Weather modification: programs, problems, policy, and potential

Appendix N Documents of the Weather Modification Association Constitution and By-Laws of the Weather Modification Association 1 Article I. Name : The name of the organization shall be the Weather Modifi- cation Association. Article II. Purpose : The Association shall function as a non-profit organiza- tion. Its intended purposes include, but are not necessarily limited to, the follow- ing: (a) Promotion.—Promoting research, development, and understanding weather modification for beneficial uses. (b) Standards of Conduct.—Encouraging and promoting the highest standards of conduct including certification of individual members qualified to execute field experiments or operations in weather modification. (c) Information Center.—Serving as a clearinghouse and dissemination agent for weather modification oriented literature and information. (d) Policy Statements.—Assuming an active role and maintaining a strong voice in the production and dissemination of policy statements concerning all aspects of weather modification practice. Article III. Membership: There shall be four (4) classes of membership in the Association. Each class shall be afforded the privileges of membership as indi- cated. (a) Member.—Any person who subscribes to the statement of purposes of the Association, upon payment of the prescribed annual dues (Ref Article IV), shall be afforded the privileges of membership. Members shall receive all publications of the Association, and shall have the right to vote in the business of the Asso- ciation and to hold any office in the Association. (b) Student Member.—Any person, engaged in a full-time program of study leading to a degree in the atmospheric sciences, engineering or other subjects related to the science of weather modification, and who subscribes to the state- ment of purpose of the Association, upon payment of the prescribed annual dues (Ref Article IV), shall be afforded the privileges of student membership. Student members shall receive all publications of the Association but may not vote in the business of, nor hold office in, the Association. (c) Corporation Member.—Any organization with active programs in weather modification, or with interests directly related to weather modification activities, which subscribes to the statement of purposes of the association, upon payment of the prescribed annual dues (Ref Article IV), shall be afforded the privileges of corporate membership. Corporations members shall receive all publications of the Association and may designate one (1) individual to act for the corpora- tion in the affairs of the Association. The designated individual shall have the same rights and privileges afforded members of the Association. (d) Honorary Member.—Members, or former members, of the Association who have made outstanding contributions to any aspect of weather modification may, subject to the unanimous consent of the Executive Committee of the Association, be nominated in the Association. Election shall be by simple majority vote of the members present at any regular or special meeting. Honorary membership shall be non-expiring for the life of the member. Members so elected shall be excused from the payment of dues. They shall receive all publications of the Association and enjoy the same privileges as members of the Association. Article IV. Dues : All dues for the Association shall be paid on a calendar year basis. Annual dues for the various categories of membership shall be set by vote of the members present at the annual meeting, on the recommendation of the Executive Committee (Ref Article VI). 1 From the Journal of Weather Modification, v. 9, No. 1, April 1977, p. 198-201. (717) 34-857 O - 79 - 48

: 718 Article V. Certification of Members: Certification of individual members as being qualified to execute field experiments or operations in weather modifica- tion shall be based upon experience, knowledge, and character. Certification shall be granted by the unanimous vote of a Certification Board which shall be com- posed of three (3) Certified Members who shall be appointed by the President. The members of the Certification Board shall each serve three (3) years on staggered terms. Changes in procedure for certification of members shall be made only after an affirmative majority vote of the Certified Members present at any annual meeting. Article VI. Administration : The administration of the Association shall be vested in an Executive Committee which shall include the elected officers and trustees of the Association as follows (a) President.—The President shall be responsible for the administration of the Association. He shall appoint such committees as he deems necessary for the successful accomplishment of the Association's aims. The President shall preside at all meetings and shall be a member ex-officio of all committees. (b) President-elect.—The President-elect shall succeed the President in office. The President-elect shall preside over the administrative functions of the Asso- ciation in the absence, or by direction, of the President. (c) Secretary.—The Secretary shall be responsible for the minutes of each meeting and shall notify the membership of impending meetings (Ref Article VIII). In the absence of both the President and the President-elect, the Secretary shall preside over the administrative functions of the Association. (d) Treasurer.—The Treasurer shall conduct the financial affairs of the Asso- ciation and keep accurate records thereof. The functions of Secretary and Treas- urer may be combined in one person at the pleasure of the Executive Committee. (e) Trustees.