+place/group of people The+comparative to compare two people or things. Other forms of comparison Examples • as...as, not so/as...as or not such (a)+...+noun+as She's as good a painter as her father. • the same as The weather today is the same as yesterday. • tw ice/three times as...as An ostrich's egg is five times as big as a chicken's egg. • less...than A sports car is less economical than a city car. • the least This is the least practical machine I have ever used. >the+comparative...the+comparative (cause-result) The more we learn, the wiser we get. comparative + and + comparative (continual change) As I grow up, I get wiser and wiser. ■

Grammar Review reru n s Structures Use Examples like+noun/pronoun/-ing form similarity He waved the flag like a sword. as+subject+verb She advised her husband to do as he was told. as+article+noun Description of sb's job or of the She works as a nurse at the local hospital. function of something He used his coat as a blanket. • Like and such as are used to give examples. Many o f the earth's largest forests, such as/like the tropical rainforests, have been destroyed to a large extent. before the positive degree very*, too*, pretty, most, rather, quite, fairly Considering you’vejust had an operation, you look fairly well. before the comparative degree a bit, a lot, even, far, much, rather Your employer is even stricter than you told me. * very + adjective = positive meaning She's a very good student. * too + adjective = negative meaning She’s too good for her class. • Very much is not placed before adjectives and adverbs. The indefinite article a/an is used before singular countable nouns or adjectives followed by singular nouns. A/AN isalso used: Examples • before a noun which is mentioned for the first time and is not specific. They own a house in the village. • before a noun representing a group of people, animals or things. A dolphin is faster than a shark. • to show somebody's character, job or nationality. Her brother is a doctor. • with expressions of quantity and numbers. A couple of friends came by the house yesterday. The definite article the is used before countable and uncountable nouns both in the singular and the plural. THE isalso used before: Examples • specific nouns or nouns that have been mentioned before. She bought two T-shirts and a dress yesterday but she likes the dress best. • names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, mountains (plural), ranges, the Black sea, the Netherlands, The Odeon Cinema, countries (plural), cinemas, theatres, museums, restaurants, hotels, The Archaeological Museum, the Steak House, the institutions. Holiday Inn, the University of London, the Alps • names of families and nationalities. the Johnsons, the Japanese • adjectives referring to classes of people. • musical instruments, dances, inventions. the underprivileged, the deaf the piano, the mambo, the fax machine Examples a THE is not used before: • nouns referring to something general or not mentioned before. 1like tea. • names of people, streets, cities, islands, countries, continents, mountains Alain Delon, Regent Street, Paris, Sicily, Germany, (singular), religious holidays, days of the week, months, squares, parks, Africa, Mont Blanc, Easter, Monday, July, Trafalgar lakes, stations, magazines, sports, games, colours, school subjects, Square, Hyde Park, Lake Victoria, Euston station, languages. Vogue, tennis, cards, red, Psychology, Spanish. • meals. 1always have breakfast. • means of transport. She goes to work by bus. • the words bed, court, church, home, hospital, prison, school, university, She went to bed early because she was exhausted. work when they are used for the purpose for which they exist. She always makes the bed early in the morning. • pubs, restaurants, hotels, shops, banks whose names include the name Mandy's Bar, Giovanni’s Restaurant, Burberry's, of their founder or another proper name. Harvey Nichols, Barclay's bank. NOTE A/an is used when we don't specify the kind. One is used when we emphasise the quantity. She brought me one magazine (only one). She brought me a magazine. mi

