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WIN WORTH £249.99! 2 EBOOKS 2 POSTERS RAPID-FIRE & WALLPAPERS MISSILE LAUNCHER WONDER CTAEMCHE FTRHOATM SUPER-POWERED MARINE SPACE TURBINE VERSATILE MISSION BAY MEET THE WORLD S MOST ADVANCED COMBAT E A O AL D DOC WHY IS DEEP-DIVING AMAZING AUSSIE CAN YOU STOP A ANTARCTICA SPERM WHALES BUSH MEDICINE HURRICANE? MELTING? 3,000 YEARS OF MAPPING ATOMIC ICEBREAKER INSIDE HAYABUSA2 ISSUE147



ISSUE 147 WELCOME The magazine that feeds minds! © Getty “It’ll be an essential I t’s not as if you can stroll down to component of the your local boat dealership and Royal Navy fleet pick up an armoured combat vessel from the harbour on a whim. into the 2060s” So when the Royal Navy wants to How to build a warship, page 22 update its fleet to include the most Meet the team… advanced warships in the world, they have to commission the construction of the entire thing from scratch. In this issue of How It Works, we’ve explored the Scottish dry dock where HMS Glasgow, the Royal Navy’s first Type-26 frigate, is being built. Discover how the ship is painstakingly assembled, the impressive hardware on board and its multi-mission capabilities that include defending the fleet from submarines and disaster relief. Nikole Scott Baljeet Duncan Ailsa Enjoy the issue! hcsooigHmwnIWui/ptnFnwtooeerwoowesurxrckasmlnlusdesadiitovliaftenfeigelrrylsis,.t Production Editor Staff Writer Research Editor Senior Art Editor Staff Writer Ben Editor We’re familiar with Did you know that See the tech inside Our cells make up Discover the how the world looks the nuclear-powered everything in our ancient medicinal FOLLOW US… on paper today, but smartphone bodies, and each has knowledge of this wasn’t always cameras came from vessels used to specific functions to Australia’s plants howitworksmag the case. Explore the break through the keep us – and itself and animals that’s most ancient maps space travel? thick Arctic ice to – alive. Learn more still being used How It Works magazine Discover how space access the ocean on today on page 34. on page 60. technology benefits on page 58. @HowItWorksmag Earth on page 44. page 32. www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 003

SPECIAL TECHNOLOGY HOW TO 22 How to build 22 ARa warship WIN!£249.99A SPHWEORROTHROBOT Page 94 See inside a Royal Navy dry dock 60 Secrets of the ZZONE! Synchrotron Why this UK laboratory and discover how the world’s accelerates electrons to nearly most advanced combat vessel is the speed of light being built 66 How to stop a hurricane TRANSPORT 68 Inside a blast furnace 30 Landing a plane 70 How do stenographers type so quickly? How pilots get several hundred tonnes of aircraft safely back to the ground AR SCIENCE 34 The Humvee ZONE! 72 Cells: the body’s building blocks 36 Atomic icebreaker What’s inside these microscopic ENVIRONMENT components that make up everything inside you? 38 Bush medicine 74 How superconductors The amazing natural remedies of work so efficiently the Australian Outback 42 Discover deserts HISTORY 46 Antarctica’s meltdown 76 How our ancestors mapped the world 50 Deep-diving ARZONE! sperm whale Discover the ancient techniques that cartographers used to chart SPACE the world around them 52 How space tech AR80 Mystery of the benefits Earth Nazca Lines ZONE! Discover the innovations 82 Why Stonehenge intended for space missions that was built you now use every day 58 Seeking the origins of life with Hayabusa2 SUBSCRIBE NOW! 82 Why Go to page 20 for great deals Stonehenge was built ARZONE! 004 HowItWorks orksdaily.com

72 Cells: the body’s REGULARS building blocks 06 Global eye ARZONE! Science and tech news from 68 Inside a around the world blast furnace 18 Wish list 76 How our ancestors mapped Get to grips with the latest smartphone gadgets and apps the world 84 eBooks and posters 36 Atomic icebreaker Free How It Works digital specials and posters ARZONE! 86 Brain dump 66 How to stop a Your questions answered hurricane 90 Book reviews 52 How space tech 92 Brain gym benefits Earth Give your brain a workout with our puzzle pages 95 How to… Make your own speaker 96 Letters Our readers have their say 98 Fast facts AR ZONE! When you see the RZ NE! 34 The Humvee Scan the QR code with AARZZOONNEE!! logo at 46 your device’s camera or Antarctica’s HOW THE AUGMENTED REALITY WORKS download a free QR code the top of a page, use meltdown reader app. Many iPhone After being launched by the QR code, the app reads anything and Android devices your phone to scan Hold your mobile device you point your device’s camera at 30 times a second, include a QR reader over the image and searching for distinctive shapes we’ve trained it to recognise. the QR code, which watch it come to life! When it sees a familiar picture, it overlays the augmented- Your device needs to be reality 3D image we’ve previously uploaded on your screen. looks like this connected to the internet for this to work How It Works 005 www.howitworksdaily.com

GROWING NERVE CELLS This group of cells, known as multipotent human neural progenitor cells, transform into the many different cells that form the human nervous system, such as star-shaped astrocyte cells. The cells in this image were artificially cultured under conditions similar to those in the developing brain, and after three weeks they were stained. The green cells are neural progenitor cells and the others, seen in orange, are astrocyte cells. Both sport nuclei that are coloured blue. Over time, most – if not all – of the neural progenitor cells will diversify into astrocyte cells. This photomicrograph image was taken at 200x magnification. © Getty 006 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

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www.howitworksdaily.com EUROPA’S FROZEN SURFACE Meet Jupiter’s icy moon, Europa. It’s the gas giant’s sixth-closest moon and is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, reaching temperatures of no more than -160 degrees Celsius at its equator and plummeting below -220 degrees Celsius at its poles. This image was taken by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft in the late 1990s and highlights the many long, linear cracks and ridges on its surface, seen in reddish- brown. The white expanses around the ridges are most likely pure water ice, which scientists believe forms a shell 10 to 15 miles thick and floats on an ocean up to 100 miles deep. How It Works 009

GLOWING MUSHROOMS During the day these mushrooms are unimpressive, but when darkness falls they light up. Ghost fungi (Omphalotus nidiformis) are large mushrooms that grow in Australia and give off a radioactive-green bioluminescent glow at night. These fungi produce a chemical called luciferin that undergoes a chemical reaction, which releases energy in the form of green light. It’s been suggested that the glow serves as a lure for spore-spreading insects. However, a conclusive answer is yet to be found. Bioluminescent fungi aren’t a recent discovery, having been described in documents written by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. © Getty 010 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

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GLOBAL EYE IN ASSOCIATION WITH Showcasing the incredible world we live in With over 14 million global monthly users, Live Science makes every day a little more interesting by illuminating the fascinating world around us. For the science geek in everyone, Live Science breaks down the stories behind the most interesting news and photos on the internet. HEALTH Brain-eating amoebae on the move Words by Rachael Rettner Deadly ‘brain-eating’ amoeba infections Swallowing contaminated water will not northward per year during their study period. have historically occurred in the cause an infection. The researchers also analysed weather data Southern United States, but cases have from around the date each case occurred, been appearing farther north in recent years, Because N. fowleri thrives in warm waters finding that, on average, daily temperatures and it's likely because of climate change. – up to 45 degrees Celsius – it’s possible that in the two weeks leading up to each case were Researchers from the Centers for Disease warming global temperatures may affect the higher than the historical average for each Control and Prevention (CDC) examined cases organisms’ geographic range. Researchers location. “It is possible that rising of this brain-eating amoeba, known as analysed US cases of N. fowleri linked to temperatures and consequent increases in Naegleria fowleri, over a four-decade period recreational water exposure, such as recreational water use, such as swimming in the US. They found that although the swimming in lakes, ponds, rivers or and water sports, could contribute to the number of cases that occur each year has reservoirs, from 1978 to 2018. They identified changing epidemiology of PAM,” the remained about the same, the geographic a total of 85 cases of N. fowleri that met their researchers stated. range of these cases has been shifting criteria for the study – cases that were tied to northward, with more cases popping up in recreational water exposure and included Efforts to characterise PAM cases, such as Midwestern states than before. location data, for example. knowing when and where these cases occur and being aware of changes in their N. fowleri is a single-celled organism that’s During this time, the number of yearly geographic range, could help predict when it’s naturally found in warm freshwater, such as reported cases was fairly constant, ranging riskiest to visit natural swimming holes. lakes and rivers. It causes a devastating brain from zero to six per year. The vast majority of Since there is no rapid test for N. fowleri in infection known as primary amoebic cases, 74, occurred in Southern states, but six water, the only sure way to prevent these meningoencephalitis (PAM), which is almost were reported in the Midwest, including infections is to avoid swimming in warm universally fatal. Infections occur when Minnesota, Kansas and Indiana. Of these six freshwater. If you choose to go swimming in contaminated water goes up a person’s nose, cases, five occurred after 2010. warm freshwater, you can try to avoid having allowing the organism to enter the brain water go up your nose by holding your nose through the olfactory nerves – responsible for What’s more, researchers using a model to closed, using nose clips or keeping your head your sense of smell – and destroy brain tissue. examine trends in the maximum latitude of above water. cases per year found that the maximum latitude had shifted about 8.2 miles 012 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

This photomicrograph The Australian Commonwealth reveals the tissue Scientific and Industrial Research characteristics Organisation’s (CSIRO) Australia Telescope National Facility (ATNF) hosts associated with a case the Parkes Observatory radio telescope of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis caused by N. fowleri © Getty © Getty SPACE & PHYSICS Alien hunters detect mystery signal “Infections occur Words by Rafi Letzter The Guardian has quoted an unnamed source when contaminated with apparent access to the data on this signal as Astronomers hunting for radio signals saying: “It is the first serious candidate for an water goes up a from alien civilisations have detected an alien communication since the ‘Wow! signal,’” a person’s nose” ‘intriguing’ signal from the direction of famous radio signal detected in 1977 that also Proxima Centauri, the nearest star system to the resembled a technosignature. But The Guardian www.howitworksdaily.com Sun at just over four light years away. cautioned that this signal is “likely to have a Researchers are still investigating the discovery, mundane origin too”. Such mundane sources and the data has not been made public, but the include a comet or its hydrogen cloud, which signal is reportedly a narrow beam of 980 MHz could also explain the Wow! signal. radio waves detected in April and May 2019 by the Parkes telescope in Australia. Penn State University’s Sofia Sheikh, who led the analysis of the signal for Breakthrough The Parkes telescope forms part of the Listen, voiced her excitement about it: “It’s the Breakthrough Listen project to hunt for radio most exciting signal that we’ve found in the signals from technological sources beyond the Breakthrough Listen project because we haven’t Solar System. The 980 MHz signal appeared once had a signal jump through this many of our and was never detected again. That frequency is filters before,” Sheikh explained, adding that the important because that band of radio waves is signal is now being referred to as Breakthrough typically lacking signals from human-made craft Listen Candidate 1, or BLC1. and satellites. An inherent challenge in searching for alien Breakthrough Listen detects unusual radio communications is that no one knows how signals all the time. Between Earthly sources, aliens might communicate, and no one knows the Sun’s natural radio output and natural all the potential natural sources of radio waves sources beyond the Solar System, there are a lot in the universe. When signals arrive that seem of radio waves bouncing around out there. But even plausibly technological and don’t come this signal appears to have come directly from with easy natural explanations, it’s tempting to the Proxima Centauri system, just 4.2 light years make the jump to aliens. So far, no data on this from Earth. Even more tantalising, the signal signal is public, and it’s likely that even when it reportedly shifted slightly while it was being does become public there will be no conclusive observed in a way that resembled the shift answers… that’s what happened with the Wow! caused by the movement of a planet. Proxima signal after all. Centauri has one known rocky world 17 per cent larger than Earth, and one known gas giant. How It Works 013