—Three (3) Trustees, to serve staggered three-year terms shall be elected from members representing private groups, university groups, and government groups respectively. It shall be the duty of the Trustees to represent the interests of their respective groups as members of the Executive Committee and to assist the President and other elected officers, as may be required, in the administration of the Association. The Executive Committee may employ such other persons as may be necessary for the conduct of Association business. Article VII. Elections: Elections shall be held at the annual meeting (Ref Article VIII). Officers to be elected will include a President-elect, Secretary, Treasurer (Ref Article VId), and one (1) Trustee. Nominations for elective offices shall be made by a nominating committee ap- pointed by the President. Nominations will also be accepted from the floor, as called for, prior to balloting. New officers and trustees shall assume their duties at the conclusion of the annual meeting, and shall serve until their successors assume office. Article VIII. Meetings : Meetings shall be held at least once a calendar year. The first meeting of each calendar year shall be the annual meeting unless other- wise designated by the Executive Committee. Advance notice of all meetings shall be mailed by the Secretary (Ref Article Vic) to all members at least thirty (30) days prior to the date of the meeting. The presiding officer and ten (10) percent of the voting members shall con- stitute a quorum. The location and date of all meetings shall be determined by a majority vote of the Executive Committee. Article IX. Amendments : This Constitution and By-laws may be amended at any meeting by a majority vote representing a combination of all members present plus any absentee ballots received up to the day of the balloting on the floor, providing that the total votes cast constitute a quorum as defined in Article VIII. All amendments must be submitted to the membership at least thirty (30) days prior to the meeting at which they are to be considered. Qualifications and Procedures for Certification by the Weather Modification Association 2 purpose of certification One of the purposes of the Weather Modification Association is to certify indi- vidual members qualified to direct field experiments or operations in weather modification. This certification is considered desirable to accomplish other pur- 2 From the 'Journal of Weather Modification,' v. 9, No. 1, April 1977, p. 202-204.

: : : 719 poses of the Association, namely, promoting research and engineering advance- ments, encouraging and promoting the highest standards for professional conduct, and assisting in arranging liability insurance upon application from members performing field operations or experiments. This document gives the qualifications and procedures for such certification by the Weather Modification Association. QUALIFICATION FOR CERTIFICATION Certification of individuals to direct weather modification field experiments or operations shall be based on character, knowledge, and experience. Certification shall be made at the discretion of the Board, but the following shall be considered minimum requirements General A minimum of two years' field experience at the professional level in : directing weather modification operations or research shall be required of all applicants, in addition to the experience and educational requirements specified below Category A.—Eight (8) years' experience in weather modification field operations or research. Category B.—A degree in engineering, mathematics, or the physical sciences plus two years' experience in weather modification field operations or research. Category C.—A degree in meteorology, or a degree in engineering, mathematics, or the physical sciences which includes or is in addition to at least 25 semester hours of meteorological course work. Weather modification field operations experience is defined to be that which is involved in the organization, development, and actual conduct of field proj- ects designed to effect a change in the weather. Actual manipulation to produce a desired change is implied. In all cases, actual field experience is required to insure the qualifications of the person certified. Operations may be either com- mercial or research, but field operations of either type are required. 'Professional level' indicates a level of responsibility for direct supervision and conduct of the field operations or substantial parts thereof. COMPOSITION AND TERMS OF OFFICE OF CERTIFICATION BOARD The initial Certification Board and the procedure by which the initial certifica- tion procedures are to be adopted are given in motions passed by the Weather Modification Association at their March 1967 meeting. The motions read as follows Motion Xo. 1.—That the initial certification committee as specified in Article V of the Constitution and Bylaws of the Weather Modification Association be com- posed of three (3) Executive Officers of the W.C.R.A. Motion Xo. 2.—That the initial certification committee establish the qualifica- tions and procedures to be followed for certification, and present same by mail for approval to all past officers of W.C.R.A. who are current members of the organization. Affirmative majority vote by those replying from this group shall constitute approval of the procedures so specified. Subsequent changes in these procedures shall be made only after affirmative majority vote of the certified members present at any annual meeting. The initial Certification Committee established by the March 1967 meeting of the WMA shall function for calendar year 1968. The length of terms of office of the initial certification board shal be determined by lot to be staggered to permit the appointment of one new member in each year beginning 1969. At the end of calendar year 1968. the President shall appoint one new member of the Certification Board. In subsequent years, a new member of the Certification Board shall be appointed by the President each year. As specified in Article V of the Constitution and Bylaws of the Weather Modification Association, members of the Certification Board shall each serve three years on staggered terms. The member of the Certification Board who has the longest tenure on the Board shall serve as chairman. PROCEDURE AND FEES FOR CERTIFICATION Persons desiring certification as individuals qualified for conducting field experiments or operations in weather modification shall write to the Secretary of the Weather Modification Association requesting an application form and in-