Grammar Review {UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Uncountable nouns cannot be counted and have no plural form. Some, any, (a) little etc. can be used with most of them, but not a/an/ one. To specify the quantity of uncountable nouns we use expressions like a piece of (advice, news), a bar of (chocolate, soap), etc. Uncountable nouns describe food (e.g. meat, cheese, etc.), liquids (e.g. milk, water, etc.), material (e.g. glass, wood, etc.), natural phenomena (e.g. weather, heat, etc.), languages (English, German, etc.), diseases(e.g. chickenpox, cancer, etc.), sciencesand school subjects (e.g. Physics, Literature, etc.), games (e.g. football, cards, etc.), abstract nouns (e.g. freedom, dignity, knowledge, etc.) and some concrete nouns (e.g. money, luggage, etc.). U nit 4 Determiners - Pronouns Determiners are: articles (a/an, the), possessive adjectives (my, your, etc.), demonstratives (this, that, etc.), numbers (one, two, etc.), quantifiers (some, any, no, each, every, much, many, a lot of, plenty, a little, a few) and the words both, either, neither, most, all, none, whole. Some, any and no are used with countable and uncountable nouns. Each and every are used only with singular countable nouns. The compounds of some, any, no and every cannot be used with nouns. SOME (someone/somebody/something/somewhere) ANY (anyone/anybody-anything-anywhere)are used in: are used in: • questions. • affirmative sentences. Did you see anyone running? 1need some advice. • negative sentences with not or other negative words • polite requests and offers. Would you like some tea? (hardly, never, rarely, etc.). You haven't done anything terrible. • questions (a positive answer is expected). Could 1help you with something? • affirmative sentences, meaning “no matter who/which/where”. You can buy this magazine anywhere. NO (no one/nobody/nothing/nowhere) are used in: EVERY (everyone/everybody-everything-everywhere) are used: • negative sentences instead of not any. No other negative words can be used (never, not, etc.). • for people or things considered as a group. You have nothing to do with my problems. Every student needs books. EACH is used: • with nearly and not. Not everybody can do a cartwheel. • for people or things considered separately. Each athlete received a medal. Every one of + plural noun. Every one o f the children came up with an excuse. Each (one) of + plural noun/pronoun Each one o f you must go out. many + countable nouns / much + uncountable nouns are used: • in questions and negations. Are there many cars in the street today? I'll do as much as 1can. • in affirmative sentences with too, how, so and as. Much trouble has been caused by this war. • at the beginning of a sentence (formal English). a few + countable nouns few + countable nouns a little + uncountable nouns little + uncountable nouns • show a very small amount (positive) and can be used with • show a very small am ount (negative) and can be used with only. very, so, too, as and how. I've only read a few pages. There's very little cheese in the fridge. a lot (of) - lots (of) - plenty (of) + countable nouns and uncountable nouns are used: • in affirmative sentences before nouns and pronouns. A lot o f people like chocolate. A lot, lots and plenty can be used without nouns. Don't buy any more cheese; weVe got a lot. FOR TW O PEOPLE OR THINGS FOR MORE THAN TW O PEOPLE OR THINGS BOTH (OF): MOST (OF)-ALL (OF): • is used with a plural verb. • are used with a plural verb. They both know how to dance the tango. Most teenagers like pop music. Most o f my schoolmates are noisy. EITHER (OF) All o f my children enjoy picnics. • Either means “any of the two\". • all + that clause + singular verb = the only thing... Skiing or snow boarding? Either sport is enjoyable. All 1want is a little peace. • Either of is used with a singular or plural verb. Either o f these sports is/are enjoyable.