IN ASSOCIATION WITH ANIMALS New fungi turns flies into zombies before eating them from the inside Words by Stephanie Pappas spasms and die. Even after death the flies can new knowledge that can serve as a basis for spread the spores of their killers: the flies’ experimental studies of infection pathways Two newly discovered fungi species have abdomens gradually crumble, releasing more and the bioactive substances involved.” a similarly macabre mode of action: spores from inside. These spores have thick they eat flies alive while using them to walls that may help them lie dormant over Eilenberg and his colleagues suspect that drop spores on new victims. The related winter, infecting more flies when the insects the fungi ‘dope’ the flies with some substance species, Strongwellsea tigrinae and become active in the spring. that keeps them flying and active even as Strongwellsea acerosa, attack the fly species their abdomens are devoured from the inside Coenosia tigrina and Coenosia testacea, Danish researchers discovered dozens of out. Other fungi that prey on insects use which look like ordinary house flies but fungi-infected flies during fieldwork in amphetamine-type substances to keep their undergo a horrific change once they’re Jægerspris and Amager, Denmark. The flies victims moving, so perhaps the newly invaded by the fungi. The fungi eat one or were found in both rural areas and discovered fungi do the same, Eilenberg said. more holes in the abdomens of the flies and residential neighbourhoods, hinting of a The fungi might also produce antimicrobial then produce clumps of orange spores, which horror-story struggle playing out in substances that keep other pathogens away spread by dropping out of the holes. seemingly peaceful fields and yards. “This is from the abdomen holes in order to keep the an exciting and bizarre aspect of biodiversity flies alive longer. The infected, now-zombified flies remain that we have discovered in Denmark,”said alive for days during this process, meaning Jørgen Eilenberg, a biologist at the University “We would definitely like to continue our they inadvertently spread the spores far and of Copenhagen. “In and of itself, this research, as doing so has the potential to wide, particularly when mating with other mapping of new and unknown biodiversity is discover – and later make use of – these flies. Meanwhile, the fungi continue to valuable. But at the same time this is basic substances, perhaps in medicine,” devour the flies alive. Finally, the fungi- Eilenberg said. ravaged insects collapse to the ground in The fly species Coenosia tigrina was infected with the fungus Strongwellsea tigrinae, which ripped holes into the fly’s abdomen “They eat flies © Alamy alive while using www.howitworksdaily.com them to drop spores on new victims” 014 How It Works

Fluctuating air pressures at Mount SPACE & PHYSICS Everest’s summit can change how high it feels to climbers An angel, devil and a heart © Getty appear on Mars PLANET EARTH Words by Brandon Specktor Air pressure makes It’s summer at the south pole of Mars, Everest ‘shrink’ and the angels and devils are coming out to play. You can see them both in a Words by Brandon Specktor oxygen to stay on their feet as they scale to stunning image of its thawed pole, taken © ESA higher elevations where the air is thinner. by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in devils, it should be said, are made of dust. the world at almost 8,849 metres above But while air pressure reliably decreases with Just like on Earth, Martian dust devils sea level, but sometimes it feels like the elevation, it also fluctuates with the weather. form when a pocket of warm air suddenly second tallest. That’s because the mountain’s air From 1979 to 2019, the air pressure near the peak rises through a column of cool air, pressure fluctuates significantly throughout the of Everest ranged anywhere from 309 to 343 creating a spinning updraft. Unlike on year, a recent study found, causing the summit’s hectopascals, roughly one-third the pressure at Earth, however, these dusty cyclones can ‘perceived elevation’ to occasionally dip below sea level, depending on the season. tower six miles high. You can see the that of its less lofty rival K2, the second-tallest tracks of one such cyclone in the dark mountain in the world. The oxygen availability on Everest makes the region to the far left of the image below. mountain feel thousands of metres shorter than “Sometimes K2 is higher than Everest,” Tom it really is. Occasionally the 8,848.86-metre And as for the angel? For an Matthews, a climate scientist at Loughborough mountain feels shorter – to our bodies, at least explanation, we’ll have to turn to the University in the United Kingdom, said. – than the world’s next tallest mountain, K2, heavens. Take a close look at the ‘halo’ Matthews and his colleagues looked at more which measures 8,611 metres tall. around the angel’s head, and you’ll notice than 40 years of air pressure data recorded by the steep, sloping walls of an impact both weather stations near the summit of Mount The researchers also found that air pressure crater. This ethereal feature is the product Everest and the European Space Agency’s on Everest was consistently highest in the of a meteorite collision that dug deep into Copernicus satellite. summertime, making that the best season to the Red Planet’s crust, building a crater scale the mountain based purely on oxygen and revealing the layers of ancient Air pressure is closely tied to oxygen availability. As Earth’s atmosphere continues to sediment below. availability on Everest; when air pressure warm due to climate change, there could even decreases, there are fewer oxygen molecules in be a permanent decrease in the mountain’s Those old layers take on a dark-red hue the air, making the simple act of breathing much perceived elevation. “Warming will shrink the and are visible in this image all through more strenuous. For this reason, many who mountain a little bit,” Matthews said. the angel’s body, as well as the heart- choose to hike Everest rely on supplemental shaped structure below its right wing. What this reddish stuff is made of, though www.howitworksdaily.com scientists aren’t sure. These strange, dark deposits are found all over Mars and are thought to be the result of ancient volcanic activity long buried below the Martian crust. Erosion, asteroid impacts, scathing and speedy winds and dust storms have slowly brought these mysterious red scars to the surface. An angel-like province of red sediment has appeared near the south pole of Mars – but what caused it? How It Works 015

IN ASSOCIATION WITH PLANET EARTH SPACE & PHYSICS The galaxy GN-z11, which scientists think could be the farthest and Arctic methane could be Scientists spot oldest galaxy ever observed, unlocked by superimposed onto an image from the Moon the GOODS-North survey Words by Patrick Pester the farthest galaxy The Moon could be affecting how in the universe much methane is released from the Words by Chelsea Gohd Arctic Ocean seafloor. The tides, controlled by the Moon, affect how much© Andre a P aza Favero aAstronomers have peered out into the vastlight coming from cosmic objects. By studying methane is released from seafloor © NASA/ESA/P. Oesch (Yale University)/G. Brammer (STScI)/ P. van Dokkum (Yale University)/ G. Illingworth (University of California, Santa Cruz)expanse and spotted what they think isthese signatures closely, the team was able to sediments. Low tides mean less pressure the farthest – and oldest – galaxy ever figure out how far the light coming from GN-z11 and more methane released, while high tides create more pressure, and therefore observed. GN-z11 appears to be the most distant must have travelled to get to us, giving them the less methane emission. and oldest galaxy ever detected. Astronomers tools to estimate its overall distance from Earth. The research was conducted in the west Svalbard region of the Arctic. “It is the first led by Nobunari Kashikawa, a professor in the “We looked at ultraviolet light specifically, as time that this observation has been made in the Arctic Ocean. It means that slight department of astronomy at the that is the area of the pressure changes can release significant amounts of methane,” said Jochen Knies, a University of Tokyo, embarked on a electromagnetic spectrum we marine geologist at the Centre for Arctic expected to find the redshifted Gas Hydrate, Environment and Climate. “We lookedmission to find the universe’s most chemical signatures,” Kashikawa at ultravioletdistant observable galaxy to learn Methane contributes to global warming more about how it formed. said. “The Hubble Space Telescope by trapping and holding heat in the “From previous studies, the atmosphere. Huge methane reserves lurk light detected the signature multiple beneath the seafloor, and ocean warming galaxy GN-z11 seems to be the specifically” times in the spectrum of GN-z11.” is expected to unlock some of that trapped methane. Understanding how the tides farthest detectable galaxy from us “However,” he added, “even impact these emissions is important for future climate predictions. at 13.4 billion light years, or 134 nonillion Hubble cannot resolve ultraviolet emission lines To confirm this tidal effect, researchers kilometres [83 nonillion miles],” said Kashikawa. to the degree we needed. So we turned to a more measured the pressure and temperature inside the sediments, finding out that gas “But measuring and verifying such a distance is up-to-date ground-based spectrograph, an levels near the seafloor rise and fall with the tides. By using a permanent not an easy task.” To determine how far GN-z11 is instrument to measure emission lines, the monitoring tool, the researchers were able to identify methane release in an area of from us here on planet Earth, Kashikawa’s team Multi-Object Spectrometer For Infra-Red the Arctic Ocean where it has not previously been observed. studied the galaxy’s redshift, how much its light Exploration (MOSFIRE), which is mounted to the In this digital reconstruction, methane can be has stretched out, or shifted, towards the red Keck I telescope in Hawaii.” Using MOSFIRE, the seen rising as flares from the seafloor end of the spectrum. In general, the farther away team was able to observe and study the emission 016 How It Works a cosmic object is from Earth, the more lines coming from the galaxy in detail. If other redshifted its light will be. observations confirm the new findings, GN-z11 The team also looked at GN-z11’s emission would officially reign as the most distant galaxy lines, observable chemical signatures in the ever seen. www.howitworksdaily.com

