DK Publishing - Leaders Who Changed History-DK Publishing (Dorling Kindersley) (2020)

“You may have to fight when CROSSED INTO there is no hope of victory, LNOAMNAND’S because it is better to perish TOVIMERE3S0 than to live as slaves.” DURING WWI Winston Churchill, 1948 SERVED IN THE BRITISH FPAORLRIAM5EN5T YEARS Victory in Europe Day, March 8, 1945, 350 saw more than one million people take to the streets in the UK in celebration. PMEILOLPIOLNE Churchill became a national hero for leading his country in its “darkest hour.” FWUATNCHEERDAHILS ON TELEVISION 199



“WE SHALL FIGHT ON THE BEACHES, WE SHALL FIGHT ON THE LANDING- GROUNDS, WE SHALL FIGHT IN THE FIELDS AND IN THE STREETS, WE SHALL FIGHT IN THE HILLS. WE SHALL NEVER SURRENDER!” Winston Churchill Excerpt from a speech delivered following the evacuation of Dunkirk, June 4, 1940 ◀ Churchill flashes his familiar victory sign to signify his support for Conservative Party candidate Anthony Fell, in 1949.

General Douglas MacArthur was one DOUGLAS of the most senior officers in the USMACARTHUR military. He guided US forces in the Pacific during WWII.18 8 0 –19 6 4 Born into a military family, MacArthur first served during WWI, where he quickly distinguished himself and was promoted from major to colonel. It was during WWII, however, as commander of the US forces in the Pacific that he became renowned. He led the liberation of the Philippines from Japanese occupation and officially accepted Japan’s surrender in September 1945. This marked the end of Japan’s military culture and the birth of its democracy. Returning home a hero, MacArthur’s final command was to lead the UN forces in the Korean War (1950–53). However, he was relieved of his command for insubordination in 1951, when he retired from the army. “As you pointed out, we must win. There is no substitute for victory.” Douglas MacArthur, 1951 MILESTONES DEFEATS JAPAN FALLS FROM GRACE Returns to the Relieved of his command EARLY PROMOTION Philippines, 1944. by President Truman for Appointed chief of staff Liberates the islands insubordination, 1951. of the US Army in 1930. from the Japanese Public approval of Youngest person to Imperial Army. MacArthur wanes. ever hold that position at the time. 202

MILESTONES The only US president to serve four consecutive 1882–1945 terms, Franklin Roosevelt created the New Deal STRUCK BY POLIO programs that helped bring the country out of Permanently paralyzed the Great Depression and back to prosperity. from the waist down, 1921, but illness is hidden from the public. BECOMES PRESIDENT Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York, in 1882. Elected as presidential Fifty years later, in 1932, he was elected president during the height candidate for Democratic of the Great Depression. On his second day in office, Roosevelt passed Party, 1932. Elected as the Emergency Banking Act, which helped to stabilize the nation’s banking president later that year. system. Later, he implemented the New Deal—a set of economic reforms THE NEW DEAL designed to help the US recover. It was hugely successful, reducing the Pledges to lead the US out unemployment level and giving businesses, of the Great Depression with a set of economic farmers, bankers, and workers financial aid. reforms, 1933. Throughout his entire presidency, Roosevelt spoke directly to the US public via radio broadcasts, fondly nicknamed DECLARES WAR his “fireside chats.” In 1939, he In the wake of the surprise persuaded a reluctant Congress to Japanese attack on Pearl provide military support for Britain Harbor, 1941, goes to war during WWII. He then proved with Germany. instrumental in shaping postwar Outside the Europe and in planning what Capitol Building, would become the United crowds cheered for President Roosevelt Nations. However, he in 1935. did not live to see either become a reality—a month before the end of WWII, he suffered a hemorrhage and died on April 12, 1945, at his cottage in Warm Springs, Georgia. He was 63 years old. ROOSEVELTFRANKLIN

A distinguished soldier and statesman, General Charles de Gaulle led the Free French movement, fighting the German occupation of France during World War II, while exiled to London. In peacetime, he founded the Fifth Republic in France, and set out its new constitution. His fervent nationalism has given rise to “Gaullism”, a conservative and patriotic political ideology. MILESTONES Charles de Gaulle was born in Lille, France, on November 2, 1890. MILITARY TRAINING His father taught history, literature, and philosophy and later ran Enrols at military academy a school in Paris; the young de Gaulle developed a keen interest in Saint-Cyr, 1909. Earns these subjects and a particular fondness for military history. nickname “the asparagus” because of his height. Distinguished military career In 1909, de Gaulle won a place at France’s foremost military academy, PRISONER OF WAR Saint-Cyr, in Brittany. After graduating, he served as second lieutenant Spends almost three years under Colonel Philippe Pétain, who later, as Marshal Pétain, was head as a prisoner of war in of state of France during its German occupation in World War II. Verdun, France, 1916, during World War I. De Gaulle fought with distinction during World War I. Captured at Verdun in 1916, he spent 32 months as a prisoner of war, during which FREES PARIS time he perfected his German. In the 1920s, he lectured and wrote Following six days of several books and articles on politics and military strategy. fighting, and Germany’s surrender, he liberates Following the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Germany invaded Paris, August 1944. France in 1940. In response, de Gaulle headed an armored division in counterattack, which although unsuccessful, HEADS REPUBLIC led to his appointment as undersecretary of Becomes head of the state for national defense. Despite his fierce Fourth Republic, 1944. opposition, the government then signed Resigns abruptly two an armistice with Germany, years later. Marshal Pétain became prime minister, and de Gaulle fled to ELECTED PRESIDENT London, for which Pétain Establishes the Fifth branded him a traitor. Republic, October 1958, is elected its De Gaulle led French first president, 1959. Resistance fighters and fought alongside the Allies to liberate Paris on August 25, 1944. 204

CHARLESDE GAULLE1890–1970

From his London base, de Gaulle led “France has lost a the Free France movement, consisting of forces that had escaped German battle, but she has occupation and fighters from French colonies. By 1941, de Gaulle’s men were not lost the war.” fighting alongside the Allies in North Africa and the Middle East, while an Charles de Gaulle, 1940 underground resistance movement was active in France. In August 1944, French rule, destabilizing the Fourth de Gaulle, with the French 2nd Armored Republic. Called upon to restore peace, Division and the US Army, liberated Paris, de Gaulle was returned to government where he was welcomed as a hero. as prime minister in 1958. That same year, a referendum showed public support for Postwar politics and retirement the creation of a Fifth Republic, with a From 1944, de Gaulle led the Fourth new constitution set out by de Gaulle, Republic, the first government of the who was elected president in 1959. newly-liberated France, but resigned after two years, frustrated by its weak During his presidency, de Gaulle constitution. By the early 1950s, he granted independence to Algeria in retired altogether from politics and 1962, and went on to establish France wrote about his war experiences: as a nuclear power, masterminded his The Complete War Memoirs of political stability and economic reforms, Charles de Gaulle became a staple and ensured France’s prominent position of modern French literature. on the international stage. He retired in 1969 and died 18 months later, aged 80. In 1954, war broke out in Algeria, led by the Algerian National Front, who fought for independence from SYEERAVRESD FINORTH32E MADE 5 ATTEMPTS NON! FRENCH MILITARY TO ESCAPE FROM POW CAMP DURING WWI PRESIDENT OF GRANTED FRANCE FOR INDEPENDENCE In his “Appeal of June 18”, 1940, 10 YEARS TCOO1L5OFRNEINECSH broadcast by the BBC in London, de Gaulle encouraged his countrymen to resist the Nazis and continue fighting for their freedom. 206