720 structions. The completed application form shall be returned to the Secretary and must be accompanied by a $25 check made payable to the Weather Modifica- tion Association. This fee will be retained by the Weather Modification Associa- tion whether the application is accepted or denied. The Certification Board shall review the application form and from the infor- mation contained therein and any other information it obtains, will determine whether the applicant has satisfied the requirements for qualification for certi- fication. The Certification Board may request additional information from the applicant prior to making a final decision as to whether or not the applicant meets the criteria for certification. After review of the application, the Chairman of the Certification Board shall notify the applicant of the decision of the Board. If the application is approved, the Chairman of the Certification Board shall give the applicant a certificate to verify that the individual has met the qualification for certification. Unsuccessful applicants may reapply for certification not earlier than one cal- endar year after notification of disapproval. Each subsequent application for cer- tification shall be accompanied by a payment of the $25 fee. PERIOD OF CERTIFICATION AND RENEWAL Certification of a member shall be effective for a period of three years from the date of issuance. Application for renewal of certification shall be submitted prior to expiration date in writing and accompanied by a fee of $5. Issuance of a renewal of certification shall be automatic upon certification by the Board that no notification of violation of the conditions of the original certification has been received. In the event such notice has been received, renewal will be granted if recommended by the Board. If the Board does not recommend renewal, the case will be presented for the consideration of the certified members at two consecu- tive meetings. Renewal shall be denied only if two-thirds of the certified mem- bers in attendance at the second meeting indicate by secret written ballot that renewal shall be denied. The $5 fee will be retained whether renewal is granted or not. Weather Modification Association Proposed Draft Statement on Standards and Ethics for Weather Modification Operators 3 Prepared by Committee on Standards and Ethics, September 1977 PURPOSE The Weather Modification Association (WMA) has adopted this statement on ethics and standards in order to further the Association's purposes, which inc lude but are not limited to : 1. Promoting research, development and understanding of weather modification for beneficial uses. 2. Encouraging and promoting the highest standards of conduct. CODE OF ETHICS WMA members are expected to comply with the following code of ethics which cover their relationships with the general public, their clients, and the meteoro- logical profession. Relationships with general public 1. The member will comply with all laws and regulations of the federal, state, and local k'ovornmental units, particularly those laws and regulations covering weather modification activities. 2. The member will not participate in activities detrimental to the general public interest or which inflict undue hardship upon individuals in proposed operational areas. , ^ & r ls tr ,hnt ! A members of the Weather Modification Association at the 1977 fall meet- i t liit:. October 10. 1977. Champaign, Illinois, for review and comment.

: 721 Relationships with clients 3 The member will not exaggerate his (her) capabilities, nor guarantee results in terms of future weather conditions. Statements regarding the probable effects of weather modification projects should be compatible with the current State- ment of Capabilities' set forth by the WMA, unless they can be justified on the basis of documented results. ^ » ^ 4 Contracts where a bonus is paid for 'production of rainfall over and abo\e some arbitrary amount, such as a monthly normal, are detrimental to the devel- opment of a sound technology, and are to be discouraged. ^ 5 The member will divulge fully to clients and potential clients all chemicals and methods used. Proprietary rights to newly developed materials or tech- niques for cloud seeding may be established through the obtaining of patents. Relationships with meteorological profession 6. The member will conduct himself (herself) in a manner to reflect dignity and honor on the profession. 7. The member will keep abreast of scientific and technical developments in the field of weather modification and will seek to incorporate improvements into his (her) operational and research programs. 8. The member will endeavor to contribute new knowledge to the profession by making known significant results from operational and research programs. 9. The member will not knowingly take credit for work done by others, but will attempt to give credit where due. 10. The member will not unjustly criticize fellow workers in his (her) profes- sion, but will refer to the Association information on apparent unethical prac- tices on the part of other operators. STANDARDS FOR CONDUCT OF INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS The following standards shall apply to the conduct of both operational and research projects 1. Each project should have a set of clearly defined objectives. The operator should provide as precise a statement as possible of how the objectives are to be reached. 2. The operator will not undertake work in an area where serious conflicts might arise from weather modification activities, without taking steps to identify and correct such situations in advance. 3. The operator will conduct each project in such a way as to minimize danger to the public and to the environment from the use of seeding devices, seeding agents, and other appurtenances of his (her) trade. 4. Each project should be under the personal direction of a meteorologist with special training or experience in weather modification field projects. 5. The project meteorologist should have access to up-to-date weather data including, as a minimum, the weather data available through circuits of the National Weather Service. Local atmospheric soundings, wind observations, radar data, and telemetered precipitation data from remote sites are highly desirable supplements. 6. Each proect should have established criteria and procedures for shutting down operations in the face of impending severe weather to avoid contributing to, or appearing to contribute to, damaging weather situations. The shutdown cri- teria and procedures should be specified in advance in writing, and should take into account existing water management practices and flood control facilities. 7. A calibration curve showing ice nuclei output should be available for each type of cloud seeding generator used on a project. 8. Evaluations of projects are strongly encouraged, but limitations imposed by project duration, inadequacy of observations, and so on, should be pointed out.