HISTORY Tudor gold coin stash found in English garden Words by Laura Geggel Afamily in England was weeding their Museum at the University of Oxford, said. © The Trustees of the Br t sh Museum garden when they unearthed a © Getty valuable treasure, a buried hoard of “You have this period in the late 1530s and gold coins dating back to the 1400s depicting English monarchs from Edward IV to Henry 1540s where you have the Dissolution of the This photo shows the Five-hundred-meter Aperture VIII. The hoard, a stash of 63 gold coins and Monasteries, and we do know that some Spherical Telescope in southwest China one silver coin, contains money minted over a period of nearly 100 years, from the late churches did try to hide their wealth, hoping SPACE & PHYSICS 15th to the 16th century. Four of the coins feature Henry VIII and, curiously, one of the they would be able to keep it in the long- China gives initials of three of his wives: Catherine of term,” he said. global access to Aragon, Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour. world’s largest The newfound coins are “an important radio telescope Upon finding the cache, the family, in the hoard,” Naylor added. “You don’t get these New Forest of Hampshire in southeastern big gold hoards very often from this period.” England, notified the British Museum, As for the coins themselves, it’s a mystery which runs the Portable Antiquities Scheme why the initials of Henry’s wives were (PAS). This program partners with local present. In 1526, Henry and Thomas Wolsey, people who find historical artefacts in the an English archbishop, statesman and United Kingdom so that the findings can be documented and studied. cardinal of the Catholic Church, reorganised Words by Chelsea Gohd The coins were likely buried in about 1540, the monetary system, changing coins’ Following the collapse of the historic while King Henry VIII was still alive, but it’s weights and beginning new denominations, Arecibo Observatory telescope in Puerto unknown whether this burial spot was like a such as the five-shilling gold coin. Rico, China has opened the biggest radio piggy bank where someone regularly telescope in the world up to international deposited coins, or whether the hoard was “Not only does he change denominations, scientists. In Pingtang, Guizhou, stands the buried all at once. Whoever saved the coins, he has this very strange decision of putting Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical however, was a person of means. The his wife’s initial on the coin,” Cook said. Telescope (FAST), the largest radio telescope in collection was worth about £24 at the time, Such a move had no precedent. And given the world, surpassing the Arecibo Telescope, the equivalent of £14,000 today, Barrie Cook, Henry VIII’s many marriages – six in all – the which stood as the largest in the world for 53 a curator of medieval and early modern coins initials changed frequently. But after his years before the construction of FAST was at the British Museum, said. That’s much third marriage to Jane Seymour, the mother completed in 2016. Following two cable failures more than the average annual wage during of Edward VI who died shortly after giving in 2020, the Arebico Telescope collapsed in Tudor times. birth to the future king, Henry discontinued December 2020, shutting down the telescope for the practice, meaning that his following good. Now FAST is opening its doors to In all likelihood, a wealthy merchant or wives Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard and astronomers from around the world. clergy member buried the hoard, John Catherine Parr did not see their initials on Naylor, a coin expert from the Ashmolean English money. “Our scientific committee aims to make FAST increasingly open to the international A newfound stash The hoard is just one of over 47,000 community,” Wang Qiming, the chief inspector of 63 gold and one artefacts documented by PAS in 2020. of FAST’s operations and development centre silver coin dates Another notable newfound hoard includes said. China will accept requests through 2021 from the time of the 50 South African Krugerrand minted from foreign scientists looking to use the Edward IV to during apartheid in the 1970s. Henry VIII instrument for their research. www.howitworksdaily.com With its massive 500-metre diameter dish, FAST is not only larger than the now-destroyed Arecibo telescope, but it’s also three-times more sensitive. FAST, which began full operations in January of this year, is also surrounded by a three-mile ‘radio silence’ zone in which mobile phones and computers are not allowed. Radio telescopes like FAST use antennae and radio receivers to detect radio waves from radio sources in the cosmos, such as stars, galaxies and black holes. Researchers may use For more FAST to explore the universe, but may also use the telescope to of the latest study alien worlds and to search stories, head to for alien life. livescience.com How It Works 017

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SPECIAL Words by Mike Jennings The Royal Navy is The UK has been known for the strength just about keeping the Royal Navy on top updating its fleet: of its Royal Navy for hundreds of years, when it comes to military hardware, either. and that’s unlikely to change any time The Navy provides humanitarian assistance here’s how it soon. The organisation has embarked on a during natural disasters, protects trade builds its program of shipbuilding that’s going to interests and supports the UK’s international modernise its current fleet. It’s an expensive, relationships. It’s a broad list of tasks, and future-proofed, long-term undertaking, but the Navy is new equipment is needed to get these jobs world-class certain that its new Type 26 and Type 31 done in the coming decades. vessels are going to be crucial – and combat vessels successful – when it comes to maintaining the Alongside the carriers in the modern Royal UK’s status as a leading global force. It’s not Navy are a range of ships of various sizes, including aircraft carriers and destroyers 022 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The smaller Type 31 frigate is constructed from more than 170 units, and each weighs as much as 15 cars ready to carry out a wide range of duties the Royal Navy needs a large, versatile fleet A mages © MOD around the world, wherever the country – it means that the organisation needs to stay needs them. Among them are the frigates, the on top of the latest technology in order to most populous major warship in the fleet, maintain its position as one of the world’s capable of undertaking virtually every kind best naval forces. of mission around the world. They’re the Royal Navy’s workhorses. This is where the Type 26 and Type 31 frigates come in. The Royal Navy is currently In addition to these core ship classes you’ll in the middle of building these incredible find several support vehicles – from fuel new vessels, and they’ve been designed to tankers to patrol boats – and the medical replace the existing Type 23 frigate, otherwise vessel RFA Argus. That doesn’t just mean that known as the Duke class of ships. www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 023

SPECIAL These ship upgrades have been planned for a © BAE Systems long time. The seeds for the Type 26 were sown way back in 1998, and there were many different © BAE Systems © Getty designs and plans. But in 2010 things progressed in a big way. The Type 26 emerged from a other weaponry, and it’ll have an acoustically TOP: Components like government defence review and was also dampened hull to make it harder for submarines the bridge are built described as the Global Combat Ship, with the to spot the ships. There’s a dizzying array of separately and then Ministry of Defence intending to produce ships technology on board elsewhere, including sonar lowered onto the ship for the Royal Navy and for export to other arrays, naval guns, gas turbines and electric countries. It’s no wonder that this process takes motors, alongside diesel generators and room for ABOVE LEFT: Specialist such a long time when you consider that they are high-end Merlin and Wildcat helicopters. skills are needed to build designed to form part of a naval fleet for frigates, so companies decades. Nothing can be left to chance. It’s a fearsome amount of kit, and these Type like BAE Systems, 26 ships come with a suitably impressive list of Babcock and Rolls-Royce At present, the Ministry of Defence is statistics. The Type 26 frigates will be called the are contracted planning to deploy eight Type 26 vessels – two are currently under construction ABOVE RIGHT: These and one has been ordered, while five communications masts more are planned for the years were made in Wales following. Variants based on the Type 26 design are also being THE developed for the Royal TYPE 26’S Australian Navy and the Royal COMPUTERS Canadian Navy, and there are CARRY AS MUCH partnerships in the works with DATA AS 1.5 navies from Brazil and New Zealand. MILLION TV The Type 31 also emerged from that CHANNELS government review in 2010, and the Ministry of Defence is currently planning to order five of these general-purpose frigates. TYPE CASTING Let’s start with the Type 26 – the biggest and more expensive of the two new ships. It’s going to tackle a wide range of tasks that face the Royal Navy now and in the future. The new vessel will use a modular design that will enable it to be built to differing configurations and to be more easily fitted with new components in the future. The Type 26 will have a 3D search radar, 48 launching systems for air-defence missiles, anti-submarine rockets, anti-ship missiles and SHIP-BUILDING SITES ©Getty Most of the Type 26’s exterior building work is taking place at BAE Systems’ Ship The BAE Systems shipyard in Govan, Glasgow, Block and Outfit Hall at Govan in Glasgow, and BAE has invested more than £100 where the first Type-26is being finished million (about $135 million) in its facilities at Govan and Scotstoun to support the manufacturing program. Unsurprisingly, building ships like this is complicated, which means that several different facilities are being used. The Type 26’s individual modules are being constructed at a dedicated fabrication facility at the Govan shipyard, and the fore and aft sections of the ship will be built separately. Once they’re done, the two sections will actually leave the huge halls that are usually associated with shipbuilding, and they will be connected and then topped off with the funnels, mast and bridge while the vessel is outdoors. Unusually, that means that two-thirds of the Type 26’s construction time will be spent outside. 024 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? The Type 26 relies on more than 25,000 metres of pipework and 600,000 metres of cabling to function BUILDING A 2,000 BATTLESHIP MPH Building a frigate like the HMS The Type 26’s anti-air Glasgow is a complex process missiles travel at incredible speed 1Piece by piece The first stage of the building © BAE Systems process involves constructing parts of © MOD the ship in smaller sections – modules that will house the ship’s various rooms, facilities and equipment. 2Joining forces Once the modules are built, they’re combined into the larger front and rear sections. These will leave the shipbuilding hall in Glasgow and sit in front of the vast building. 3Building bridges The two halves of the Type 26 will be lined up outside of the shipbuilding hall along with other components like the bridge and mast, which are constructed elsewhere. 4Topping it off The fore and aft sections are joined together, and then the components like the mast, bridge and funnels are lifted onto the ship by crane and installed. 5Hitting the water A special barge is used to move the ship from the dockside and into the River Clyde, and it’ll be towed to another shipyard for the internal kit to be fitted. MTHAENTUYFPAEC3T1U’SRIINNNGOVATIVE The Type 31 is produced in modules, just like the Type 26, for easier building The Type 31 frigate shares its modular approach with the Type 26. This design strategy is a key part of the UK’s approach to shipbuilding, and it allows ship designs to be tweaked and upgraded – and sold to other countries. These smaller ships are being built by Babcock International rather than BAE Systems, and Babcock is spending £50 million (about $70 million) on a new hall to construct these vessels. Individual ship modules will be rolled into this new hall on self-propelled transporters, moved into position using cranes and then attached to other modules. Once the ship’s hull is complete, it will be moved outdoors so the mast, bridge and other components can be fitted – just like the Type 26. www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 025

SPECIAL City class. These City-class ships will be 149.9 © MODMid-range muscle Shared metres long and have a displacement of 6,900 © MOD characteristics tonnes – and that will increase to more than The Type 31 has a flight deck, 8,000 tonnes once they’re fully loaded. Those just like the Type 26, but this The front of the Type 31 huge numbers mean that these vessels will be ship only accommodates features a bridge, ops the length of one-and-a-half football pitches and smaller helicopters. room and a gun – just weigh almost as much as the Eiffel Tower. The like the Type 26. ships will have a range of 7,000 nautical miles Flight hangar and a standard crew complement of 157 that can be increased to a maximum of 208. Both new ships have flexible mission bays and secondary The first Type 26 is called the HMS Glasgow in flight hangars, but they’re honour of the city where it’s being built. The next smaller on the Type 31. two frigates will be called HMS Cardiff and HMS Belfast, and the five that are planned beyond THE NEW that are also going to be named after other cities FRIGATES in the UK. The innovative modular design is EXPLORED already paying off. Australia’s vessels will be called the Hunter class. They’re going to be The new frigates are packed with heavier and support a larger crew than the UK’s impressive hardware ships, with a different array of guns. The Canadian Surface Combatant ship will be a little longer than the other two, with different sensor systems and weapons and an even larger crew. “THE NAVY’S NEW FRIGATES ARE IMPRESSIVE, EXPENSIVE AND COMPLEX” Sonar Right on target © MOD In control The bow of the ship deploys a The 12.7-centimetre gun has a The ship is commanded from the submarine-detecting sonar system that range of 20 nautical miles, bridge and the operations room. can scan the ocean for miles around. and could be used with smart An open architecture means that ammunition in the future. upgrades are easier. 15 miles www.howitworksdaily.com The Type 26’s pipework would be three-times taller than Mount Everest if stood upright 026 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? The Type 26 frigate has a top speed of more than 26 knots; the Type 31 can reach speeds of over 28 knots World-leading versatility All sorts of hardware can be stored in the mission bay, from boats and vehicles to supplies for disaster relief. © MOD The 6.5-tonne turbine is paired with electric motors and diesel generators High-end weapons QUIET, FAST AND FUNCTIONAL The Type 26 has sophisticated anti-air One of the Type 26’s main functions is to combat the defence systems, and threat of submarine attacks, and that means this its radar offers frigate needs a unique set of technologies. The unrivalled protection for threat of underwater attack means that the detecting threats and propulsion system has been designed with stealth in jamming cyber attacks. mind, so the vessel’s Rolls-Royce MT30 gas turbine is combined with electric motors to reduce noise. Elsewhere, the Type 26 has special pipework, © Rolls-Royce shock-resistant mounting and acoustic enclosures to reduce noise. The hull is shaped and lined in order to cut back on noise output, too. All of these features combine to make the Type 26 quieter and stealthier than any Navy ship before it – important when defending on the high seas. © MOD TYPE 26 Air and sea options FRIGATES WILL BE BASED At the rear is a flight deck, which AT HMNB can house a large helicopter for DEVONPORT, missions away from the ship. PLYMOUTH, IN Silent sailing SOUTHWEST ENGLAND The frigate is powered by a Rolls-Royce gas turbine and diesel generators, and the hull is designed to reduce noise. © MOD © MOD www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 027