“MUST HOPE GEORGES POMPIDOU DISAPPEAR? IS DEFEAT FINAL?” A moderate Gaullist, Georges Pompidou was prime minister of the Fifth Republic from 1962–68, making him the longest-serving prime minister of France to date. Pompidou became prime minister following Michel Debré’s resignation; Debré had disagreed with the terms of Algerian independence drawn up by de Gaulle. Pompidou masterminded the 1968 victory for the Gaullist party so was the natural successor for president after de Gaulle retired in 1969. He remained in office until his death in 1974. NON! NON! NON! NON! NON! NON! 207

“I kept praying that I might be able to prevent a repetition of the stupidity called war.” Eleanor Roosevelt, 1961 ROOSEVELTELEANOR

One of the most influential American women of the 20th century, 18 8 4 –19 6 2 Eleanor Roosevelt was the first wife of a US president to become involved in political issues. An early advocate of African American rights, her commitment to social justice and humanitarian work earned her the respect of millions around the world. MILESTONES Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born in New York City on October 11, 1884. Her mother, a celebrated socialite, considered her daughter COMMUNITY WORK serious and plain and nicknamed her “granny.” Eleanor was close to her Joins New York’s Junior father, but he struggled with mental health issues and alcoholism and League, 1902. Teaches was often away seeking treatment. dance and gymnastic exercises to children. Following her mother’s death, Eleanor, aged 8, went to live with her grandmother, and her father died two years later. In 1899, aged 15, she POLITICAL EDITOR was sent to Allenwood Academy, a school in London, where she became Becomes editor of Woman’s a favorite pupil of headmistress Marie Souvestre. Eleanor later said of Democratic News, 1925. Souvestre: “Whatever I have become since had its seed in those three Writes monthly articles years of contact with a liberal mind and strong personality.” on political subjects. Returning to New York in 1902, Eleanor committed herself to public FIRST LADY service. At 18, she worked on New York’s Lower East Side with the Junior Husband elected League, a local women’s group, where she taught dance and gymnastics president, 1932. Her proactive approach as to underprivileged children. In 1905, she married First Lady sets a national her distant cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, precedent for the role. NATIONAL DELEGATE Becomes US representative on UN General Assembly, 1945. Franklin, her husband, dies the same year. SAFEGUARDS RIGHTS Chairs UN drafting committee. Co-creates the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1946–48. Roosevelt headed the UN Human Rights Commission when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was signed in 1948. 209

who became a New York senator in 1911. document to outline universal freedoms Eleanor worked with the Red Cross during from slavery and discrimination among World War I, serving food from its canteen other rights. As the UN’s most noted in Washington to departing soldiers. ambassador, Eleanor also traveled the world investigating living conditions and A life of politics urging increases in UN diplomatic aid. Devoted to women’s rights in the workplace and civil rights for African-Americans, she Eleanor remained active in politics until started to write monthly articles for Women’s her death in 1962, and her work enabled Democratic News. In 1928, Franklin was the passing of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. elected governor of New York, and in In a memorial address for Eleanor, US the early 1930s, he and Eleanor worked politician Adlai Stevenson read that together on his presidential bid. Once “she would rather light candles than Franklin was inaugurated president in 1933, curse the darkness, and her glow Eleanor held weekly press conferences to warmed the world.” discuss her social programs, gave radio broadcasts outlining her personal and political views, and continued to write. Eleanor was a key figure in the creation of the United Nations (UN). After Franklin’s death, President Truman appointed Eleanor a member of the US delegation to the UN. The following year, as chair of the UN Human Rights Commission, she played a major role in the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights—the first LORENA HICKOK An American journalist, Hickok (1893–1968) was a close friend of Eleanor Roosevelt. Born in Wisconsin, Hickok left home at the age of 15 and eventually became a reporter for Associated Press (AP). When she was assigned to cover Franklin D. Roosevelt’s first presidential campaign, she formed a close bond with Eleanor. Over many years, Eleanor and Hickok shared their deep affection for each other in thousands of daily letters, but the exact nature of their relationship remains unclear. Hickock inspired many of Eleanor’s writing projects. 210

“Surely, in the light of history, it is SECURED more intelligent to hope rather BETTER than to fear, to try rather than not to try.” WAGES FOR Eleanor Roosevelt, 1960 WTHOMEEUN ISN Roosevelt enshrined HELPED TO human rights into international law and UCRNEAITTE ETHDE was posthumously awarded the United NATIONS Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights IN 1945 in 1968 for her efforts. WOVERR8O,0T0E0 AABRNOTDOIC2KLE7SS NNFOOOMRIBNTAETHELED PEACE PRIZE THREE TIMES 211

“TOO OFTEN THE GREAT DECISIONS ARE ORIGINATED AND GIVEN FORM IN BODIES MADE UP WHOLLY OF MEN, OR SO COMPLETELY DOMINATED BY THEM THAT WHATEVER OF SPECIAL VALUE WOMEN HAVE TO OFFER IS SHUNTED ASIDE WITHOUT EXPRESSION.” Eleanor Roosevelt Excerpt from UN Deliberations on Draft Convention on the Political Rights of Women, 1931 Eleanor Roosevelt addressed a group of supporters, 1948. ▶



DAVIDBEN-GURION

Widely regarded as the “Father of Israel,” David Ben-Gurion 18 8 6 –19 73 had been involved in the campaign for a homeland for the Jews of Europe since he was a teenager. As Israel’s first-ever prime minister, he was instrumental in developing the Jewish settlements in Palestine into a modern, prosperous nation. David Gruen was born in Płońsk, Poland, then part of the Russian MILESTONES Empire, on 16 October 1886. His mother died when he was 11, and he was raised by his father, Avigdor Gruen, a lawyer and a leader in the Hibbat ZIONIST ACTIVIST Zion (Lovers of Zion) movement that arose as a reaction to attacks on Jews Founds Labor Zionism in Russia during the 1880s. Hibbat Zion laid the foundations for modern group in New York, 1915, Zionism, which sought to find a way for the Jewish people to return to and seeks volunteers to Palestine, a region in the Middle East they regarded as their homeland. fight in Palestine. The move toward Palestine SUPPORTS THE ALLIES In 1903, Jewish residents of the Russian city of Kishinev were attacked by Joins Jewish Legion, fellow citizens following a rumor that they had murdered a Christian child five battalions of Jewish for sacrificial purposes. The pogrom (government-sanctioned violence) that volunteers who help fight followed added to the Jews’ sense of urgency in creating a true, safe Jewish the Ottomans, 1918. homeland. Convinced that the future of Judaism lay in Palestine, Gruen emigrated there in 1906, joining the 60,000 Jews who had already settled JEWISH LEADER there. While working on farms, he immersed himself in the Marxist Becomes chairman of ideology of the Jewish Social Democratic Party. He also Jewish Agency for Israel, changed his name to “Ben-Gurion”, after Yosef ben 1935; leader of the Jews Gurion, a 1st century Jewish leader. now living in Palestine. LEADER OF ISRAEL Israel founded, May 14 1948, becomes its first prime minister. Resigns, 1953; re-elected, 1955. ISRAEL FIGHTS BACK Sends troops to fight in Egypt after its president, Gamal Nasser, nationalizes Suez Canal, 1956. As Israel’s new prime minister, Ben-Gurion and his wife (center left) were at the Haifa docks on April 7, 1948, to see the last British troops leave the Holy Land. 215