Appendix O policy statement ol me American Meteorological society on purpose! and inadvertent modification ol weather and climate As adopted by the Council on January 28, 1973 Introduction orological conditions. Overall increases from 5 to prob- ably 30%, depending on location, seem reasonable with Man's ability to alter certain local weather conditions, existing technology for certain mountainous areas of either purposefully or inadvertently, in some areas is the western United States. Attempts to increase pre- clearly established. However, most atmospheric scientists agree that man's ability to significantly alter the atmo- cipitation from convective clouds have provided local in- creases under certain circumstances, and under other spheric environment in a purposeful manner is still in the early stages of development. Adequate research and circumstances local decreases. Too little is known about the physical, chemical, and dynamical processes of con- operational support in the 1970s should permit major vective precipitation to make the outcome predictable in advances in developing weather modification techniques most areas. Precipitation increases from non-orographic in the next decade. and non-convective cloud systems, such as the shallow A new statement by the American Meteorological stratiform winter storms of the central United States, Society (AMS) to inform the public and to answer sci- have not been demonstrated; but in theory, at least, it entific questions about weather and climate modification is possible to increase or relocate precipitation from such is therefore timely, and also useful in setting national systems. There is also some evidence that precipitation scientific priorities. Specifically, four conditions have alterations may occur 100 kilometers or more beyond the been significantly altered since the last AMS statement, primary seeded areas, but much more proof and a better issued in 1967, and the changes which have dictated this understanding of these 'downwind effects'* are needed. new statement include: 1) advances in knowledge and techniques of planned weather modification, 2) new Severe Storms. Results from efforts to mitigate the de- struction of severe storms can be classed as encouraging evidence of urban-related inadvertent weather or climate but still indeterminate. Positive but unsubstantiated modification, 3) a growing need to assess the partially de- claims and growing optimism best describe results from veloped and rapidly evolving weather modification tech- lightning suppression efforts in the United States, recent nology in light of public interest and concerns, and 4) a need to issue recommendations regarding essential future hail suppression programs in the United States and abroad, and hurricane modification efforts in the At- weather modification efforts. lantic. Less optimism surrounds the possibilities of in- Status of planned weather modification hibiting tornadoes and severe local rainstorms. Too little controlled experimentation concerning modification of As we move into the 1970s there is mounting scientific severe storms has been conducted to provide sufficient evidence that cloud seeding using ice nuclei can produce credible evidence of success. Recent evidence, particu- substantial, albeit local, changes in clouds and storm systems. Definitive success in dispersing fog and in in- larly that from the Soviet Union and Europe, of hail suppression appears to make creasing rainfall and snowfall has been achieved in the it more credible than the evidence for the control of other forms of severe storms. United States and elsewhere in the 1960s. Fog. Dissipation of cold (supercooled) fogs and low stratus is established as an operational application with Inadvertent weather modification There is growing worldwide concern over man's inad- clear economic benefits. Warm fog dissipation can gen- erally be accomplished by expensive techniques, but a vertent modification of weather and climate. Urban- industrial pollutants (thermal, gaseous, and particulate reliable and economically acceptable technique for dissi- emissions) have been shown to alter urban weather and pating warm fogs on a local scale is not established. Precipitation. Precipitation amounts from certain cold climate, and new evidence establishes that alterations orographic clouds in winter can apparently be substan- occur in clouds and precipitation from 8 to 80 kilometers tially increased or decreased on a predictable basis, and downwind of urban-industrial sources. Recent investiga- thus seeding of these types of clouds for economic benefit tions of major shifts in land use practices, such as irriga- appears to be justified. Seeding of cold orographic clouds tion and different cropping, have pointed to possible alterations in climate over sometimes increases, sometimes decreases, and sometimes weather and substantial has no effect on precipitation depending on the mete- regions. 1 Reprinted from the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, v. 54, No. 7, July 1078, pp. 094-695. (722)