SPECIAL The Type 31 frigates are around ten metres shorter than the Type 26 vessels, and they’re a little lighter. They’ll need a smaller crew of around 100, and they have fewer weapons systems, but they’re faster, and have a wider range. Unsurprisingly, these ships aren’t cheap. © BAE Systems The Royal Navy, the Ministry of Defence and the government spent plenty of time wrangling over designs and costs, but the first order of three Type 26 frigates came in 2017 for THE hull by cranes and £3.7 billion (about $4.9 billion) – so SHIP’S they’re working out at more than CREW attached securely. During £1 billion (around $1.35 billion) QUARTERS per ship. The smaller Type 31 INCLUDE 2021 the entire vessel will be ships cost around £250 million RECREATION (about $340 million) each. AREAS AND A GYM BUILDING BLOCKS There’s no doubt about it, the Type 26 and Type 31 frigates are impressive. rolled onto a huge barge that But they’re also expensive and complex, will be used to lower the ship © Rolls-Royce and the Royal Navy doesn’t build them itself. into the water of the River Clyde. Because of the specialist equipment and skills Once the ship is lowered into the required, they hire shipbuilding firms to take on river, it’s going to be towed down the River Clyde the mammoth task. The Type 26 frigates are to another BAE shipyard at Scotstoun. It’s here being built by BAE Systems, and more than 40 where the vessel will be ‘fitted out’, meaning other suppliers are producing components, that the rest of the construction will be finished. including Rolls-Royce – the entire process This part of the process mostly involves kitting supports more than 3,000 jobs. out the interior of the ship. It’s planned that the The first of the UK’s Type 26 ships is under first Type 26 frigate will be accepted by the Royal construction at BAE’s Ship Block and Outfit Hall ABOVE: The front and Navy in 2025, becoming operational by 2027. The in Glasgow. The modular design means that the rear sections of the ship is being built in huge blocks which go ship are built first Type 31 ships are also planned to be together to form the front and rear halves of the separately, then ship – in nautical terms, they’re the ‘fore’ and connected outside operational by 2027. ‘aft’ sections. Those sections are pieced together, RIGHT: The frigate’s “THE FIRST TYPE 26 IS all of the piping and cabling is linked up and mission bay can hold CALLED THE then the hull of the HMS Glasgow will be boats, supplies or HMS GLASGOW” structurally complete. Once that’s done, the other vehicles – whatever is necessary funnels, mast and bridge will be lifted onto the ROYAL NAVY SHIPS HMS VICTORY SHOMVSERROEYIGANL HMS THROUGH THE AGES DREADNOUGHT RN ship type: Ship of the line RN ship type: Battleship The Royal Navy’s most famous This 14,150-tonne vessel RN ship type: vessel was Nelson’s flagship at Battleship the Battle of Trafalgar, and is was the largest warship in today docked in Portsmouth. the world when built. It was This was the fastest and best-armed battleship in 1511 1765 eventually sold for scrap. the world at the time. It 1891 made other ships immediately obsolete because of its firepower. MARY ROSE ©Alamy 1637 © Getty © Alamy 1820 1906 RN ship type: Carrack SOVEREIGN OF THE SEAS HMS BEAGLE The Mary Rose was King Henry VIII’s flagship. It RN ship type: Ship of the line RN ship type: Brig-sloop served for 33 years, but This fearsome flagship – nicknamed ‘Golden Devil’ This survey ship was famed for carrying sank near the Isle of Wight. – was the first vessel with three gun decks, since naturalist Charles Darwin on his King Charles I demanded more firepower. influential voyages around the world. 028 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The ship’s siren can be heard from two miles away, and can burst your eardrums if you’re too close Q&A Rear Admiral Marshall has embarked on naval tours to Asia, the Caribbean and Africa DTYIRPEEC-2T6ORFRFIOGRATES Rear Admiral Paul Marshall CBE, the senior officer responsible for delivering these latest warships, explains their role in the Royal Navy How will the Type 26 and Type 31 frigates fit its capabilities to be adapted throughout its life © M n stry of Defence into the current Royal Navy fleet? span in order to counter future threats. The HMS The larger Type 26 is an advanced anti- Glasgow will enter service with a Sea Ceptor air operating as part of a larger strike group, submarine warfare warship designed to support defence missile system and a 12.7-centimetre personnel will have access to a wider range of the UK’s other vessels. As well as protecting us medium-calibre gun. The Type 26 can also equipment and staff. from submarines, the Type 26 will support embark with a Merlin anti-submarine helicopter operations across our full spectrum of tasks, or a Wildcat maritime attack helicopter. The In addition, the Type 26 will be fitted with a including counter-piracy missions, disaster Wildcat will be able to deploy two variants of our gym that includes weightlifting and cardio relief work and delivering humanitarian aid. Future Anti-Surface Guided Weapon. equipment, and a physical trainer will be part of It’s going to be around for a long time – the Type the ship’s crew so they can provide the crew with 26 is designed for a service life of 25 years, so it’ll The Type 26 frigate will be fitted with the Mark specific training programs and guidance on be an essential component of the Royal Navy 41 Vertical Launching System, which provides healthy eating. fleet into the 2060s. the flexibility to field a variety of weapons, and that may include our next generation of ship- The crew’s accommodations have recreation The Type 31 will also be at the heart of our fleet launched strike weapons. The Type 26 is areas with TVs and games consoles, and social – deterring aggression, maintaining the UK’s inherently flexible, which allows us greater areas for people to congregate. There will be a interests and helping those in need. The Type 31 choice when planning operations and upgrades. library, and personnel can also access a range of is designed to relieve the operational pressures That’s important because it allows us to upgrade TV and radio stations through the British Forces on other ships, including the Type 26, so those the ship’s systems throughout its lifetime so it Broadcasting Service. vessels are freed up to tackle specialist tasks. can tackle future threats. That means the Type 31 doesn’t have the anti-submarine features that are included on What sort of facilities will be included for the Type 26. the crew on the HMS Glasgow? As with all warships in the Royal Navy, the What weapons will the Type 26 be equipped Type 26 will be fitted with a sickbay and ward. A with when it launches, and what will be number of our personnel are trained in first aid, added in the future? and depending on the mission we’ll have The Type 26 has a flexible design that will enable specialist medical personnel on board. When HMS WARSPITE HMS HOOD HMS INVINCIBLE RN ship type: Battleship RN ship type: Battlecruiser RN ship type: Aircraft carrier A vessel that served in both World This famous but flawed ship was infamously This aircraft carrier was the flagship of the Royal Wars, thanks to extensive sunk by the German battleship Bismarck in 1941. Navy’s fleet and saw action in several wars. modernisation and a stellar design. It was a Queen Elizabeth-class ship, reaching speeds of 23 knots. 1913 1918 1 77 1916 © Getty © Alamy 1960 © Alamy © Alamy 2017 HMS FURIOUS HMS DREADNOUGHT HMS QUEEN ELIZABETH RN ship type: Submarine RN ship type: Aircraft carrier RN ship type: Battlecruiser The second HMS Dreadnought was This new flagship aircraft carrier is the Royal Navy’s The Royal Navy’s first aircraft carrier happened due to design the UK’s first nuclear submarine, and largest-ever warship and can carry more than 60 aircraft. changes – it was originally designed as a conventional cruiser before its forward turret was replaced with a flight deck. was launched on Trafalgar Day. www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 029

TRANSPORT LANDING A PLANE Find out how pilots get tonnes of metal down safely to the tarmac Landing a plane is the most delicate part of a the landing procedure is due to commence, and speed. Pilots allow the plane to contact the flight. It involves turning a flying craft into are instructed to return to their seats and fasten ground with the lowest possible vertical and a ground vehicle, bringing hundreds of their seat belts. This is a legal requirement. horizontal speed. tonnes of mass to the ground without incident while shedding speed along the way. Aircraft At night the cabin lights are dimmed before As throttling back is insufficient to fully slow will naturally fly: so long as they have sufficient the landing procedure commences, and window an aircraft, the additional configuration changes fuel, their aerodynamics are designed to keep blinds are raised. This is so that in an incident, are filtered in at defined approach points. These them moving. To change this, pilots not only passengers will be less disorientated. Dimming include gradually raising flaps, and later on in have to reduce engine power, they also must the lights reduces glare and means eyes will the procedure extending the landing gear. slowly adopt a ‘dirty configuration’, using already be adjusted to dim conditions. It will Indeed, such is the drag created in doing this, aerodynamic drag to reduce speed. also let some light into the cabin and allow some engine power must actually be reapplied passengers to spot dangers. to compensate. The landing procedure begins miles away from the airport. During this time, many Landing is a two-stage process: the approach The pilot’s main goal during descent is to changes in altitude, speed, direction and overall to landing and landing itself – which will only be reach the runway at a precise point, and they are aircraft set-up must be completed. This is mainly successful if the approach is good. During the able to quickly form a mental picture of the conducted in dedicated ‘step down airspace’, approach phase, pilots slow the plane from destination landing strip as all runways are defined by air-traffic control. Passengers are told cruising speed to an approach speed, from given a number from 01 to 36. This is their which they can descend gently to a landing heading, where 36 equals 360 degrees, or due 030 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Heathrow Airport is used by 84 airlines which fly to 203 destinations around the world Backup Engine indication Visual guide background to a cockpit Engines are monitored in great Backup dials are depth, with fuel flow and positioned less temperature, electrical functions prominently, but and other parameters analysed. offer an additional readout in case of Basic six main dial failure. The six instruments Glass to keep an aircraft in flight are airspeed, Modern jets use glass artificial horizon, a cockpits. Instead of vertical speed hundreds of individual indicator, altimeter, instruments, readouts directional gyroscope are shown on VDU and turn altitude. computer screens. Flight management systems Mode control panel Flight management systems are cutting- A mode control panel allows the edge flight technology. Pilots enter the flight pilot to mastermind heading, plan through them so they can control speed, altitude, vertical speed plus speed, navigation and so on. vertical and lateral navigation. The air-control tower can help guide a plane last moment, either because of an emergency “The pilot’s main goal is down onto the runway alert from air-traffic control or an override by the to reach the runway at pilot. This is called a ‘go around’ – the aircraft north. It enables pilots to quickly visualise the will pitch up sharply, full power will be applied, a precise point” landing direction, and judge how wind landing gear and flaps will be tucked away and a conditions may affect this. Runways can have very steep climb will be felt. the pilot’s discretion. This means the pilots two numbers, for example 34 and 16. They are themselves decide speed and rate of descent – separated by 18 because it is the same runway This can be alarming for passengers, but is the only proviso is that once they leave an operating in two directions. actually a specific procedure pilots are trained altitude, they cannot return to it. for. It usually occurs either because a plane is The final approach procedure is initiated in a still occupying the runway, or the pilots do not On the technical side, landing procedures are 30 to 50 mile radius. Air-traffic control (ATC) staff have sufficient visual references to land safely. managed by an instrument landing system (ILS). on the ground receive ‘their’ approach aircraft Passengers will be familiar with delays from This uses radio beacons situated on the ground from fellow controllers on route. The controller’s being kept in a holding pattern. This is for their to precisely guide a plane down with immense job is to find a space for the approach aircraft own safety and ensures the pilot has the time accuracy. An ILS follows a specific glide path that with a safe separation from others entering the and space to complete their landing procedures, helps the plane follow an ‘ideal’ three-degree centre airspace; they all blend together, with the avoiding ‘go around’ emergency calls in the angle to the runway. required separation, into a separate channel for process. Holding patterns are predefined and final approach to the runway. dictated by ATCs in the control tower. ILS radar is often supported by an approach lighting system (ALS) – lightbars, strobes and so Final approach requires stated clearance from When it’s busy, ATC will sometimes specify a on, which are situated at the start of the runway. ATC. Sometimes a landing must be aborted at the defined airspeed for pilots to maintain, usually They are a big aid to pilots, helping them switch within an accuracy of ten knots. This is to keep from instrument flight to visual flight – and they the aircraft in sequence with those in front and can also extend the operating range of the behind – it is how the rate of approach to airport because they count as part of a ‘visual crowded airports is controlled. approach’. Pilots must be able to see three- quarters of a mile to the runway: with high- ATC allows two forms of instructions to pilots, intensity ALS, this can be reduced to half a mile which will be stated before the procedure or more if lights extend to parts of the runway. commences. The descent itself can be under specific altitude instructions which pilots must The final seconds before touchdown are when obey – this is to further help in traffic separation. many passengers hold their breath. Just before Alternatively, the aircraft is cleared to descend at www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 031