When World War I broke out, Ben-Gurion division of Palestine, where by 1939, was deported by the German-backed there were some 450,000 Jewish settlers, Ottoman Empire that controlled Palestine. about a third of their population. Britain He traveled to New York, where he built then decided to limit immigration to an American chapter of the left-wing Palestine for fear of antagonizing Egypt Labor Zionism movement, and met and the oil-rich Arab states. and married Paula Munweis. In 1942, Ben-Gurion called on Jews to Early signs of a divided Palestine rise up in an armed struggle against the In 1917, the British government issued British, instigating a period of violence the Balfour Declaration, stating its between British forces and the Jews in support for the creation of a Jewish state Palestine. The United Nations (UN) in Palestine, which inspired Ben-Gurion intervened in 1947, recommending to return and fight alongside the British forces. Three years later, Britain took FEW POPULATIONS OF JEWS FROM responsibility for Palestine under a postwar mandate issued by the League a partition of Palestine into Arab and of Nations and assisted the immigration Jewish states. Welcomed by the Jews, (aliyah) of 40,000 Jews. However, the this was flatly rejected by the Arabs. local Arabs rioted at the influx, prompting the Jews, led by Ben-Gurion, to form their own militia—later becoming the basis of Israel Defense Forces (IDF). As leader of Labor Zionism, and chairman of the Zionist and Jewish Agency Executives, Ben-Gurion entered discussions with Britain over a proposed GOLDA MEIR The birth of a homeland Israel was established in 1948 with the Born in Russia, Golda Meir survived a support of the UN, the US, and the USSR. pogrom in Kiev in 1905 and became The British withdrew, and the Arab–Israeli a leading figure in the creation of Israel. War erupted within months. Ben-Gurion formed the IDF, which quelled the At school, Golda became involved in the Zionist youth movement conflict, and an uneasy truce prevailed. and, after graduating, went on to obtain a teaching qualification. In 1917, she married Morris Meyerson, a painter, and moved to Palestine In 1949, Ben-Gurion’s Mapai (Labour) in 1921 to live on a kibbutz (farming community). During and after party won Israel’s first general election, World War II, she helped Jewish refugees and lobbied the British and he became both prime minister and government to lift the restrictions on immigration to Palestine. minister of defense. Serving until 1963, She cosigned Israel’s declaration of independence and held several he oversaw the construction of the new government roles under Ben-Gurion. country and its transformation from simple farming settlements into today’s nation of 9 million people. 216

HO LOCAUST SURVIVORS FROM EUROPE “In Israel, in order to INDIA & CHINA be a realist you must believe in miracles.” David Ben-Gurion, 1956 SCATTERED JEWISH COMMUNITIES FROM EUROPE ALIYAH Israel’s population grew quickly. While Ben-Gurion was TO ISRAEL prime minister (1948–63), more than a million Jews emmigrated, (made aliyah) to the state. MOST OF THE JEWISH POPULATION FROM LIBYA JEWISH POPULATIONS FROM MIDDLE EAST TRAVELED TO WHAT ISRAELI PRIME 1,367,000OVERSAW THE EMIGRATION OF JEWS WOULD BECOME M1I5NISYTEERARFOSR HISERAWEAL SWH1E9N 217

Mao Zedong forged a path to power through guerrilla warfare and, as chairman of the Communist Party, made radical changes, transforming China into a communist state—but his economic reforms cost millions of lives. MILESTONES Born in Shaoshan, Hunan province, central China, JOINS COMMUNISTS Mao Zedong was the son of a prosperous farmer. Attends first congress As a young man, he was rebellious – as a teenager of the CCP in Shanghai he cut off his queue (pigtail), which was a symbol of in July 1921. Elected subservience to the emperor – and abandoned an to Party Committee. arranged marriage. However, Mao was also studious; he became a schoolteacher and also studied politics. LEADS PARTY Leads the CCP against Communist revolution the national party KMT In 1921, Mao joined the Chinese Communist Party during civil war. Becomes (CCP), aiming to encourage the rural poor to become its leader, 1934. the power behind social change, in order to free the country from foreign oppression. After a failed attempt CHAIRMAN OF CHINA to incite a revolution in Hunan, Mao fled and became Defeats KMT and takes a fugitive leader of an armed group of bandits (which control of mainland later became the Red Army) in Jingganshan in the China. Becomes CCP mountains of Jiangxi, southeastern China. Uniting five Chairman, 1949. villages as a self-governing state, Mao and his soldiers confiscated land from wealthy landowners, who were GREAT LEAP FORWARD often massacred. Mao led his army under strict rules, Attempts to industrialize creating an efficient and disciplined force. China as quickly as possible with mandatory Civil war in 1934 between the Chinese Nationalist labor, 1958. Party—the Kuomintang (KMT)—and the CCP worsened, forcing Mao and his guerrilla forces to flee CULTURAL REVOLUTION to Yan’an, in the province of Shaanxi. Launches revolution to During this yearlong, 5,600 mile preserve pure communist (9,000 km) retreat, known as the ideology, 1966, and purge capitalist ideals. Mao rose from the commander of a band of hunted guerrillas to the commander-in-chief of the world’s largest army. 218

“Politics is 1893–1976 war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed.” Mao Zedong, 1938 ZEDONG

“Long March,” Mao established himself economy was controlled by a powerful as the leader of both the CCP and the state bureaucracy and elicited a mass newly-formed Red Army. killing of wealthy landlords in order to redistribute land to the working class. Kick-starting revolution In 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap In 1949, Mao led the Red Army to Forward, a campaign to mobilize the victory over the KMT, which finally Chinese people towards industrialization. ended the Chinese Civil War, and Peasants were forced into communes declared the creation of the People’s and worked in factories for which they Republic of China, which he ruled as lacked the skills or equipment. The chairman of the CCP. Mao believed campaign resulted in mass starvation, that the rural poor should lead the and around 20 million people are The doctrine of Maoism, a belief revolution, and he sought to abolish thought to have died. system held by many at the height of the class system. Ruthless in Mao made great use of propaganda Mao’s rule, included a range of political imposing communist views, HSAORCMIAOLNY to champion his beliefs, including and social ideas. Mao monopolized political rallies, and published his thoughts power, and his army persecuted in the Little Red Book in 1964. millions as traitors for opposing his rule. He also ensured that the EQUFAAOLLRLITY MASS USTOOCPIEIATNY CDOENSBSTETRFRUOUCRCTETIOIONN PRPOELAESTAANRTIAT MOBILIZATION RREEVVAOOFLLTUUETTRIIOONN 220