723 Man's effect on global climate is suspected, since his satellite programs, cloud physics research laboratories, activities have resulted in regional changes in the cloud laboratories for developing seeding devices and seeding cover and surface albedo, and widespread increases in agents, instrumented vehicles for penetrating severe COt concentration and particulate concentration. How- storms, and statistical research groups; and ever, there is no clear evidence yet that these changes 6) encouragement of programs to study inadvertent have accounted for any substantial part of the climatic weather modification (a) by monitoring conditions fluctuations of the past century. critical to the global climate and man's well-being, in- cluding pollutants, water vapor, cloud cover, surface albedo, and heat balance, and Public issues (b) by measuring and defining the influences of urban development and land- Recent advances towards achieving planned 'weather use change on weather and climate. management.' and an awareness of the reality of inad- vertent weather modification, make it imperative that a For additional information great deal more be understood about their social, ecologi- A few of many possible references were selected for this cal, and legal implications. Limited economic and eco- list describing the progress in all phases of weather and logical studies of the potential effects of planned weather climate modification in recent years. Inclusion of a refer- modification have produced conflicting results that point ence does not necessarily imply our sanction of the to the need for comprehensive socioeconomic studies. views or findings, but indicates it is a source of addi- Before planned weather modification becomes a widely tional information for the interested reader. applied technology, comprehensive analyses of the over- all public interests on a local, regional, national, and American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon Street, Bos- international scale must be made in order to achieve ton, Massachusetts 02108, 1971: Proceedings of Inter- rational judgments and decisions concerning the wise use national Conference on Weather Modification. Can- of weather modification. berra, Australia, 372 pp. American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon Street, Bos- Recommendations ton, Massachusetts 02108, 1972: Preprints of Third Conference on Weather Modification. Rapid City, Significant progress in weather modification has occurred S. Dak, 336 pp. in recent years. It has been demonstrated that man can National Academy of Sciences, Printing and Publishing and does modify the weather. However, we still have Office, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. much to learn about the following subjects: 1) the exact 20418, 1971: The Atmospheric Sciences and Man's atmospheric conditions in which it is possible to in- Needs: Priorities for Future. Washington, D.C, 88 pp. crease, decrease or relocate precipitation; 2) those tech- National Academy of Sciences. Printing and Publish- niques that might reduce the damage caused by severe ing Office, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, storms; or 3) the extent of climatic change being pro- D.C. 20418 (to be published): Weather and Climate duced inadvertently by man. These three items should be Modification, National Policies and Programs. Wash- included among the major goals of our national pro- ington, D.C, 417 pp. gram in weather modification, and more unified and Colorado Associated University Press, University of stronger federal programs must be developed to meet Colorado, 1424 15th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80302, the demands created by a society which is increasing 1967: Man and the Quality of his Environment: in size and complexity. Western Resources Conference, edited by E. Flack Some specific recommendations regarding weather J. and M. C. Shipley. Boulder, Colo., 251 pp. modification activities in the 1970s include: Lambright, W. H.: Government and technological in- 1) development of improved numerical models of con- novation: Weather modification as a case in point. vective clouds and storm systems relevant to weather Public Administration Review, 1, 1-10. 1972: Ameri- modification efforts; can Society for Public Administration, 1225 Connecti- 2) performance of comprehensive, randomized experi- cut Avenue, NW, Washington. D.C. 20036. ments involving precipitation enhancement and re- Lackner, J. D.: Precipitation Modification. National distribution in each of the major climatic zones of the Water Commission Report NWC-EES-7 1-005. 1971: United States in each season and for each of the prin- National Water Commission, Room 405, 800 North cipal forms of precipitation, with provisions for evalua- Quincy, Arlington, Virginia 22203, 170 pp. tions of downwind effects; M.I.T. Press, 28 Carleton Street. Cambridge, Mass. 02142. 3) pursuance of fundamental research and field ex- 1971: Study of Man's Impact on the Climate (SMIC periments to ascertain means of mitigating severe storms Report), 302 pp. (thunderstorms, hail, hurricanes, and tornadoes); World Meteorological Organization, Case Postale No. 4) extended research on operational warm fog dis- 1, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland, 1971: Present state persion; of knowledge and possible practical benefits in some 5) creation and expansion of facilities and expertise fields of weather modification. General Summary of devoted to this subject, including application of current EC-XXII, Document 38, 3 pp.