TRANSPORT an aircraft touches the ground, the nose will be Monitoring each condition and elevation, ambient temperature, raised up. This is called a ‘flare’, and means the flight’s progress is brake effectiveness and pilot technique. main landing wheels touch the ground first. The essential for avoiding perfect landing will see the wheels touch the any midair collisions Autopilot can actually perform the complete ground just as lift on the wings completely falls procedure right up to touchdown and rollout. away and the plane ‘stalls’. To feel hundreds of the jet engines. As forces build, pressure on the What autopilot cannot do is control the ground tonnes of mass controlled in such a precise way landing gear increases. taxi process; this will always be done by the is extremely satisfying. pilot, using guidance from ground control. On Once there’s enough mass pressing down on the ground the aircraft will taxi to its final When the rear wheels are on the ground, the the wheels, the pilot can apply the brakes. position, where passengers can disembark. pilot does not lower the nose – it drops of its own Passengers feel this two-stage deceleration in accord. It does so because as the aircraft loses landing – first the engines will roar, and then speed, the flight controls continue to lose there will be a slight jolt as the brakes come on. effectiveness so gravity can take over. Once all The length of this rollout process depends on the wheels are on the ground, the aircraft is in weight of the plane, the runway’s gradient, rollout mode. Here the flying machine is turned into a ground machine – and must be stopped before the end of the runway. On large jets, the first method of doing this is to raise more flaps to increase drag while engaging reverse thrust on Ideal descent Localiser array Inner marker beacon Missed approach Glide slope array The glide path is designed The inner marker beacon, shown by a The runway should be in sight by the to provide an ‘ideal’ descent white light, indicates the arrival of the middle marker beacon; if the pilot is slope of three degrees. runway threshold. It enables the pilot to uncertain for any reason, a missed check they are at the correct height. approach procedure should be carried out at this point. Runway Middle marker beacon Multitasking ILS Morse code secret signal A middle marker beacon Several planes can use uses an amber warning the ILS at the same time The ILS can issue light and indicates the – this leads to the famous Morse code signals to aircraft is within 0.6 evenly spaced Heathrow reassure pilots they’re miles of the runway. landing stack. on track and confirm they’re approaching the correct airport. Point of intersection “The final seconds before touchdown are when many passengers hold their breath” Instrument landing system explained An ILS is installed at most important airports, helping land planes accurately, safely and efficiently Pilots train for years Based on the ground, the instrument Localiser antennae emit dual before they can fly landing system (ILS) is a standardised signals of different frequencies either commercially system that communicates with the side of the runway. A receiver on the aircraft and guides it to the ground aircraft measures any difference 032 How It Works using radio signals. It uses two between them and adjusts the components to determine a plane’s approach accordingly. The glide path path: a localiser, which controls antennae, situated to one side of the lateral guidance, and a glide path for runway, does a similar job for the vertical guidance. vertical route. www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The runway of Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport in Russia is the world’s widest, about 105 metres wide 1 Miles of landing 3 2 Air-traffic control 2 Approach 5 and landing The landing process may The aircraft will be directed to an already be underway by the ILS localiser via defined headings. 10 A step-by-step guide to how you end time you buckle your seat belt. up safe and sound on the runway 5 Control tower 1 Holding stack Control tower The aircraft will be Radio beacon supported by air-traffic Apron control based at the tower. Secondary Terminal radar building Runway 9 7 8 10 Terminal and exit 6 The aircraft will be directed to the parking apron. Glide path 0.6 miles Passengers will Middle marker disembark and head Eight miles to the terminal. 3 Holding stack spacing 4 9 Rollout Outer All aircraft landing at an airport will marker 7 Glide path Primary The pilot will use aerodynamic have already been widely spaced radar devices to create drag and slow many miles before descent. Aircraft descend the plane, then apply the brakes. at a glide path 4 Marker post guidance 6 Pilot remains in control gradient of around 8 The perfect touchdown three degrees – Pilots know how far from the runway Air-traffic control manages plane they are thanks to marker posts. positioning, but pilots always make the ILS is calibrated to The wheels of an aircraft should ideally touch the final decision in an emergency. ensure this. ground just as lift on the wings reduces to a stall. Outer marker beacon Directional system Landing a plane in an The outer marker sounds an alert An ILS is directional, so is located on emergency at up to 8 miles away from the either end of a runway. Additional runway, and flashes a purple or marker beacons are sometimes blue light on the instrument display. included, providing further information to approaching planes. Let’s hope you never No time to ILS establishment have to use this… make notes Localiser Aircraft need to come within 2.5 Pilot passed out? No worries, help is at hand. Just modulation degrees of the localiser course in follow these simple steps and a successful frequency order to become established on emergency landing can be achieved. First, sit in the a final approach route. pilot’s seat; this is the one positioned on the left of the cabin. Before touching anything, check the ATC lead altitude instrumentation in front of you. The altitude indicator, often referred to as the virtual horizon, is Air-traffic control directs the circular display that shows a W-shaped aircraft to the localiser representation of the plane’s wings in relation to using defined headings – the ground and sky. this keeps good and even spacing between planes. Next check whether the autopilot is engaged. If it is and the plane is level, don’t touch anything. If the Glide slope wings are not level, adjust any bank or pitch using modulation the yoke – or stick. frequency Now phone in the emergency on the radio. www.howitworksdaily.com Air-traffic control will guide you to a runway, but you’ll have to make the landing yourself. Pull back on the throttle – the handled lever on the pilot’s right side – to reduce power and push down on the yoke to drop the nose. Drop the landing gear, and just as you are about to touch down, raise the nose so the main wheels touch down first. Finally, when on the tarmac, engage the reverse thrusters, the movable bars behind the throttle, pull the throttle down to its ‘idle’ position and apply pressure to the top of the rudder pedals down by your feet to brake. How It Works 033

TRANSPORT A jack of all trades, the Humvee can be configured to perform many roles A snorkel and raised exhaust © AM General make the Humvee a great amphibious vehicle © AM GeneraThe Humvee Armour options The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) Since the Humvee was roars off the production line ready for action introduced, soldiers Designed to replace several outdated American have demanded military vehicles, the High Mobility Multipurpose independent suspension and 94-centimetre tyres, allow increasingly more Wheeled Vehicle, or Humvee, has been in the Humvee to travel at up to 70 miles per hour or to climb protection from it. slopes of 60 per cent – though some Humvees have been Early versions had fabric doors and no production since 1984. Originally intended as a light utility seen to climb near-vertical walls. roof, but the demands of combat in Somalia, vehicle, there have been more than 20 variants of this The internal environment is fully air conditioned, while Iraq and Afghanistan demonstrated the highly customisable modular platform. Serving over 40 a deep-water fording kit allows the vehicle to cross rivers need for improved armour for the vehicle. nations, around 300,000 Humvees have been built to date. almost completely submerged. These capabilities, Many improvised Able to carry and deploy almost anything, from fully combined with design features such as the sturdy chassis, solutions have been tried in the field in armed troops to anti-aircraft missiles, the Humvee is an corrosion resistance plus high commonality and recent years, including sandbags and welding open-topped scout vehicle, an armoured personnel carrier, interchangeable parts, enable the Humvee to be capable, scrap metal to the chassis. However, an ambulance, a TOW missile launcher, a communication flexible, dependable and rugged even in the harshest heavily armoured versions are now centre, a heavy machine gun platform and whatever else of environments. available from the factory – as are the situation requires. retrofit kits – which include under-body The latest models are unrivalled in their off-road The turret can be fitted plates, heavy doors, capabilities, and are based around a 6.5-litre V8 Turbo with weapons for all kinds armoured seats, diesel engine which produces 142 kilowatts, or 190 brake of combat situations weapon shields and many other additions. horsepower, and 515 Newtons per metre of torque. This The latest iterations power is sent to all four wheels through an electronically offer the crew protection from controlled four-speed automatic gearbox using a series assault rifle bullets, some air-burst artillery of differentials. and up to 5.4 kilograms of explosives The drivetrain is rather unconventional as the wheels thanks to thick steel armour, energy- themselves contain portal-geared hubs; these not only absorbing coatings and mounting and double the torque generated, but due to the offset reinforced glass. All of this protection comes driveshaft inputs enable the vehicle’s ground clearance to © AM General at a price though. Many Humvees carry be significantly higher than a regular centre axle would 907 to 1,814 kilograms of armour, which can only be taken in place of cargo and equipment. Work is underway to make the Humvee more resistant to buried explosives, as the large, flat floor is not effective against these dangers. allow. This innovative drivetrain, coupled with 034 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Arnold Schwarzenegger was so impressed with the Humvee, he insisted that AM General sell him one Inside the Weapon turret Hard target Packing Humvee a punch A huge selection of Armour configurations vary We tear down one of these tough weapons can be fired from having doors that weigh There was always a vehicles to find out what makes it from the turret position. more than a heavyweight need to arm the so well suited to off-road combat boxer to having no doors at all. Humvee to provide fire © Alex Pang support and defence, Snorkle Lightweight but the variety of Diesel power weapons it can carry The snorkel and raised Riveted and bonded is astonishing. exhaust, on the far The massive V8 diesel aluminium body panels give right, allow the vehicle engine produces lots of good strength, low weight Starting with a to submerge in water torque to give excellent and flexibility to help choice of general- up to 1.5 metres. rough terrain capability. off-road performance. purpose machine guns, most weapons can be Climate Protection Rugged chassis fired manually or fitted control to the remotely The important mechanical All Humvees share operated CROWS turret Air conditioning is parts are protected high up common components to system. The most a welcome feature within the vehicle, including help serviceability, including common weapon when operating in the drivetrain and disc brakes. the chassis frame. choice is the legendary hot countries. M2 Browning .50 4x4 calibre. However, Portal hubs should there be a need Three differentials to raze everything in The large wheels contain the ensure power sight to the ground, the portal gearing, and the tyre goes to the gunner can unleash pressures can be altered wheels at all 100 shots per second remotely from the driver’s seat. times, giving using the destructive www.howitworksdaily.com great traction. M134 Minigun. For long-distance For even more of a enemies, more brutal bang, the heavy-duty weapons 40-millimetre grenade can be deployed machine gun can launch 60 high- explosive grenades per minute. Should an enemy bring a tank to the fight, the Humvee can launch the TOW anti-armour missile from 2.3 miles away. In situations requiring a little bit of overkill, the Humvee is also designed to tow a Howitzer cannon. The ultimately devastating version, however, has to be the Boeing-developed Avenger, which carries up to eight Stinger anti-aircraft missiles, with proposals for additional weapons including a one- kilowatt laser. How It Works 035