Grammar Review FOR TWO PEOPLE OR THINGS FOR MORE THAN TWO PEOPLE OR THINGS NEITHER (OF) NONE (OF) • Neither means “not one and not the other”. • None is not followed by a noun. Neither dress fitted me well. Which book did you like best? None. • Neither of goes with a singular or plural verb. • None of is used before nouns or object pronouns with Neither o f my cousins know(s) how to swim. a singular or plural verb. None o f the films 1saw in the past five months was/were interesting. WHOLE (=COMPLETE) • Whole is used between a determ iner and a singular countable noun. The whole world knows that China has the biggest population. A ll (of) the world knows that China has the biggest population. • both...and < Both Kate and Peter are good students. • either...or ' are used as linkers. You can either go skiing or mountain climbing. • neither...nor. Neither John nor Paul like chocolate. • So/neither + auxiliary verb + subject ■ 1love the opera! - So do 1. Jim didn't go swimming. - Neither did 1. • 1think/hope/believe etc. so ■show agreement. Is Mike coming to the party? -1 think so. 1don't like fish! -1 don't either. • either at the end of the sentence Unit 5 Consolidation I Unit 6 Infinitive, -ing Form Forms Use E xam p les -ing form • as a noun (subject or object of a verb) Hitch-hiking can be dangerous. I'm thrilled about going to that party. verb+ing • after a preposition or taking (present form) verb+preposition We go fishing in the summer. Your room needs cleaning. (=Your room needs having+past participle • after the verb go, indicating physical activities to be cleaned.) (perfect form) • after the verbs need, want, require etc., with a I caught him listening behind the door. having taken I used to spend hours looking at the sea. passive meaning His mother prevented him (John) from • after the object of the verbs catch, find, leave getting hurt. • after be busy, spend/ waste+expression of Excuse my being late, but I got stuck in traffic. money/time I quit smoking last year. {possessive adj/case object+from+-ing • after excuse, forgive, pardon, possessive prevent, understand + I adjective/case • after certain verbs and expressions listed below admit dislike mention recall be/get as well as how about appreciate enjoy mind recommend accustomed to be in favour of it's no good/use avoid fancy miss resent be/get used to can't stand/help it's worth consider finish postpone resist in addition to feel like there's no chance of delay imagine practise risk look forward to have difficulty (in) there's no point in deny involve prefer suggest object to have a hard time what's the point of...? discuss keep (on) quit tolerate take to have trouble W hat’s the use of....? E xam p les Present Infinitive Active Voice to express purpose I went home to check if everything was alright. I would prefer to stay home than go to that to+bare infinitive (simple) after would like, would love, would party. to take prefer Laika was the first dog to travel to the moon. to be+verb+ing (progressive) after the first/second/last/best etc. She looks like she doesn't have anything to do. to be taking after some, any, no and their compounds It was generous o f her to host us for the night. after it+be+adjective(+of/for+object) This coffee is ‘too hot for me to drink. Present Infinitive Passive after too/enough It takes me half an hour to walk home. Voice after it+take+expression of time She refused to come to the party. to be+past participle (simple) after certain verbs and expressions listed to be taken below m m

Grammar Review After these verbs followed As the object of these verbs After the object of these verbs by who, what, which, where, how but not why. afford deserve mean remember advise forbid remind agree expect need seem allow force require ask remember appear fail offer swear ask hire teach decide show arrange forget plan tend beg instruct tell explain tell ask happen prepare threaten cause invite urge forget understand beg hesitate pretend volunteer challenge need want know wonder claim hope promise want, etc. convince order warn, etc. learn teach, etc. decide learn refuse encourage permit demand manage regret expect persuade Forms Use Examples Bare Infinitive after most modal verbs I may be late tomorrow. take I heard her scream. BUTShe was heard to after these verbs in the active voice: hear, scream. let, listen to, make, notice, observe, see, Why not go for a picnic? watch etc. I did everything but clean the bathroom. after why....?/why not... ? f' anything, + 1.e(b. xuctept everyvthinga nothing Perfect Infinitive Active after modal verbs I would have finished by now if he hadn’t called. Voice She claimed to have climbed Mount Everest. after the verbs promise, seem, She seemed to have been crying all night. (to) have+past participle appear, claim, expect, hope, happen, pretend He is thought to have stolen the emerald. (simple) The emerald is thought to have been stolen. (to) have taken after these verbs in the passive voice: (to) have been+verb+-ing (progressive) believe, say, think, consider, suppose, understand (to) have been taking Perfect Infinitive Passive Voice (to) have been+past participle (to) have been taken ffull infinitive • help+ <[bare infinitive My brother helped me (to) prepare lunch. • Subject + seem + full infinitive = It (impersonal) + seems + that clause. He seems to be intelligent. = It seems that he is intelligent. -ing • Advise, allow, encourage, permit, recommend, require + {object +full infinitive The doctor encouraged exercising.(=The doctor encouraged him to exercise.) Prefer can also take a full infinitive. I prefer to drink coffee in the morning. Prefer+full infinitive+rather than+bare infinitive. I prefer to walk rather than drive. ’ full infinitive John is likely to come to the party. It is unlikely to snow tomorow. , that clause It is likely that John will come to the party. The infinitive or the -ing form are used with no difference in meaning after these verbs: like, love, hate, begin, start, continue, intend, prefer, can't bear etc. He began to run as soon as he heard the shot. (=He began running as soon as he heard the shot). The infinitive or -ing form are used with different meanings after these verbs: try + -ing: do something to see what effect it will have. try + full infinitive: make an effort. If you want to get rid o f your sore throat, try drinking I tried to finish everything in time but that was impossible. something hot. remember/forget/regret + -ing: We refer to something that remember/forget/regret + full infinitive: We remember has already happened. something before doing it. I regret talking to my mum that way. We forget something we are supposed to do. We regret something when we are sorry to do it. I regret to tell you that you have failed your test.