Appendix P Reporting Agencies of Member Countries and Questionnaire Cir- culated To Receive Weather Modification Information From Members of the World Meteorological Organization Reporting Agencies ARGENTINA Comiei6n Naoional de Investigaciones Eapaciales Fuerza Aerea Argentina 1104 - Comodoro Pedro ZannJ 250 Buenos Aires BRAZIL Instituto de Atividades Espaciais Divisao de Ciencias AtmosfEricas CTA/IAE 12000 - Sao Jose dos Campos, SP BULGARIA Hydrometeorological Service Boulevard Lenin 66 Sofia CANADA Cloud Physics Research Division Atmospheric Environment Service 4905 Bufferin Street Dovnsview, Ontario ^K3H 5^4 CUBA Somite de Programe Lluvia Provocada Academia de Ciencias de Cuba T ININTEF, Calle Lo. 8 Havana 4 CZECHOSLOVAKIA Hydrometeorological Institute Jesnioval7 885 32-Koliba FED. REP. OF GERMANY Ber Landrat des iandkreises Rosenheim Landratsamt 82 Rosenheim/Obb. HUNGARY Meteorological Service of the Hungarian People' Republic Post Offioe Box 38 H-1525 Budapest ISRAEL EMS subsd y 'Mekorot' 'Mekorot' Water Co. Post Offioe Box 308 Union ITALY Societa Rioerche Esperienze Meteorologiche Via Pasubio 11 Rome MALAYSIA Malaysian Meteorological Service Jalan Sultan Petaling Jaya Selangor (724)

725 MEXICO Dcpartanento de IIidrometeorolo£ia y Prediccion Direccion de Hidrolo^ia. Versallus Vj , 4 pi so Mexico 6 D.F. NICAIiAGUA Conision Nacional del Algodon Seccion de Investi^aciones Climctolo£;icas Apartado Postal ITo. .^655 Managua NIGER Direction de la Metc'orolo^ie Ilationale Bortc Po stale ITo. iilCJ iTianey IIORVJAY Dirrctorato of Civil Aviation Store*. 101) Dcp Oslo 1 Philippines Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical ar:d Astrononical Services Administration (i'AGASA) Typhoon Moderation Research and Development Office 14 ''4 Quezon Avenue Quezon City ROMANIA Institut de mete orologie et d'hydrologie Sos. Bucuresti-Ploiesti No. 97 Sector 1 Bucarest 18 SPAIN Servicio Meteorolo/jico Nacional Ciudad Universitaria Apartado 235 Madrid SWITZERLAND Laboratory for Atmospheric Physics Federal Institute of Technology H.P.P. HSnggerberg G095 Zurich THAILAND The Royal Rain Making Research and Development Institute (no address given) TURKEY Turkish State Meteorological Service Post Office Box Ho. 401 Ankara U.S.A. Environmental Modification Office (EMS) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 6010 Executive Boulevard Rockville, Maryland 20852 UPPER VOLTA Direction de la Meteorologie Nationale Boite Postale No. 576 Ouagadougou YUGOSLAVIA Federal Hydrometeorological Institute Bir&aninova 6 Post Office Box 604 11000 Belgrade

; ; : : : : : : : : . : ; 726 Copy of Questionnaire Circulated to Receive Information From Members Member of WMO : Reporting of activities in the year 19__. 1. Type (purpose) of weather modification activity or project 2. Approximate size of the project area overall : km 2 . and of the target area : km 2 . 3. Name and/or reference of project 4. Location of area in which project is carried out 5. Year project commenced : 19__. 6. Is it expected to continue during the coming year? Yes No iNot known 7. Nature of national organization sponsoring project Please place X. Governmental Private Agriculture Energy Forestry ^ Hydrology Transportation Other (please specify) 8. Description of weather modification apparatus, modification agents and their dispersal rates, the techniques employed, etc. (see instructions) 9. Months of current reporting year during which seeding or other weather modification activity took place 10. Number of days during the year on which seeding (or other weather modi- fication activity) took place: 11. Was a document prepared on the possible effects on the environment of the weather modification project? Yes No 12. Optional remarks 13. Reporting agency : (a) Name of reporting agency : (b) Official title of responsible office : (c) Postal address Signed Date: Please complete and return this questionnaire as soon as possible, and in any case not later than 15 March 1977, to The Secretary-General World Meteorological Organization Case Postale No. 5 CH-1211 GENEVA 20 Notes for Completing Report on Weather Modification Activities weather modification activities which should be included in the register (1) The seeding or dispersing into clouds or fog of any substance with the object of altering drop-size distribution, producing ice crystals or the coagulation of droplets, altering the development of hail or lightning, or influencing in any way the natural development cycle of clouds or their environment (2) The use of fires or heat sources to influence convective circulation or to evaporate fog (3) The modification of the solar radiation exchange of the earth or clouds, through the release of gases, dusts, liquids or aerosols into the atmosphere; (4) The modification of the characteristics of land or water surfaces by dust- ing or treating with powders, liquid sprays, dyes, or other materials; (5) The releasing of electrically charged or radioactive particles, or ions, into the atmosphere (6) The application of shock waves, sonic energy sources, or other explosive or acoustic sources to the atmosphere ;