TRANSPORT AR ZONE! Atomic icebreaker Meet the latest nuclear-powered vessel The nuclear icebreaker Arktika was to sail the frozen seas moored at the Baltic Shipyard before Breaking through the Arctic ice of the setting sail for trials in the Arctic Northern Sea Route is of paramount Ocean in September 2020 importance for Russia. As a vital trading route for the nation, over the years Russia has Breaking the ice constructed some of the world’s largest and most powerful ships that carve through the ice to How the Arktika vessel generates enough maintain a path for passing freight vessels. power to carve through frozen waters Within the last decade, that power has come Helipad from the nuclear engines of Russia’s Project 22220 vessels. The first vessel and leader of the The vessel has room for one icebreaker fleet is the Arktika, which began helicopter in its hangar, plus a helipad being built at Saint Petersburg-based Baltic to take off from. Shipyard back in 2012. However, it wasn’t until September 2020 that Arktika had its maiden voyage through Arctic waters to the Russian city of Murmansk. Arktika is known as an LK-60Ya vessel, which refers to the 60 megawatts of power it can produce, thanks to its twin nuclear reactor engines. It’s reported that one full load of its nuclear reactor is equivalent to 540,000 tonnes of Arctic diesel fuel, and reloading its nuclear fuel is only required once every seven years. Nuclear propulsion on the Arktika and many other vessels around the world works like a nuclear power plant – but on a much smaller scale. Within the engine’s reactor, a radioactive source such as uranium is triggered into nuclear fission. The useful energy is emitted as heat © Getty through an induced chain reaction. The heat © Gettyturns water into steam, and the steam turns a turbine to generate electricity and power the © Gettyship. The more power these engines can produce, the easier it is for icebreakers to power forward and force ice to crack apart. Arktika is the first icebreaker in a fleet of five more nuclear vessels either under construction or planned for completion by 2035, according to an executive order signed by Russian President Vladimir Putin. Reactors are continually monitored in the control room Propellers AR ZONE! The electric propulsion system SCAN HERE turns three propellers to push Arktika through the ice. www.howitworksdaily.com Inside Arktika’s nuclear reactor compartment, which houses the ship’s two RITM-200 reactors 036 HowItWorks

DID YOU KNOW? Around the world there are over 160 ships powered by nuclear reactors The first icebreaker Coolant Steam generator The Yermak was the first ship strong enough to break its A chemical The heat produced by the way through the ice around the North Pole. After a coolant is used nuclear reactor core heats the proposal by Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov in 1897, to condense the adjacent water and produces Yermak set sail only two years later. The hull of the ship steam that’s steam to turn the turbines. was 93 metres in length, 21.6 metres wide and was said passed through to be able to break through ice two metres thick. The the turbines and Reactor Yermak facilitated countless expeditions to the Arctic, recirculate it. core leaving merchant passageways in its wake. It’s reported that in its first 12 years the icebreaker spent over 1,000 Uranium-235 is days in the ice. During World War I, Yermak was drafted at the core of to serve as a rescue vessel for ice-trapped Russian ships. the nuclear reactor. The The Yermak was the natural process first icebreaker vessel of nuclear fission to ever set sail generates the energy needed Source: Wiki/Author unknown to heat the adjacent water. Power Cockpit There are two RITM-200 integral pressurised water reactors, each with Navigation and a thermal capacity of 175 megawatts. communication take place here, where the captain and his officers pilot the vessel. Turbines Bow breaker The two reactors produce steam The reinforced hull is shaped so that that delivers 60 megawatts to the front of the ship rides up onto the the electric motor propulsion. ice sheet, allowing the weight to crack it apart and create a channel. 33,530 In clear water it can 53 It can break through 34 173.3 Illustration by © Adrian Mann tonnes of achieve speeds of crew ice almost three metres metres in displacement wide length 22 knots capacity metres deep www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 037

ENVIRONMENT MEDICINE Aboriginal Australians are experts of the outback, utilising life-saving remedies found in nature Words by Ailsa Harvey Rural Australia is a harsh environment. and provide you with everything needed for a a warning that was passed down generations, The land is dusty and dry, dangers can be fulfilling life. This respect has proved successful, before it was discovered that river water could hidden and the heat unceasing. You could with a huge variety of plants and animals whose leach out toxins and give them access to the be tricked into thinking the land is barren. But chemical make-up holds health benefits in plant’s nutrients and health-bearing secrets. this is far from the truth. Through a process of unlikely places. trial and error that has taken place over the Vital information about which parts of a plant 60,000-year history of human settlement in Understanding the medicinal properties of are usable, and how to prepare a medical Australia, people have thrived on this continent. the country’s landscape wasn’t a process that concoction in safe ratios, comes as second occurred overnight. With deserts abundant in nature to First Nation Australians. Without Aboriginal Australians share a deep venomous animals and toxic plants disguised as techniques fresh from the bush and knowledge connection to the land, with its physical and tasty treats, unlocking the land’s potential came imparted by word-of-mouth that has kept this spiritual importance taught to them by their with skill, patience and creativity. For example, medicine alive for millennia, the country’s ancestors. Their long-told stories say that if you when ingesting a poisonous plant like the cycad, natural contributions to human health might are kind to the environment, it will reciprocate family members became sick or died, which was have been lost to time. Australia’s land www.howitworksdaily.com covers nearly 3 million square miles © Getty 038 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? Kakadu plums are the richest vitamin C source – just 100 grams provides 3,000 per cent of your daily needs The taste of kangaroo A natural apples has been bandage compared to melon Growing either as a bush or tree- © Alamy climbing vine, this hardy plant is embellished with beautiful, delicate Kangaroo apples yellow flowers. Although these are a treat for the eyes when exploring the Australian bush, it’s the leaves and stems that become a real saviour for those in pain. Taking these parts of the plant and warming them up, they can be crushed together to form a paste. Absorbed by the skin, this salve can relieve inflammation and alleviate pain for arthritis sufferers. The vines are also a traditional cure for headaches. This requires them to be tightly wrapped around the head, creating pressure. Other traditional uses for these plants include using the sap as an antiseptic and the impressive strength of the stems as rope to carry equipment and belongings with handmade straps. The snake vine blooms with yellow flowers during spring and summer When looking for a kangaroo apple, the clue is in wounds. The pulp contains a steroid that is Source: Wiki/Biodiversity Heritage Library its name. This plant has large, green leaves with involved in the production of cortisone, which five pointed fingers, imitating the shape of a reduces inflammation. Though they are often kangaroo’s paw. The fruit can be found year referred to as fruits, they are actually members round, but most typically in the late summer in of the potato family. southern areas of Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. Indigenous Australians learned of these beneficial properties, but also came to discover Once the plant’s small purple flowers fall off, the care that needs to be taken when choosing the medicinal properties emerge. These shiny, the fruits to pick. While they improve health yellow-orange fruits have been used in Australia when ripe, before this stage they are highly for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant poisonous. The small fruits contain amino properties for thousands of years. The egg- acids that increase the production of red blood shaped berries can be crushed and the pulp cells, so that more oxygen can be transported to applied to the skin to soothe aching joints and the site of wounds. Quick tricks for first aid 1 Muddy cuts © Getty 2 Clay swallowing © Getty 3 Desert © Jody Dav s 4 Cockroach © Getty 5 Tingling nettles © Getty You might think that mud Ingesting small amounts mushroom squeeze The nettle Urtica dioica increases the chance of a of clay as part of your diet can was traditionally used to wound getting infected, but reduce the effects of This vibrant, orange The clear liquid that can be reduce the risk of paralysis. By Aboriginal communities poisonous plants. If toxins mushroom, Pycnoporus squeezed out of a cockroach’s beating the affected area with learned which types of soil entered the body, ancient coccineus, can be sucked on anus has been proven to have the nettles, the stinging hairs would benefit fresh wounds. Australians knew that eating to quickly relieve pain in the both antiseptic and overstimulate skin receptors. Rubbing it into fresh cuts, the clay could deactivate them. mouth, lips and gums. This anaesthetic qualities when The painful procedure is used mud acts as a barrier and has been given to babies for applied to the skin. to bring back sensation to actually reduces the chance use as a teething ring, while numbed parts of the body of infection. also improving oral health. – albeit in a painful way. www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 039

ENVIRONMEN Traditional Per gram, witchetty © Getty Aboriginal grubs contain more healing protein than beef Complementing the Indigenous Australians’ traditional healing methods, What’s in a some use the bond they have with witchetty grub? nature to heal their bodies and souls. Using mindfulness and further exploring These blubbery squirmers might not be easy nutritious meal. The soft parts can are the strong connection they have to their your first point of call in a crisis, but eaten, while the hard head is pulled off. environment, expert traditional healers witchetty grubs are packed with nutrition within the Aboriginal community assist and healing powers. These insects, in their Aside from being bush tucker, the the ill and suffering. By touching, larval stages before turning into moths, crawling creatures can be crushed into a observing and listening to the animals, are selected as snacks due to their paste and used to heal wounds and burns. plants and water, many believe this can protein-rich contents, healthy fats and The properties of the fatty paste mean that align their spirit and happiness with the vitamin C. They have been a staple of it acts as a clean barrier to prevent assistance of bush medicine. indigenous Australian communities for infection, while the moistness stops the many years, and are still a popular and wound from drying out. Witchetty grubs Western doctors mainly specialise in important food source today. They can be use these healing powers themselves, as modern medicine techniques, most of eaten raw or cooked, providing a quick and when they are cut open, they can rapidly which have been developed using restore their own skin. scientific research. For those pursuing full immersion with nature, however, it Umbrella bush can be difficult to explain the wattle can be importance of this healing technique to found in all states those less understanding of the cultural significance. For this reason, many of mainland people seek out Australia existing traditional healers, who This artwork are also shows a experts in ‘medicine man’, each of the who was an local Australian species’ spiritual healer medicinal of the Wagaya benefits. in 1922 © Alamy © Alamy Bush wattle benefits Through the trial-and-error process of burning, soaking and chewing this flowering plant, the First Australians uncovered its fruitful benefits. Soaking and boiling the umbrella bush wattle allowed the extraction of hidden gum beneath the bark. This sticky gum relieves the symptoms of sore throats and coughs by coating the throat in gum to protect it from irritation and reducing any inflammation. This bush wattle was also chosen for burning during smoke therapy – a ritual that combated complications after childbirth, dizziness and nerves. The leaves would be placed over a fire in thick layers. Shortly after giving birth, a woman would lie over them, breathing in the smoke until she began to sweat heavily. This also seemed to stop bleeding after birth. Then the newborn would be briefly held over it as part of the cleansing process, setting the baby up for a healthy start in life. www.howitworksdaily.com