Grammar Review go on + -ing: the action continues. go on + full infinitive: the action changes. 1went on doing my homework until midnight. When 1had finished eating, 1went on to do my homework. stop + -ing: the action was stopped and not repeated. stop + full infinitive: to pause an action temporarily in order to After having a heart attack, he stopped smoking. do something else. He was eating, but stopped to smoke a cigarette. see/hear/smell/feel/notice/watch/observe/listen to + -ing: see/hear/feel/notice/watch/observe/listen to + bare for actions which are incomplete or still in progress. infinitive: for complete actions. On my way to the supermarket, 1saw him walking the dog. 1watched her feed her dog. Unit 7 Modal Verbs Modal verbs do not form all tense forms and are followed by a bare infinitive, except for need. They have the same form in all persons, except have to and need. They express: • can/be able to: ability in the present/future She can sing in Spanish. Will you be able to finish this project by Friday? • could: general ability in the past Mozart could play the piano at the age of three. • was/were able to: ability in a particular situation in Last weekend we stayed at home, so we were able to spend some time together. the past •can, could/may, might + present infinitive: They may/could/might watch TV tonight. Don't go there! There might be a riot. possibility in the present/future Sam can be very noisy sometimes. They could/may/might have forgotten about the concert. It's •could/may/might + perfect infinitive: strange they didn't come. possibility in the past Don't ever cheat in your exams again! You could have been expelled for that. In the negative only may not/might not can be used Is she likely to come to the party? ■could/might + perfect infinitive: for events that were possible but finally didn’t happen ■be likely to: can also express possibility (especially in questions) •should/ought to + present infinitive: Why don't you ask Tim? He should be in his office now. probability in the present/future • must + present infinitive: positive deduction about the They must be out; Nobody is answering the phone. present or the future Mary must have been to the supermarket; the cupboards are all full. must + perfect infinitive: positive deduction about the The 7:30 train to Bristol can’t be leaving yet; it ’s only 7:10. past It can't have been Ted I saw yesterday; Ted has got red hair. •can't + present infinitive: negative deduction about the present or the future can't + perfect infinitive: • can/could 1(possibly)...? May/might 1....? C an/C ould/M ay / Might 1go out please? You can/could/may/can’t/may not smoke in this room. asking for permission . giving/ Would it be possible for me to/l wonder if 1could/Do you • Yes, (of course) you can/could/may I refusing mind if 1open the door? No, (I'm afraid) you can't/may not J permission Synonymous Expressions: 1wonder if 1could/ might , Is it all right if 1....? Would it be possible for me to....? Do you mind if 1....?