Mao believed in the need for constant SUN YAT-SEN revolution to prevent the accumulation of power by others. This culminated in Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) played a 1966 when he launched the Cultural leading role in the overthrow of the Revolution, designed to preserve pure Qing Dynasty and in the creation of communist ideology and purge the the Republic of China in 1912. country of capitalist elements. China’s youth were mobilized into forming Red Born near Canton, Guanzhong province in China, Sun was Guard groups, and, in just three years, educated in Hawaii and Hong Kong. A writer, philosopher, cultural and religious sites were sacked, and revolutionary, he campaigned tirelessly for an end to thousands of the educated elite were imperial rule and for government based on nationalism, sent to work in the fields or factories, democracy, and socialism. After the formation of the and millions were tortured and executed. Republic of China in 1912, Sun was elected president. In an effort to unite China, in 1912, he founded Kuomintang Mao’s revolution led to a national crisis, (KMT), the Nationalist Party of China, and served as its and his authority in government soon leader. However, the new republic was still weak and sharply declined. He remained chairman he could not stop warring factions fighting for control. of the CCP until his death in 1976. ROAD TO REVOLUTION RISE OF SOCIALISM IMCAPPEAARINNTIATTAIILL--IISSMM, Karl Marx wrote the WESTERN INFLUENCE Communist Manifesto Eager for international in 1848. His ideas trade, the West flooded spread throughout the China with opium in the West and would go on 18th century, in turn to inspire Mao. precipitating China’s economic decline. REPUBLIC OF CHINA EXTERNAL CONFLICTS The Chinese Revolution, China was repeatedly 1911, led to fall of the attacked by the West Qing dynasty. Republic and Japan during the of China founded by 19th century. The Qing KMT, 1912, but was Emperor faced growing weakened by conflict. resentment in China. CHALLENGE TO QING INTERNAL DISSENT Nationalism spread in China erupted into civil China during the late war (1850–1864) between 19th century, fueled Qing forces and Chinese by famine, poverty, Christians. The emperor and concessions triumphed, but 20 made to the West. million lives were lost. 221



“CLASSES STRUGGLE, SOME CLASSES TRIUMPH, OTHERS ARE ELIMINATED. SUCH IS HISTORY; SUCH IS THE HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION FOR THOUSANDS OF YEARS.” Mao Zedong Cast Away Illusions, Prepare for Struggle, August 14, 1949 ◀ Chinese propaganda picturing Mao leading cheerful peasants during the Cultural Revolution, 1966.

DIRECTORY As the 20th century dawned, the technological innovations Americans. Eventually, she became of previous decades gave way to a series of global conflicts, president of the National Association of fought by powerful military leaders. In many countries Colored Women. She gained national seeking freedom from colonial rule, nationalist voices acclaim for her community works and demanded equality, recognition, and civil rights. was appointed special advisor to President Roosevelt, becoming the ROSA LUXEMBURG poet, and prolific writer, nominated for first African American woman to hold both the Nobel Prize for Literature and a high position in US government. 1871–1919 the Nobel Peace Prize. The spiritual community that he founded, the Sri MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH A Polish-born writer and revolutionary, Aurobindo Ashram, remains a key Rosa Luxemburg became a citizen of destination for spiritual seekers. 1876–1948 Germany aged 28. She believed deeply in Socialism acquired by revolution, ARTHUR CURRIE Often referred to as “Great Leader,” although she was critical of Bolshevik Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an Indian dictatorship in Russia. When Germany 1875–1933 Muslim politician. Although initially a went to war in 1914 she cofounded the supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity, as League, a radical anti-war group, and in General Sir Arthur Currie rose through relations between the two communities 1919, she cofounded the German the ranks of the army to become the deteriorated in the early 20th century, Communist Party. However, just after first Canadian commander of Canada’s Jinnah led the Muslim League in a this, during the Spartacist Uprising—an forces abroad during World War I and battle to establish a Muslim state anti-government general strike—she was awarded a knighthood in 1917 for independent from India. With skillful was arrested and executed without his exemplary services. His reputation negotiation, Jinnah secured the creation trial. After her death, she became a as one of Canada’s leading military of Pakistan in 1947 and became the first heroine of the communist cause. figures was established at several key leader of the new state. He is revered as battles, including Ypres, and in the the father of the nation. SRI AUROBINDO victories he won during the final Allied offensive. Currie remains widely EMILIANO ZAPATA 1872–1950 recognized as one of the most successful commanders on the Western Front. 1879–1919 Born in West Bengal and educated at Cambridge University, Aurobindo MARY MCLEOD BETHUNE The Mexican guerrilla leader Emiliano Ghose (later Sri Aurobindo) became an Zapata spearheaded the peasant revolt influential nationalist leader in Bengal 1875–1955 in the state of Morelos during the in the struggle for Indian independence Mexican Revolution. He worked to from British rule. After being sent to An educator and civil rights activist, bring about reforms that would restore prison for his political activities, he African American Mary McLeod land to the peasants and protect their moved to southeast India to develop Bethune campaigned for social support rights. In 1913, along with four other the spiritual practice of Integral Yoga, and voting rights and founded a school revolutionaries, Zapata engaged in his vision for creating a divine life on for African American girls; this grew guerrilla warfare against former army Earth. He was a teacher, philosopher, into a coeducational college for African general President Victoriano Huerta, whose unpopular military rule in 224

the public. Zapata was betrayed and MUSTAFA KEMAL ATATÜRK leadership of the US Army during killed during the conflict before his World War II as they took Sicily then reforms were enacted, but he is revered 1881–1938 liberated France and advanced into as a visionary who battled for the rights Germany. He was a brilliant tactician of the ordinary people, and his ideals Mustafa Kemal, known as Atatürk and practitioner of tank warfare and a continue to inspire southern Mexican (“Father of the Turks”), first came to key figure in the development of this indigenous populations. prominence through his victory over discipline before the war. An inspiring the Western Allies in the Battle of leader, his fiery temper and colorful JOSEPH LYONS Gallipoli in World War I. Fighting language earning him the nickname continued after the war; Atatürk led “Old Blood-and-Guts,” Patton led 1879–1939 the Turkish Nationalist movement to from the front in often aggressive and protect Turkey against acquisition by rapid offensive maneuvers and is One of Australia’s longest-serving prime Allied forces. The signing of the Treaty remembered as one of the greatest ministers, Joseph Lyons was premier of Lausanne ended the conflict and combat commanders in US history. of Tasmania before entering federal dissolved the Ottoman Empire. Atatürk politics, cofounding and becoming then declared Turkey an independent RAYMOND SPRUANCE leader of the United Australia Party, republic with himself as president. He which was elected into government in implemented a series of revolutionary 1886–1969 1932. As prime minister, Lyons enjoyed political and social reforms, to establish great public popularity, and he helped Turkey as a modern, secular state. Admiral Spruance commanded US to revive Australia’s economy, which naval forces in some of the most had suffered in the Great Depression. BENITO MUSSOLINI significant sea battles of World War II. His government also oversaw a decline Despite having little experience of naval in unemployment, expansion of the 1883–1945 aviation, Spruance took command of military, a boost to industry, and the Task Force 16 in the Pacific, leading provision of welfare benefits. He died Mussolini founded the National Fascist them in the Battle of Midway—the first while still in office and was mourned Party, which promoted an extreme major US victory over Japan. Despite across the nation. form of nationalism in Italy. A skilled his reserved and cautious approach, his propagandist and powerful speaker, victories in the Pacific earned him MONA RUDAO he gained political support at a time renown as one of the greatest admirals of instability and used his militia to in American naval history. Following 1880–1930 suppress opposition. He seized power the war, he was named president of the in 1922 and established a dictatorship, Naval War College and later American A Taiwanese aboriginal, Mona Rudao naming himself Il Duce (the Leader) of ambassador to the Philippines. was an influential leader of the Atayal Europe’s first centralized fascist state. tribe, in the Wushe region of Japanese During his 20-year rule, he launched MARCUS GARVEY Taiwan. He led the Wushe Rebellion, initiatives to cut unemployment and the last major armed rebellion against boost the economy, winning admirers 1887–1940 Japanese colonial authorities, in which worldwide. However, his alliance with the Atayal killed 134 Japanese people. Nazi Germany committed Italy to a war Jamaican activist and nationalist leader In response, the Japanese bombed and for which it was ill prepared, and he Marcus Garvey aimed to unite African gassed the Atayal, killing hundreds. was eventually deposed and killed. people around the world and free Mona Rudao committed suicide to Africa from racial oppression. His mass evade capture and was hailed a hero GEORGE S. PATTON movement, known as Pan-Africanism, of the revolution. As a result of the attracted a huge following of people uprising he instigated, aboriginals 1885–1945 in the US who believed in his vision of were finally granted equal rights to social, political, and economic freedom other ethnic groups in Taiwan. A controversial but highly acclaimed US for all black people. Garvey founded army officer, General George Patton is the Universal Negro Improvement best known for his fierce, determined Association in 1914 and established 225