D D KNOW ere are more than 700 eucalyptus tree species in Australia If we take apart th rees of the bush, what comforting co nents can we find? TUS PIPERITA EUCALYPTUS INCRASSATA EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENS © HelloMojo Both images sources: Wiki/Ian Brooker and David Kleinig © Getty Active ingredient © Getty Active ingredient Active ingredient © Getty Kino resin Root water Bark gum Ailment application Ailment application Ailment application Intestinal disorders Dehydration Cuts and sores Found in the trunk of the It is beneficial to know which This tree’s bark is bright red when cut. It is the presence of Sydney peppermint (Eucalyptus trees can provide the most chemicals like polyphenols that create this colour. piperita) is a multipurpose resin. water, as the need during Polyphenols in the oozing, red gum have antibiotic qualities This can be diluted and drunk to droughts is vital. By digging up when combined with air and are traditionally used to calm inflamed intestines. The eight metres of its roots, protect cuts from infection. material works so well because The Sydney peppermint cutting them into sections and Eucalyptus incrassata can Scraping away the bark reveals the red gum the stomach can’t absorb it. tree’s leaves can also be leaving them to drip into a be identified by their small Instead it is slowly absorbed used as a mouthwash to container, one litre of life- cylindrical fruits into the intestine. treat the throat and teeth saving water can be extracted. CORYMBIA CITRIODORA CORYMBIA DICHROMOPHLOIA EUCALYPTUS MICROTHECA Source: Wiki/Bidgee Source: Wiki/Ian Brooker and David Kleinig © Getty Active ingredient © Alamy Active ingredient © Alamy Active ingredient © Alamy Bark oil Nectar Inner bark Ailment application Ailment application Pulmonary issues Ailment application Mosquito repellent Snake bites and The nectar from this severe headaches eucalypt was boiled with The lemon eucalyptus tree Corymbia citriodora sugar and water by This eucalypt is commonly The bark of this tree can Dead bark from the tree contains oil that has been used produces white flowers Aboriginal Australians. known as the small-fruited be mashed up into a needs to be stripped away to avoid pesky mosquitoes for and pear-shaped fruit This created a medicinal poultice and applied to centuries. Found within the drink that soothes the bloodwood snake bites, with to find the medicine branches and bark, the oil lungs. It also serves as an antiseptic and disinfectant contains a compound called effective general qualities – very useful in How It Works 041 para-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD) anaesthetic for toothache. Australia where so many which makes it hard for the snakes slither about. insects to detect your scent. www.howitworksdaily.com

ENVIRONMENT DDIESSCEORVTESR What might at first glance appear to be a barren wasteland is actually teeming with life and unique terrain Deserts cover one-fifth of Earth’s surface south – including Africa’s vast Sahara Desert. Celsius during the day, but at night can fall to © SPL and are fascinating places. Take the Gigantic atmospheric currents force air to sink below freezing. Clear skies allow heat to escape Namib Desert in southern Africa. and warm at these latitudes, which in turn after sunset, and small mammals forage at dusk. Considered the world’s oldest desert, it has been suppresses rainfall. Plants include ground-hugging shrubs with arid for 55 million years. The Namib reaches the leathery leaves. sea along the barren Skeleton Coast, which is The Namib and Atacama are both coastal named after the shipwrecks that litter the dunes. deserts lying beside cold ocean currents – the An elf owl – the world’s smallest owl – peeking out South of the Skeleton Coast is the Sperrgebiet – Benguela and Humboldt Currents respectively – its nest in a saguaro cactus which translates as ‘prohibited area’ – where that cause air above them to cool. Cold air can public access is restricted to prevent diamond hold less water, reducing the rain falling on the hunters combing the coastal dunes for gems. nearby warm land. These deserts are among Earth’s driest. Most moisture here comes from The Namib is a hot desert, with summer desert fogs, which form when warm air temperatures reaching over 40 degrees Celsius, condenses over the cold ocean. Some deserts in but deserts can be cold too. For instance, the central Asia and Australia lie in continental ice-covered continent of Antarctica is Earth’s interiors, so damp ocean air loses most of its largest desert. A desert is simply a place where moisture before it can reach them. average rainfall amounts to less than 25 centimetres per year. Indeed, some deserts Desert climates and the wildlife they can host remain rainless for months or even years. vary drastically from place to place across the world. Hot deserts like the Sahara are warm Most of Earth’s hot deserts lie within 30 year-round, and rain is always scarce. degrees latitude of the equator – either north or Temperatures can reach a sweltering 49 degrees 042 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Solar panels covering just 0.3 per cent of the Sahara would generate enough clean energy to power Europe Desert oases form when pockets mEaakrteh-u’sp of groundwater, or springs, lie close enough to the surface to break through Of the 30 per cent of Earth that is land, desert accounts for one-fifth of that terrain Other 4% Desert 20% Deciduous forest 6% Land Rainforest <6% 30% Grassland 30% Water 70% Tundra 15% Mediterranean 2%Boreal forest 17% In semi-arid deserts like the Great Basin Explore desert Canyon Plateau Desert, which spans a large part of Nevada and landscapes extends into western Utah, eastern California Desert canyons form over millions Plateaux are large, and Idaho, temperatures rarely fall below ten Dunes aren’t the only desert terrain. Learn of years. Rock, sand and water flat highlands that degrees Celsius or rise above 38 degrees Celsius. about salt pans, oases, wadis and more carried down wadis by flash floods rise more than Spiny plants like the creosote bush and cut deep channels into a plateau. 457 metres above sagebrush thrive in this climate. Mesas and buttes their surroundings and have at least Close to cold ocean coasts, desert summer Flash floods wear away the bare sides of one steep side. temperatures rarely rise above 24 degrees plateaux where soft sedimentary rocks lie Celsius and yearly rainfall can be 13 centimetres. beneath hard lava. Isolated flat-topped hills Plants have roots close to the surface to collect called mesas and buttes are left behind. rain, and have fleshy, water-storing stems. Some toads remain dormant in burrows for months Alluvial fan between rainstorms. Flash floods lose energy Desert ecosystems are damaged by things like at the mouth of a wadi off-road vehicles, drilling and mining. Higher as the water fans out. temperatures due to climate change could The flood drops its load threaten drought-adapted wildlife by increasing of sand and rocks to fires, as well as drying out waterholes. form a cone of debris. Dune field Pediment Dunes cover about Pediments are gentle 25 per cent of slopes at the base of Earth’s deserts. desert cliffs. No one is The diagram certain how they form. shows barchan One theory is they’re dunes towards the carved by sheets of edge of the dune debris-laden floodwater. field. Barchans form when sand is Oasis Salt pan Wadi scarce – less than ten metres deep. Oases have lush vegetation Salt pans, or playas, are Wadis can be deadly. These and often surround a spring. flat areas, like dried-out riverbeds are usually dry, but can Rocky desert They are fed by underground lakebeds, covered with flash flood in minutes after heavy rivers or water-filled rocks salt. Water evaporates rain. The flood possesses enough Nearly 75 per cent of deserts that sit close to the surface. faster than the lake refills power to carry large boulders are stone-covered or bare rock by rainfall, leaving salt and sweep people away. plains. Rainfall, wind, and minerals behind. temperature and rock type affect how the desert looks. How It Works 043 www.howitworksdaily.com

ENVIRONMENT The spotted hyena is Spotted hyena the largest of the eLixftereamt tehse Spotted hyenas are Africa’s most three subspecies and common large carnivore and live in Facing scorching days, freezing nights and is a very bold and semi-deserts. They thrive by little water, hot deserts are hard to survive, scavenging almost anything, including but lots of wildlife call them home resourceful scavenger putrid meat, cooked porridge, animal droppings, bones and vegetables. Camel Addax Powerful jaws and stomach acid allow them to digest all parts of an animal Camels can drink an incredible one-third of their body Addaxes are Earth’s most desert-adapted except the hair and hooves. weight in ten minutes, and store water by diluting their antelopes. Broad, flat-soled hooves stop blood. They chew thorny plants with their thick lips. Their them sinking into sand, while their brown fat-filled humps both insulate them against the beating Sun coats turn white in summer to reflect and serve as a source of energy during food shortages. sunlight and keep them cool. Addaxes search the Sahara for grasses and shrubs to eat, which provide all the water they need. Welwitschia plant Welwitschia are leathery succulent plants that rely on desert fog and dew for water. Found along the Namib Desert coast where no rain falls in some years, they collect fog through numerous tiny pores on their leaves. Their long taproot can reach underground water too. MONATHPE Kangaroo rat Black-tailed jackrabbit The biggest deserts Kangaroo rats never need to drink. Black-tailed jackrabbits are hares, not in the world Their kidneys extract water from rabbits. They have black-tipped ears, their food, which includes insects, which can grow up to 20 centimetres; 1 Antarctica (5.5 million grass, leaves and seeds from these lose heat to keep the animal square miles) creosote bushes. To make dry cool. Jackrabbits shelter from the Sun seeds succulent, they store them in hollows beneath shrubs or grass 2 Sahara Desert (3.6 million in humid burrows to absorb water. and forage in the cool of evening. square miles) 10 2 8 5 3 Australian deserts 9 4 (1 million square miles) 7 63 4 Arabian Desert (716,400 1 square miles) 5 Gobi Desert (500,000 square miles) 6 Kalahari Desert (350,000 square miles) 7 Patagonian Desert (221,191 square miles) 8 Syrian Desert (200,000 square miles) 9 Chihuahaum Desert (193,783 square miles) 10 Great Basin Desert (190,000 square miles) 044 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? People-sized penguin fossils, aged around 35 million years old, have been found in the Atacama Desert Roadrunner Saguaro cactus Sand dunes Roadrunners aren’t ditzy or The saguaro is North America’s largest cactus and can reach Almost 99 per cent of Earth’s blue, but are well-named, as 15 metres tall and weigh six tonnes. Cactuses are botanical active dunes are in deserts, they sprint from danger at water balloons. Expandable ribs support each plant’s pulpy 20 miles per hour. To save body, allowing it to inflate to store rain. To reduce water loss, but how do they form? energy, they cool down at they have no leaves. Spines protect them from predators. night, and they warm up by turning their backs to bathe Thorny devils Lee dune WIND in morning sunlight. are found Creosote bush throughout Australia’s Creosote bushes in the Mojave Desert could be vast, arid Earth’s oldest living interior plants – perhaps 11,700 years old. Creosotes Sand ridge grow in US deserts and can survive two years Wind eddies when it blows over and without rain. Small, around a rock. Windblown sand is waxy leaves reduce dropped on the downwind side. moisture loss and drop off during dry periods. These shrubs only flower after rain. Barchan Horns dune The downwind- facing horns race along faster than the centre as they contain less sand Thorny devil Swirling wind Thorny devils catch morning dew and rainwater The downwind side of the dune is in tiny grooves between the scales on their belly steepened by eddies formed when and legs. They can gather as much as one gram wind overshoots the dune crest. during a rainstorm. The lizard gulps to move water from the channels up into its mouth. Linear dune Meerkat Wind changes direction Meerkats absorb heat on cold mornings by exposing their Linear dunes form when steady dark bellies, which have little hair. Like many desert winds blow from two different animals, they get all their water from food. Dark circles directions. Sand moves parallel around their eyes reduce glare from the Sun, while a special to the crest. membrane across their eyes keeps out any sand in the air. Seasonal winds Fearless meerkats will often make Star dune Star dunes form when a meal of snakes and scorpions strong winds rotate through many directions Sahara Desert ant across the seasons. One of Earth’s most heat-tolerant insects, these ants withstand surface temperatures of 60 degrees Celsius. Long legs raise their bodies above hot ground, and they sprint to minimise sunlight exposure. Desert ants count their footsteps to avoid getting lost instead of leaving a chemical trail, which would evaporate. “Thorny devils catch morning dew Giant dunes and rainwater in grooves between Star dunes can reach over 500 scales on their belly and legs” metres tall. The rotating winds pile sand higher instead of blowing the www.howitworksdaily.com dune along. How It Works 045