Grammar Review Will you come to the doctor's with me? Can you help me with my homework, Mum? 1 • can/wili....? informal request Could you show me the way to Oxford Street, please? I • could/may/would,,,,? formal request Would you mind turning the lights on? w Synonymous Expressions: m Would you mind....? I/we'd like.... • will: willingness to help 1will clean the car for you. will (you)....? informal offers and invitations Will you come to Mexico with me? 1can help you with the washing up, if you like. • can/could: willingness to help Shall 1wait for you? can/could/shall I....? formal offers Would you like to come to the cinema with us? |W • would you like/prefer + noun/full infinitive....? Would you rather have dinner with us? Would you rather + bare infinitive....? You can visit the Grand Canyon while you're in the USA. Polite or formal offers and invitations Could you turn down the music, please? 3 • can: informal suggestions Why don't we go /H o w about going to the cinema? i« • shall/could...? polite or formal suggestions Shall we tell him the truth or not? L You should pay a visit to your dentist if you have a toothache. : Synonymous Expressions: She should have told her father before she went away. Let's + bare infinitive, Why don't ? i How about + noun/-ing You'd better stop interfering in my affairs. ■ She used to go fishing when she lived in the island. He didn't use to dance when he was young. • shall: asking for advice They would read a book before they went to sleep. • should/ought to + present infinitive: Every time he passes by, he will say \"hello asking for and giving advice should/ought to + perfect infinitive: something should have happened but it didn’t • had better: strong advice, threat or warning III l in H O I I I I H W ....................... .... —— ---------------- --------------------------------------------- ■used to: past habits and situations that are no longer true (NEGATIVE = didn't use to) •would (+present infinitive): past habits or a person s typical behaviour in the past ■will: to describe a person’s typical behaviour in the present - must: internal obligation felt by the speaker I must tidy up or mum will get angry. ■have (got) to: external obligation coming from facts You have (got) to take this syrup three times a day. ■ought to/should: we remind someone of a duty or You ought to/should inform your parents about the school trip. obligation I'm so dirty! I need a shower! The car needs repairing. -need + noun/ -ing form/ full/bare infinitive: necessity don’t have to/ haven't got to/ needn't/ don't need You needn’t eat it if you don’t like it. to + infinitive: It is not necessary to do something You don’t have to pay me back today. needn't+ perfect infinitive: something wasn't necessary We needn’t have cooked. There was plenty of food left over from yesterday. but it was done He didn’t have to clean the car. didn't need to + infinitive: something wasn't necessary but it isn't clear if it was done or not >mustn't: prohibition You mustn't smoke in here. ■can't: not being allowed to do something He can't enter that room; it's for staff only. NOTE >Need as a main verb forms the negative and • Must is used only for the present. Past and future tenses are formed with have to. interrogative with do/did. He must take the dog for a walk. Do you need anything? He had to take the dog for a walk last night but he I need something (a machine) to cut the grass with. forgot to. I didn't need his advice.

Grammar Review Unit 8 Passive Voice Passive Voice stresses the action itself, not who or what caused it. FORMATION The fire destroyed the factory completely. = *■ Active Voice: the fire. L_ Passive Voice: The factory was completely destroyed by VERB FORMS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. Verb Forms Active Voice Passive Voice Present Simple Producers make horror films every year. Horror films are made every year. Present Progressive Past Simple We are removing the furniture right now. The furniture is being removed right now. Past Progressive The technician repaired my TV yesterday. My TV was repaired yesterday. Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple They were pursuing the thief when there The thief was being pursued when there was an Future \"will\" was an explosion. explosion. Going to We have finished these reports. These reports have been finished. Future Perfect Simple Present Infinitive They had made a statem ent in Parliament A statement had been made in Parliament before Perfect Infinitive before the war broke out. the war broke out. -ing form Someone will make a speech on technology A speech on technology will be made tomorrow. Modal verbs Imperative tomorrow. They are going to hire a new employee. A new employee isgoing to be hired. 