a series of African American businesses. JAWAHARLAL NEHRU Spanish Civil War. Aided by Germany A charismatic, persuasive leader and a and Italy, Franco’s forces overthrew the passionate speaker, Garvey reached the 1889–1964 Spanish Democratic Republic in 1939. peak of his powers in the 1920s. Yet he As head of government, he suppressed was criticized by other black leaders for A protégé of Mahatma Gandhi, the political opposition through the use of his advocacy of racial purity and also activist and nationalist political leader labor and concentration camps, as well convicted, for which he was imprisoned Jawaharlal Nehru became the first as thousands of executions. Franco for fraud and deported back to Jamaica. prime minister of an independent India maintained Spanish neutrality during in 1947. He was elected president of World War II but in the Cold War BERNARD MONTGOMERY Gandhi’s Indian National Congress emerged as a leading anti-Communist party in 1929, which aimed to secure figure. He later presided over a period 1887–1976 independence from British rule. of economic recovery and industrial Once president, Nehru helped shape growth in Spain. He died in 1975, having Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery India as a modern democratic nation, restored King Juan Carlos I to the throne. served with distinction in World War I implementing political, economic, and went on to be one of the most and social change, such as promoting NIKITA KHRUSHCHEV successful British generals of World innovations in science and technology War II. He was made commander of the and outlawing caste discrimination. 1894–1971 British forces in North Africa, where he He was known for his neutral foreign boosted his troops’ morale and led policy and helped other nations remain Nikita Khrushchev became leader of them to victory over the Germans and neutral at a time when the US and the Soviet Union in 1955 following Italians at El Alamein, an event USSR were at odds with one another. Stalin’s death. He swiftly implemented a considered to be the turning point policy of “de-Stalinization,” denouncing of the war. Montgomery led further ERWIN ROMMEL the previous, brutal regime. The policy Allied victories in Sicily and Italy and sent a shock through the communist commanded all of the Allied troops 1891–1944 world; it prompted the release of following the D-Day landings. After the millions of political prisoners, as well war, he was made a knight of the Garter Erwin Rommel was one of Hitler’s most as a series of uprisings in European and Viscount Montgomery of Alamein. successful generals of World War II, communist states, and gave rise to a known for his exemplary leadership of period of widespread liberalization. HEINZ GUDERIAN the German and Italian armed forces, Khrushchev advocated greater cultural notably in North Africa. His aggressive and intellectual freedom in Russia and 1888–1954 style of mobile warfare won crucial sought to improve living standards. victories, particularly through the use His investment in the Soviet space A German officer in World War I and of surprise attacks, which earned him program saw the launch of Sputnik, the then a general in World War II, Heinz the nickname “Desert Fox.” Widely world’s first space satellite. Guderian was a pioneer in tank warfare. respected, even by the Allies, Rommel During the interwar years, he was promoted to field marshal in 1942. MATTHEW B. RIDGWAY advocated the use of independent However, he started to doubt that panzer (armor) tank divisions backed by Germany could win the war. He was 1895–1993 air and infantry forces, as well as the falsely implicated in a plot to kill Hitler; use of radio communications between he committed suicide to avoid trial. US General Matthew Bunker Ridgway vehicles. Actively supported by Hitler, led the 82nd Airborne Division of the Guderian commanded units invading FRANCISCO FRANCO US Army in successful campaigns into Poland, France, and Russia, during Sicily, Normandy, and Germany in which he demonstrated Germany’s 1892–1975 World War II. During the Korean War, tactical superiority over its enemy. He he was dispatched to command the was made Hitler’s chief of staff of the The Spanish dictator General Francisco United Nations forces against the army but resigned as Hitler was largely Franco was a monarchist who led his Chinese. Ridgway’s ability to rally performing this role himself. nationalist army to victory during the troops helped to boost morale, and 226

he led a counterattack that drove the SUKARNO War II. She was a gifted painter, Chinese out of South Korea, marking calligrapher, and poet. After the war, a turning point in the war. He was later 1901–1970 she and her husband adopted a more appointed chief of staff of the US Army public role to demystify the monarchy. for two years. Indonesian nationalist leader Sukarno Empress Kōjun witnessed a period of campaigned for independence from rapid modernization in Japan, but she LESTER B. PEARSON Dutch colonial rule. A brilliant speaker, still remained loyal to the traditions he gained huge public support and of the Japanese monarchy. 1897–1972 unified the country’s nationalist groups. When Japan occupied Indonesia during RALPH BUNCHE The 14th prime minister of Canada, World War II, their commander, aware Lester Pearson was a scholar, World of his popularity, appointed Sukarno the 1904–1971 War I veteran, and diplomat. Involved country’s leader. After Japan’s surrender in establishing the United Nations and to the Allies in 1945, Sukarno declared An African American civil rights activist, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, independence and himself president; diplomat, and leading member of the he also managed to secure a diplomatic the Dutch relinquished power in 1949. UN, Ralph Bunche is best known for end to the Suez Canal Crisis of 1956, for As president, he dismantled all political successfully brokering a cease-fire which he was awarded the Nobel Peace parties to prevent political dissent, but between Israel and four Arab states, Prize. Elected prime minister in 1963, Indonesia’s economy soon declined, following the creation of the state of Pearson abolished capital punishment, and Sukarno was deposed in 1965. Israel in 1948. In recognition of his set up a national pension plan and diplomacy, Bunche was awarded the universal health care, and introduced RUHOLLAH KHOMEINI Nobel Peace Prize in 1950—the first the current Canadian flag and national African American to receive the award. anthem. He is considered one of 1902–1989 Other defining moments of his career Canada’s most popular and influential were his supervision of the deployment figures of the 20th century. Heading the 1979 Iranian Revolution of 6,000 peacekeeping UN troops to overthrow the last shah of Iran, during the Suez Canal Crisis and JOMO KENYATTA Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Ruhollah mediating other conflicts in the Khomeini gained huge support for his Congo, Kashmir region, and Yemen. c.1894–1978 rejection of Western democracy and call for an Islamic Republic. He incited DENG XIAOPING A Kenyan political activist from the riots, strikes, and the collapse of the Kikuyu people, Jomo Kenyatta led shah’s government. Once the shah had 1904–1997 the movement to free Kenya from been deposed, Khomeini took power British colonial rule and became its first and founded an Iranian Republic that De facto successor to Chairman Mao as president. Kenyatta joined the first reinstated Islamic law, banned music head of the People’s Republic of China, African political protest in 1922; he and alcohol, ordered women to wear Deng Xiaoping rose from a peasant went abroad to study in London and the veil, and adopted an aggressive background to become the most Moscow before returning to carry anti-West and anti-USSR foreign policy. powerful figure in China from 1978 on his battle for gradual change rather The religious government that until his death in 1997. Although he than revolution. He spent decades Khomeini established continues to never held office as leader of the petitioning the British government for underpin Iranian politics and society. Communist Party, he initiated a wide independence, becoming leader of the series of political, social, and economic Kenya African National Union in 1961 EMPRESS KŌJUN reforms that encouraged foreign and eventually securing independence investment in China, restored cultural in 1963. As the first president of Kenya, 1903–2000 stability, and improved the standard Kenyatta established a strong of living for many millions of Chinese. centralized government and oversaw Japanese Empress Kōjun was the wife As a result of Deng’s reforms China economic growth and a period of of Emperor Shōwa, better known as became one of the fastest-growing political stability. Hirohito, ruler of Japan during World economies in the world. 227