ENVIRONMENT ANTARCTICA’S Why Earth’s frozen continent is shedding so much ice Words by Scott Dutfield It’s the coldest place on the planet, but a hot back into space. In contrast, darker © NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centerspite losing ice, topic when it comes to the climate crisis. surfaces such as soil and concrete © GettyAntarctica is home to Antarctica is a massive continent where 90 absorb the solar radiation and a growing population per cent of the world’s ice can be found. For heat. Without Antarctica, all that of gentoo penguins more than 100 million years, however, the reflected heat would be absorbed, continent covering the South Pole was a rapidly raising the global tropical haven, before a dramatic climatic temperature of the planet. shift stripped it of its lush green surface and Although the albedo effect makes replaced it with an icy coat around 34 million Antarctica so vital, it’s also one of years ago. Since then the Antarctic has the reasons it’s shrinking. become a frozen behemoth, with an average surface ice thickness of 2,160 metres and Ever since the early 1900s, glaciers temperatures that can plummet to below -80 and ice sheets around the world have degrees Celsius. It’s made up of two distinct been melting at an accelerated rate, parts, East and West Antarctica, spanning a with the blame falling predominant total of 5.4 million square miles. on the actions of humankind – particularly since the rise of This frozen land regulates the Earth’s heavy industry. global temperature through a natural process called the albedo effect. White surfaces, such From the mid-18th century, Europ and as the Antarctic snowscape, reflect incoming America erupted in the smoke and smog of solar radiation. In doing so, the heat the Industrial Revolution. Ever since, mass generated by the radiation is sent straight manufacturing around the world has continued to throw damaging gases into the An artist’s concept Keeping an eye on ice of ICESat-2 using a laser to measure The best way to keep tabs on how much of Antarctica’s ice is melting elevation on into the ocean is from space. Satellites such as NASA’s Ice Cloud and Earth’s surface land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) have discovered that the thickness of Antarctica’s ice has been thinned by as much as 20 per cent since the first ICESat mission was completed in 2009. ICESat-2 can determine this using a laser altimeter that uses light to measure height on the surface. It sends 10,000 pulses of light every second to Earth and then records how long it takes for the light to bounce back and reach ICESat-2. This information, along with data from other similarly laser-equipped satellites such as the European Space Agency’s CryoSat-2, is used to calculate changes in ice thickness. 046 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? An ice sheet is classified as a mass of glacial land ice spanning more than 19,000 square miles 235 animal Record-breaking species call temperatures Antarctic waters and land home On 6 February 2020, the Esperanza Base weather station at the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula detected that temperatures had soared to 18.3 degrees Celsius, the hottest ever recorded in Antarctica. This was due to warm tropical air moving across the Southern Ocean to melt the ice. These winds would normally be blocked by a group of strong westerly winds that band around the Southern Hemisphere. However, they are thought to have been in a weakened state at the time, allowing the tropical winds to reach the peninsula. It resulted in 20 per cent of regional snow accumulation on the peninsula’s Eagle Island to be lost in a single event. 4 February 2020: Eagle Island’s peak temperature on this day equalled the temperature in Los Angeles at the same time ccuob7ni.c2tiamcmineiilelesldihsoeonoenftitchee © Getty © NASA Earth Observatory/Joshua Stevens 13 February 2020: As a result, Eagle Island rapidly www.howitworksdaily.com lost about 106 millimetres of snow How It Works 047

ENVIRONMENT AR ZONE! atmosphere. Burning fossil fuels, such as coal warm Amundsen water to melt away glaciers the high-tide line. Along with land loss, and natural gas, releases gases that when it moves east. The changes in the winds melting Antarctic ice also affects the subsequently melt ice away from Antarctica are thought to again be the result of global temperature and currents of the world’s through global warming. These greenhouse warming, which influences air pressure and oceans and shifts global weather patterns. gases, such as carbon dioxide, insulate the wind patterns. It’s estimated that 118 planet by absorbing or trapping the solar heat gigatonnes of the Antarctic ice sheet are lost Although there’s no denying that Antarctica so effectively works to reflect. This per year as a result, which comes with serious Antarctica’s current meltdown is one of the then increases the global temperature and global issues. greatest threats humankind faces, many directly causes our world’s ice to melt, countries around the world are making including Antarctica’s. Arguably the largest threat from a changes that can have a positive knock-on continuously melting Antarctica is the rise of effect on Antarctica. It’s predicted that the Other studies suggest that a change in the global sea levels. This increases the risk of threshold for irreversible loss to the West winds may also be playing a part in the coastal erosion and flooding, ultimately Antarctic ice sheet would be the result of a Antarctic’s continued ice loss, particularly in reducing the amount of liveable land. Since global average warming of 1.5 to 2 degrees the West Antarctic regions. Historically, 1880, mean global sea levels have risen by 21 Celsius. Global environmental accords, such winds have blown across the warmer waters to 24 centimetres, and are predicted to as the Paris Agreement, aim to lower global of the neighbouring Amundsen Sea towards increase a further 20 to 30 centimetres by average warming through emission controls the west. This helps keep them from reaching 2050. This increase will directly affect 300 and renewable energy investment, to try and the vulnerable protruding glaciers on million people around the world, with some save the icy continent. Antarctica’s coast. However, recent reports reports suggesting that by 2100 land currently say that those winds are now alternating occupied by 200 million people will sit below more between the east and west, allowing bAyKnrmtiallorpcreotipcthuasaliahnntaci8ovee0ntshdpeaeercr1ol9ciun7ene0nddst If CALVING Antarctica’s ice ICEBERGS sheet melted, sea levels would rise Where’s all the ice going and what’s y 60 metres causing it to melt? © Getty West Antarctica This part of Antarctica holds six per cent of the world’s fresh frozen water and loses billions of tonnes of ice through glaciers. Pine Island Glacier Since 2012 the most vulnerable of all Antarctica’s glaciers has been shedding 58 billion tonnes of ice every year into the Amundsen Sea. This makes it the biggest single contributor to the rise in global sea levels. © Getty Antarctica is roughly the area of the United States and Mexico combined Thwaites Glacier Also known as the ‘doomsday glacier’, this block of ice is one of the most vulnerable glaciers to rapid melting. The melting of the 74,000 square mile glacier already accounts for four per cent of global sea rise. 048 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? During the last Ice Age, the West Antarctic ice sheet was 135,000 square miles smaller than it is today HOW A Solid Cracking Slippery slope GLACIER MELTS Surrounding ocean and Warm air and seawater As more ice is lost the sturdy bedrock hold form cracks in the glacier, steepness of the glacier FROM the glacier in place. and ice at the base increases, causing more THE TOP begins to drain away. to fall into the ocean. East Antarctica FROM THE Retreat BOTTOM The largest of Antarctica’s two ice Warm waters beneath the ice’s sheets, East Antarctica makes up Stuck on rock surface erode when the glacier two-thirds of the entire continent, is anchored by the marine has roughly nine times the volume Glaciers are anchored to a basin, called the grounding line. of ice of West Antarctica and marine basin, while miles of ice averages around 1.6 miles thick. floats on the ocean surface. Sinking As more and more basin is eroded, less ice is held on the shelf, allowing it to sink into warmer waters and melt. The average temperature at the coast is -10 degrees Celsius Ross Shelf Beneath the ice Illustration © Nicholas Forder Ross Ice Shelf is the world’s largest Channels of water have been body of floating ice, currently discovered flowing beneath the estimated to have an area around continent’s ice sheet, which can 182,000 square miles. help ice to move out to shore. www.howitworksdaily.com AR ZONE! SCAN HERE How It Works 049

VIRONMENT Dspeeerpm-dwivhinagle How does a mammal the size of a bus survi epths? A sperm whale: the biggest of all the whales with teeth A sperm whale returning to the surface from the depths to breathe Sperm whales are rather odd-looking it can happen and when it does, it generally © Getty creatures. They have the biggest head means something isn’t quite right and the © Getty and brain in the animal kingdom, animal has lost its way. Out in the ocean they which looks out of proportion to the rest of can often be found where there are deep the body, and is much more noticeable in canyons to feed on giant squid, so it’s no males. They also have a narrow, long lower wonder they are deep-diving specialists. jaw. Sperm whales are mammals that, just like us, need to breathe air. Unlike us, they They have a range of incredible adaptations are very well adapted to life in deeper waters. to make diving so deep possible: from At depth in the ocean, pressure increases and techniques to stop nitrogen being absorbed volume decreases, but that doesn’t bother into their blood, which could lead to ‘the these whales. They can dive down to depths bends’, to conserving oxygen for when they of more than 2,200 metres – that’s the same as need it the most. They can disappear under about 22 full-size football pitches. the water and won’t be seen again for up to two hours, but 45 minutes is more common. Sperm whales are found in deep offshore When they resurface, look out for a really waters of all the world’s oceans. It’s quite distinctive bushy blow of air that travels unusual to see them in shallower waters, but forwards and to the left of the animal’s head. Sperm whale anatomy Let’s take a closer look inside to find out how deep diving is super easy for these mammals © Science Photo Library Buoyancy They are very well Flexible body Preventing ed n the bends Their huge heads hold a waxy r waters” Rib cages and lungs can substance called ‘spermaceti’ collapse easily at depths Pressurised air in the which may help with buoyancy where pressure is high. lungs is forced away – and gives them their name. from air sacs that would transfer excess 050 HowItWorks nitrogen into the blood. www.howitworksdaily.com