1will have typed my thesis by next month. My thesis will have been typed by next month. We ought to finish the building before the The building ought to be finished before the end end of the year. of the year. We should have finished th e building The building should have been finished earlier. earlier. We all appreciate other people helping us. We all appreciate being helped. You must clean your room. Your room must be cleaned. Please fill in this form. This form should/must be filled in. ■The Present, Past and Future Perfect Progressive and the Future Progressive are not used in the Passive Voice. ■By+ agent is used to emphasise who does or what causes the action. The new tax law was announced by the Prime Minister. Note the following changes in: Active Voice Passive Voice Verbs with two objects He gave her a painting. She was given a painting. A painting was given to her. Question words (what, who, when, where, why, how) Who composed this song? Who was this song composed by? not...any no (informal) not....anyof none of not....anyone/anybody no one/nobody By whom was this song composed? not...anything nothing make, hear, help, see, etc. (formal) The head teacher didn't expel any of None of the students were expelled. the students. Nothing was found in the excavations. They didn’t find anything in the excavations. I heard her scream. She was heard to scream. believe, consider, expect, find, hope, People say that he is very wealthy. It issaid that he is very wealthy. know, report, say, think, understand People say that he was very wealthy. He issaid to be very wealthy. He issaid to have been very wealthy. verbs with prepositions They separated him from his parents He was separated from his parents when when he was young. he was young. wwmww* ............ 1 1 -----*— — ---?—i—— —

Grammar Review To: Use the following expressions Examples Give permission let sb do sth Her parents let her stay out late. allow sb to do sth My father allowed me to borrow his car. Be given permission give sb permission to do sth The Mayor gave us perm ission to use the old Deny permission building for our rehearsals. be allowed to do sth get sb's permission to do sth She is allowed to stay out late. We g o t the Mayor's permission to use the old not let, not allow to, not be allowed to + infinitive building for our rehearsals. subject+is prohibited/banned It is illegal/forbidden to do sth Her parents don't allow her to stay out late. She's not allowed to stay out late. Smoking is prohibited in this section. It is forbidden to enter that room. PARTICIPLES The Perfect participle is used for an action that happened before another one in the past. Having been h it by an earthquake, the small town took 15 years to return to its previous condition. =After it had been hit by an earthquake, the small town took 15 years to return to its previous condition. The past participle is used in Examples the passive voice to replace The dresses worn by film stars on the night of the Oscar awards are all designer labels. = The a relative clause dresses which are worn by film stars on the night of the Oscar awards are all designer labels. a conditional sentence Handled with care, contact lenses can last for over 2 years. = If they are handled with care, contact lenses can last for over 2 years. a clause of reason Fascinated by the film, they decided to stay and watch it again. = As/Because they were a clause of result fascinated by the film, they decided to stay and watch it again. Carried away by the beautiful scenery, he lost concentration and had an accident = He was so carried away by the beautiful scenery that he lost concentration and had an accident. Unit 9 Pronouns - Causative Form IPOSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (My, Your, His, Her, Its, Our, Your, Their) Use Examples • before a noun my notebook, her car, their chairs • possessive adjective + own + noun is used to emphasise that 1don't take the bus. 1have my own car. something belongs to only one person • on + possessive adjective + own is used to emphasise that the My son always studies on his own. subject acts alone, without help POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS! (Mine, Yours, His, Hers, Ours, Yours, Theirs) Use Examples • to replace a possessive adjective + noun 1like your house better than ours hotise, They are never followed by nouns. A colleague o f yours = one o f your colleagues. • A/an + noun + of + possessive pronoun = one of + possessive adjective + noun POSSESSIVE CASE: Form Use Examples ’s • singular nouns (people or animals) John's car, the horse's tail • the compounds of some, any, no Somebody's car is in front o f my garage. • irregular plural nouns not ending in -s Men's ties, women's dresses • time expressions/idioms A hard day’s work