5 RIGHTS AND REVOLUTIONS 19 5 0 –19 8 0

NKRUMAHKWAME “We prefer self-government with danger to servitude in tranquillity.” Kwame Nkrumah, 1957

Leading Ghana to independence from British colonial rule, 19 0 9 –19 72 Kwame Nkrumah was the nation’s first prime minister and later its first president. He triggered the African independence movement, encouraging black activists across the continent to build a united Africa, free from imperial control. MILESTONES Francis Kwame Ngolomah was born in the village of Nkroful in the Gold Coast into a poor, illiterate family in 1909. Raised by his MOVES INTO POLITICS mother and extended family, he was baptized Roman Catholic and Joins newly formed United sent to a school run by a Catholic mission in nearby Half Assini. Gold Coast Convention party—as general Nkrumah’s academic prowess caught the attention of Reverend secretary, 1947. A.G. Fraser, principal of Prince of Wales College, a government training school, in the capital, Accra. Aged 21, Nkrumah graduated in 1930 as ESTABLISHES PARTY a qualified teacher. His first job was in a Catholic primary school, and Founds Convention within a year, he was the headmaster of a school in Axim. People’s Party (CPP), 1949. As chairman, he campaigns Pan-African activist for independence. Inspired by Nigerian journalist and freedom fighter Nnamdi Azikiwe, who later became president of Nigeria, Nkrumah was determined to further TAKES OFFICE his education. He won a scholarship to Lincoln College, Pennsylvania, CPP wins 1951 general where he studied theology, sociology, and economics, before earning a election. As prime master’s degrees at the University of Pennsylvania. As a student, Nkrumah minister, establishes all-African cabinet. CREATES NEW NATION President Nkrumah greeted Demands independence Queen Elizabeth II, head of from Britain, granted 1957. the British Commonwealth, Gold Coast is renamed on her first state visit to the Ghana same year. newly independent Ghana in November 1961. FOUNDS REPUBLIC Declares Ghana a republic and becomes its first president, 1960, until overthrown, 1966. 231

7SURVIVED Nkrumah advocated passionately for Pan-Africanism and became a ASSASSINATION symbol of what was possible for later African independence movements. ATTEMPTS He believed that Ghana’s independence SPENT 14 would prove meaningless unless it was the first step in the liberation MONTHS of the entire African continent from European rule. IN PRISON UNITED 32 became engrossed in the Pan-African In January 1950, when Nkrumah and the movement, which sought to create CPP encouraged union strikes, he was NATIONS IN THE solidarity between all African people, imprisoned for his actions but by then ORGANIZATION and in socialist ideology. He relocated he had become a popular hero. When to the UK to study and was instrumental a general election was granted in 1951, OUFNAFIRTICAYN in organizing the Fifth Pan-African the CPP won and Nkrumah was released Congress held in Manchester, 1945. from prison. A year later he was sworn SET UP in as the Gold Coast’s first prime minister. Nkrumah became intent on leading his OVER 40 native Gold Coast to independence from Once in office, Nkrumah called for British rule. In 1946, British governor an all-African cabinet, then pressed for STATE-RUN Alan Burns, seeking fairer representation, independence. A general election was introduced amendments to the Gold held in July 1956, the CPP won, and the ENTERPRISES Coast constitution that gave Africans a Gold Coast gained independence from majority on the legislative council for the the UK on March 6, 1957. The new nation first time, prompting several academics was renamed Ghana, after the Ghana and lawyers to form a new party—the Empire of West Africa (c. 700–1240), United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC). and in 1960, it became a republic, with Nkrumah as its first president. Ghana’s hero Nkrumah returned to the Gold Coast However, Nkrumah’s Ghana was in 1947 to become the UGCC’s general a one-party state, subject to rigged secretary, until 1949, when he founded elections, economic woes, and an his own Convention People’s Party (CPP), increasing lack of press freedom. In 1966, which was committed to a strategy of while Nkrumah was on a state visit to positive non-violent action that put Beijing, Ghana’s armed forces overthrew pressure on the colonial administration. him. Finding asylum in Guinea, he lived there until he died of cancer in 1972. 232

“We believe in ROBERT MUGABE the rights of all Inspired by Kwame Nkrumah’s fight for Ghanaian peoples to govern independence, Robert Mugabe (b.1924) was themselves. We at the forefront of nationalist activities to free affirm the rights of Southern Rhodesia from British colonial rule. all colonial peoples to control their Mugabe joined those calling for an independent black-led state in the 1960s, but was jailed for his activities from 1964 to 1974. On own destiny.” his release, he began a violent campaign and the UK government eventually granted Rhodesia independence in 1980. Mugabe became its president, and ruled it until 2017. Initially lauded for improving education and health for the black majority, his seizure of white-owned farms and violent oppression of political dissent led to international sanctions that resulted in economic decline and social instability. Kwame Nkrumah, 1945 GERMANY PORTUGAL UNITED KINGDOM BELGIUM ITALY 233 FRANCE

Having overthrown a capitalist government, survived more than 600 assassination attempts, and brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, Fidel Castro faced constant controversy during his 50-year term as Cuban leader, but his supporters greatly admired him. Castro made Cuba a one-party state, nationalized industry, and improved education and healthcare for the masses. MILESTONES Fidel Castro was born to Ángel Castro, a Spanish-born sugar plantation owner, and Lina Ruz González—Ángel's maid who later PLANS FOR CHANGE became his second wife—on August 13, 1926. While studying law at the Founds “The Movement”, University of Havana, in 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban 1952, a group dedicated People, led by the charismatic Eduardo Chibàs, whose call for social to removing Fulgencio justice, anti-corruption, and political freedom struck a chord with Batista from power. him. Meanwhile, Castro became increasingly influenced by Marxism (see pp.130–135) and started to believe that political change could FIRST ATTACK be brought about only by revolution led by the working class. Attacks Moncada Barracks, Santiago Seeds of revolution de Cuba, 1953. Serves In 1952, right-wing military general Fulgencio two years in prison. Batista seized power in Cuba during a military coup. Castro viewed him as a dictator and LEADS REVOLUTION began planning ways to depose him, Oversees successful forming a revolutionary organization, two-year guerrilla “The Movement,” with his brother campaign that topples Raúl. On July 26, 1953, the Castro Batista, December 1958. brothers and around 150 rebels stormed Moncada Barracks in DEFEATS US PLAN Santiago de Cuba. The operation Becomes prime minister, failed, and Fidel was sentenced 1959. Crushes US forces to 15 years in prison. Many of in Bay of Pigs invasion the other rebels, including Raúl, two years later. received shorter sentences. THE BRINK OF WWIII Castro's success at Permits Soviet building deposing the right-wing of nuclear missile bases Fulgencio Batista led to in Cuba, leading to Cuban Cubans celebrating in Missile Crisis, 1962. Havana's streets in 1958. 234

FIDELCASTRO1926–2016

“Condemn me, After Fidel’s supporters appealed for it does not matter: amnesty, the rebels were released early, history will having served almost two years. To evade absolve me.” being arrested again, after violent protests led to a crackdown on dissent in 1955, Fidel Castro, 1953 Fidel went into self-imposed exile in Mexico, where he joined forces with Ernesto “Che” Guevara (see box). On December 2, 1956, Fidel, Raúl, Che, and their supporters returned to Cuba. For the next two years, they waged a guerrilla campaign against Batista, finally defeating him on December 31, 1958. Socialist Cuba In 1959, Castro became prime minister, introduced free healthcare, and set up a nationwide literacy program. He nationalized US-owned banks and sugar mills, reformed land ownership, and heavily taxed American products. These policies led the US to suspend relations with Cuba in 1961. Meanwhile, in Miami, Florida, anti-revolutionary exiles, supported by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), plotted to Castro survived 638 CIA-backed assassination plots, including the use of a poisoned pen syringe, an exploding cigar, a booby-trapped seashell, and an infected diving suit. 236

land at the Bay of Pigs, from where they ERNESTO “CHE” GUEVARA would invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. However, Castro’s forces crushed Born June 14, 1928, in Argentina, Ernesto “Che” them in just three days, and the US’s Guevara studied medicine and became interested involvement in the attack was exposed. in radical politics. By the time he met Fidel Castro in Castro’s victory boosted his popularity 1955, he was a committed Marxist. in Cuba. Wary of more US attacks, he formed closer ties with the USSR and Eager to explore the world, Che made several long trips around Latin allowed the Soviets to build several America while he was still a student. He was infuriated by the poverty nuclear missile bases in Cuba. This almost and social inequality he witnessed, and grew convinced that they could triggered a nuclear world war in 1962, be ended with revolution. In 1965, having played key roles in Castro’s but eventually, after negotiations with government, Che set out to spread his theory of guerrilla warfare—going the US, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev first to Congo in Africa, then to Bolivia. He was captured in Bolivia by (see p.226) backed down. CIA-backed troops on October 8, 1967, and executed the following day. Throughout his time in office, Castro ROAD TO REVOLUTION DEADLY ASSISTANCE was a symbol for revolution around the world and inspired revolutionary FOREIGN CONTROL In 1912, Cuban former movements in Nicaragua, Venezuela, Following the US slaves revolted against Brazil, and Uruguay. He also sent troops liberation of Cuba from US-backed government. to support communist activities in Spain, Congress passed The US invaded Cuba to Angola, Ethiopia, and Yemen. Aged 81, the Platt Amendment, quell uprising; 6,000 Fidel handed over power to Raúl. He 1901, legally justifying Afro-Cubans were killed. died on November 25, 2016, aged 90. US intervention in Cuba. CORRUPT STATE MILITARY COUP Batista retook power in Sergeant Batista ousted a military coup in 1952. the Cuban government Crime, corruption, and in 1933. Conspired with inequality arose. Castro the US to become Cuba’s led a resistance against de facto leader. Elected him from 1952–1958. president in 1940. MORAL LAPSE PEOPLE’S CHOICE Former President Ramón Bribery tainted Grau’s Grau reelected in 1944. government. Organized Sugar prices rose, which crime infiltrated Cuban fueled an economic society via a US–Sicilian boom. Domestic mafia summit (Havana spending increased. Conference) in 1946. 237

Elected at the age of 43, John F. Kennedy, popularly known as “JFK,” became the youngest US president in history. A Democrat and a staunch supporter of civil rights, he symbolized a new generation of optimistic idealists. MILESTONES John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, into a wealthy Roman Catholic Irish American family on May 29, 1917. ELECTED TO CONGRESS Graduating from Harvard University in 1940, he joined the US Navy Serves in the US House Reserve and served in World War II. After the war, he entered politics of Representatives from and was elected to Congress in 1946, and to the Senate in 1952. 1947-53, then in the Senate from 1953-60. Kennedy was elected the 35th US president in 1960, at the height of the Cold War (1947–91)—a period of amplified tensions between the VOTED PRESIDENT Soviet Union and the US. Determined to stop the Soviet-backed spread Becomes president, 1960. of communism in Asia, he sent US troops to train South Vietnamese Refuses to commit US troops to fight the Communist north. In August 1962, the Soviet Union, in combat troops to Vietnam agreement with Fidel Castro, positioned nuclear missiles in Cuba, bringing throughout his presidency. the US within firing range of Soviet weapons. The ensuing 13-day standoff became known as the Cuban Missile Crisis, but Kennedy’s diplomatic talks CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS with the Soviets and the Cubans led to the Soviet Union, the US, and the Successfully navigates UK signing the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. Peacefully resolving the US away from the this crisis is widely regarded as Kennedy’s greatest political achievement. brink of full-scale nuclear war, October 1962. In June 1963, Kennedy proposed the most sweeping civil rights legislation in American history, but never lived to see it enacted. He was CIVIL RIGHTS assassinated on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald. The next year, Initiates groundbreaking President Lyndon B. Johnson finished what Kennedy had started, signing civil rights legislation, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination based on race, 1963. Assassinated religion, gender, or national origin. before its completion. Kennedy considered a US space landing vital to the country’s international standing. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan B. Shepard Jr. became the first American in space and was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Award three days later by Kennedy. 238

JOHN F.KENNEDY1917–1963

LUTHER KING MARTIN JR.