Grammar Review F9 1 Use E xam p les ( • plural nouns ending in -s » My cousins' house. of+ noun • things, abstract nouns and animals (sometimes) The roof o f the house, the price o f independence, the fur of the cat (=the cat's fur) 2 2 13 • When two or more people own something in common, - We can use of for people, only in long phrases. The cousin of the g irl who lives next door is a 's is added to the last noun. student. John and Mary's house. • When two or more people own different things, 's is added to each noun. John's and Mary's cars. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (Myself, Yourself, Himself, Herself, Itself, Ourselves, Yourselves, Themselves) Use Examples • with the verbs behave, cut, educate, enjoy, help, hurt, kill, The little girl likes herself in that red dress. like, teach etc, if the subject and the object of the verb are She hurt herself while trying to cut the bread. the same. We enjoyed ourselves very much at your party. • after certain verbs with prepositions (talk to, say to, take care The young people took care o f themselves while camping. of, etc.) • after the verbs look, seem, etc, to describe em otions or She doesn't look herself lately; something must be wrong with behaviour. her family. • for emphasis (emphatic pronouns) The Queen herself gave the Beatles an award. • by + reflexive pronoun = alone, without help. 1painted my room by myself. NOTE • One-Ones are used if we do not want to repeat a ■Note the difference between themselves and each other ( =one another). countable noun. This phone is broken; you can use the one over Mary and John enjoyed themselves at the zoo yesterday. there. Mary and John liked each other from the moment they met. • another = one more. It can also go with expressions of time, distance or money. I'd like another steak please. I'm afraid you'll have to wait for another ten minutes. CAUSATIVE FORM The Causative Form is used when we do not do something ourselves, but we arrange for someone else (usually an expert) to do it for us. Formation Subject + H ave/Get + Object + Past Participle (in the correct form) We are having our house painted next month. • Questions and negations are formed as in the Active • If we want to mention who performs the action, we Voice with the auxiliaries do/does in the Present can add by + agent at the end of the sentence. Simple and did in the Past Simple. We had the tap fixed by the plumber. How often do you have your hair cut? When did • have someone do something = make someone do you have your car serviced? • We can use get instead of have, especially in informal something. style. She had her children clean the living room. My dress was too long so I got it shortened. • get someone to do something = persuade someone Unit 10 Consolidation II to do something. She got her children to clean the living room. mm

Grammar Review U nit 11 Clauses of concession, reason, purpose and result CLAUSES OF CONCESSION! express contrast, opposition or unexpected results Use Examples • although « Although she's studied medicine, she faints at the sight of blood. Even though he's smart, he didn't get into the course he wanted. even though L + subject + verb Though we knew the way, we got lost. though J • despite 1 noun /-in g form We managed to climb the mountain despite the rain. in spite of J the fact that + clause In spite of the fact that he was sleepy, he drove home safely. * a d v e r b ^ } + as/ thou9 h + subject + verb Clever though he is, he couldn't solve the problem. Cloudy though it was, we got sunburnt. • however* l However fast he walked, we managed to keep up with him. no m atter how } + adi/adv + subject + verb No matter how much she ate, she didn't get fat. • whatever 1 + subject+verb She can't convince me that she's telling the truth, whatever she says. I'll go to the party, no matter what you say. no m atter what J * How ever can introduce a main clause. Sam came by yesterday; however, he forgot to bring the book 1had lent him. CLAUSES OF REASON • because * Examples as r + clause They don't talk to each other, because they have had a fight. since J 1didn't know where to turn as I’d forgotten my map. Since you're a vet, you can have a look at my canary. • because of i + noun/-ing form They wanted nothing to do with him because of his rude behaviour. due to J Due to her allergy, she never touches daisies. • due to the fact th at + clause Due to the fact that they knew each other so well, they decided to share a flat. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE positive purpose Examples • to * They visited us to announce the good news. She told him to come along so as to introduce him to her friends. so as to 1 + infinitive I'm learning Portuguese in order to go to Brazil next year. in order to J r can/m ay/w ill + infinitive for present/ They're going to Africa so that they can study the gorillas. • so th at < future We thought o f staying home for the whole week, so that we could I could/m ight/w ould + infinitive for past rest. • with a view to/w ith the aim of + -ing form She started training hard with the aim of winning the tennis cup. • in case + present tense for present/future Take an anorak in case it rains. in case + past tense for past We always had an extra tyre in the car, in case we got a flat tyre. • for -ing form She uses that needle for sewing. negative purpose Examples J• so as not to i ............ The thief was wearing a mask, so as not to be recognisable. in order not to in f in it iv e She tied her key around her neck in order not to lose it. f can/m ay/will + not + infinitive They reminded me 1had a class, so that 1wouldn’t forget. • so th at < for present/future I could/m ight/w ould + not + infinitive ^ for past • for fear / lest + subject + might/should + infinitive She closed the door for fear it might be broken by the wind. • for fear of + noun/-ing form She was wearing long boots for fear o f snakes.