Martin Luther King Jr. united many African American 19 2 9 –19 6 8 groups and was one of the leading voices of the US civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. King’s courage and conviction led to the repeal of segregation laws and changed the lives of millions in the US but ultimately cost his own. MILESTONES Martin Luther King Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia, to a devout ORDAINED AS PASTOR Christian family. His father was a pastor. As a boy, King used Follows in his father’s to play with a white friend. However, when they were separated footsteps and is by segregated schools, the boy refused to see King, leaving him ordained, 1948, devastated. King’s parents explained to a six-year-old King the aged 19 years old. complicated story of race in the US (see p.243). BUS BOYCOTT As a teenager, King was intelligent and gifted with a deep, rich voice Organizes an African that lent itself to rousing speeches and sermons later in life. At college, American boycott of King met white people who opposed African American discrimination, all buses to oppose and he understood that cooperation among races could solve racial segregation laws, 1955. inequality in the US. UNFAIRLY JAILED Leading the civil rights movement Imprisoned for peaceful King became active in the civil rights movement in 1954, when he protest, 1963. Writes his moved to Montgomery, Alabama. There, King and fellow African famous “Letter from a American leaders collaborated to form the Montgomery Improvement Birmingham Jail.” Association (MIA), which was devoted to improving the quality of life for African Americans. “I HAVE A DREAM” As a brilliant and powerful Delivers his most speaker, he was the famous speech, August obvious spokesperson 28, 1963. Civil Rights Act signed, 1964. King, his wife, and other activists FINAL HOURS marched from Selma Delivers his “I’ve been to Montgomery in to the mountain top” Alabama in 1965 to speech April 3, 1968. protest against unequal Murdered the next day. voting rights in the US. 241

King led over 250,000 for the MIA and was unanimously followers during the elected as its president. In 1955, the March on Washington MIA organized a year-long boycott protest in 1963, of segregated buses in Montgomery, campaigning against resulting in the US Supreme Court the discrimination eventually repealing the segregation they experienced. laws covering buses the following year. The civil rights movement was an incendiary issue in the US at the time. King and his family’s lives were threatened many times, and King’s telephone was tapped by the FBI. In 1961, a segregationist mob trapped King inside a church, and he had to call Attorney- General Robert Kennedy BRPUOTLAILCIETY UNPFRAAIRCTHICIREING UVNOETQIUNAGL SSEBCGUHRSOEEOGSLA&STED

to send the National Guard to subdue discrimination in the US. Then, in 1965, 15,000 the crowd. Undeterred, King coordinated King participated in the marches in Selma, PEOPLE protests throughout the southern states Alabama, calling for the right to vote. during the 1960s. There, violent images of police brutality FIRSTATTENDED HIS shocked the public and increased the Civil Rights Act average white American’s awareness MEETING On August 28, 1963, during the March on of the plight of African Americans. Washington protest, King gave his most STABBED famous speech, “I Have A Dream,” in front Support for King had never been of 250,000 supporters, calling for a racially greater. With increased visibility, WITH A 7 IN equal US. A year later, President Lyndon however, came increased risk. On B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, April 4, 1968, King was assassinated by (18CM) LETTER which banned racial segregation and James Earl Ray, a white supremacist who claimed to be part of a conspiracy plot. OPENER IN 1958AT BOOKSIGNING “A genuine leader ... is a molder of consensus.” Martin Luther King Jr., 1963 DISPCHRROAIUMCSITNIINCAGETORY THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 29JAILED BWUHSIITNEE-SOSNELSY The Jim Crow laws—regulations that discriminated against African TIMES Americans and segregated them from whites—were introduced in 1877, just 12 years after the abolition of slavery. The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s aimed to abolish these laws. State police brutally enforced segregation laws. African Americans could not share schools, restaurants, toilets, and public transportation with white people. African Americans were also unable to vote or live in predominantly white neighborhoods and were discriminated against when they were seeking work. Martin Luther King Jr. and other leaders in the civil rights movement arranged marches and protests across the country to oppose these laws. Over the course of the 1950s and 1960s, in response to these protests, the US government repealed many laws of segregation in several states. In 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, which outlawed racial discrimination and segregation. 243



“I HAVE A DREAM THAT MY FOUR LITTLE CHILDREN WILL ONE DAY LIVE IN A NATION WHERE THEY WILL NOT BE JUDGED BY THE COLOR OF THEIR SKIN, BUT BY THE CONTENT OF THEIR CHARACTER.” Martin Luther King Jr. Excerpt from “I Have a Dream” speech, Washington D.C., August 28, 1963 ◀ Martin Luther King Jr.’s funeral, Atlanta, Georgia, April 9, 1968.

MILESTONES A Japanese businessman who used his knowledge of physics to enhance product design, Akio Morita PARTNERS MEET helped establish the world of personal entertainment. Drafted into Japanese He created iconic products and cofounded Sony, navy, 1944, meets Masaru which became the leading name in visual media. Ibuka; they become business partners, 1946. Morita was born in Nagoya, Japan, into a family of sake, miso, and soy brewers, on January 26, 1921. Although he was expected to take A NEW COMPANY over the family business, his interest in electronics and sound reproduction Founds radio repair led him to study physics at Osaka University. After graduating in 1944, Morita company with Ibuka, was drafted into the navy, where he served on the Wartime Research 1946. Sells Japan’s first Committee and met his future business partner Masaru Ibuka. tape recorder, 1950. In 1946, Ibuka and Morita founded a radio repair company—Tokyo SONY NAME BORN Telecommunications Engineering Corporation—and gradually branched Company name changed into product design and sales. They developed Japan’s first tape recorder to Sony, 1958 – from in 1950, but their breakthrough came with a pocket-sized radio, the Latin sonus (sound) and TR-SS, in 1955. As demand for their goods grew in the US, the company— American term “sonny” renamed Sony—went on to create many game-changing products, from (slang for young man). the revolutionary Trinitron color television set in 1968, to the compact disc player (alongside Phillips) in 1982, and the PlayStation games consul in 1995. REVOLUTIONIZES MUSIC Launches first portable Sony branched out from electronics in 1989, when it purchased motion personal stereo system, picture studio Columbia Pictures. In 1994, Morita resigned as chairman of the Walkman, 1979. More Sony—ranked as the most recognizable brand in the US by market research than 400 million Walkmans company Harris in 1997. The following year, Time magazine named Morita sold in total by 2014. as one of the most influential business leaders of the century—he died in 1999. BUYS FILM STUDIO Acquires Columbia Pictures, 1989, and enters the movie and television production market. Morita pioneered personal stereo equipment, such as the Sony Walkman, that allowed people to listen to their own choice of music wherever they were. 246

1921–1999 MAKIO ORITA

Jailed for 27 years for fighting against white minority rule and the apartheid system in South Africa, Nelson Mandela eventually became the country’s first black president in 1994. He changed South Africa’s constitution in 1996 to include equal rights for all people living there. MILESTONES Nelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918, and was JOINS ANC originally named Rolihlahla, meaning “troublemaker” To oppose apartheid, in the Xhosa language. He was part of the ruling family of joins the African Thembu people, a Xhosa-speaking tribe based in South National Congress Africa’s Cape Province. On his first day at school, a teacher (ANC) party, 1943. gave him the English name “Nelson.” After leaving school, Mandela studied law at the University of Fort Hare, South ARMED RESISTANCE Africa, but was expelled after taking part in a student Creates an armed wing protest against the quality of food there. Abandoning of the ANC, 1961. Visits his studies, Mandela moved to Johannesburg in 1941 other African countries and became politically active, specifically in the and sources weapons. campaign for black rights. SENT TO PRISON The African National Congress (ANC) party was one Arrested and is (falsely) of the leading political voices of resistance to apartheid charged for trying to in South Africa (see p.251) after its introduction in 1948. install a communist Nelson Mandela became deputy president in 1952 and government, 1962. transformed it into a focused, mass political movement, demanding full equal rights, freedom of movement and ELECTED PRESIDENT Inaugurated president Many of South Africa’s indigenous of South Africa, 1994. people shared Mandela’s views and Became the country’s expressed their anger during protests, first black president. such as this one in Johannesburg, 1952, often experiencing police brutality. 248