. : ; 727 (7) The use of aircraft and helicopters to produce downwash for fog dispersal as well as the use of jet engines and other sources of artificial wind generation (8) The use of lasers or other sources of electromagnetic radiation ; (9) Any other similar activities falling within the definition of weather modification. WEATHER MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES WHICH NEED NOT BE INCLUDED IN THE REGISTER Activities of a purely local nature, such as the use of lightning deflection or static discharge devices in aircraft, boats, or buildings, or the use of small heat sources, fans, fogging devices, aircraft downwash, or sprays to prevent the oc- currence of frost in tracts or fields planted with crops susceptible to frost or freeze damage. Completing the form One completed copy of this form is requested for each weather modification activity (hereafter referred to as the project) once per year. Item 1—Enter the purpose of the project or activity : e.g. rainfall increase, hail suppression, cold fog dispersal, etc. Item 2—Enter the size (in km 2 ) of the area designated for the project, and the size of the target area if different (see 'Definition', item 4) Item 3—Enter the name and/or reference of project used by the operator. If the project was reported in the previous Register, please quote the WMO Regis- ter Number which appears in column 1. Item 4—Indicate the location of the weather modification project by geographi- cal co-ordinates and name of the region. Item 5—Enter the year in which the first activities under the present project took place. Item 6—Indicate whether the project is expected to continue in the future. Item 7—Indicate the nature of the organization sponsoring the project and whether it is governmental (including local governments) or private. Item 8—Describe the weather modification apparatus, modification agents and the techniques used. This might include type of ground or airborne apparatus used, type of modification material dispersed, rate of dispersal in grams per hour or other appropriate descriptions, and other information such as type of radars, type of aircraft used, techniques employed (e.g. cloud base seeding at 3,000 m msl), etc. Item 9—Enter the months of the year to which the report applies during which seeding, etc.. was carried out. Item 12—This item is to permit the reporting person to include any information not covered by item 1 through 11 but which he feels is significant or of interest such as references to published reports describing results of the weather modifi- cation operation or experiment. Any definite plans for a new project during the coming year may be outlined under item 12. Item 13—Please supply the name and address of agency to which any request for further information should be directed. Use a separate sheet of paper if more space is needed. Definitions As used in the WMO Register, terms have the following meaning Item 1—Type (purpose) of weather modification activity or project: By proj- ect is meant a related series of weather modification activities having a common objective. Will be included any activity performed with the intention of pro- ducing artificial changes in the composition, behaviour or dynamics of the atmosphere. Item 4—Location of area in which project is carried out The area referred to : includes both the target area and control area. By target area is meant the ground area within which the effects of the weather modification activity are expected to be found, and by control area is meant a preselected, untreated ground area used for comparison with the target area. Item 8—Description of weather modification apparatus, etc. By weather modi- : fication apparatus is meant any apparatus used with the intention of producing artificial changes in the composition, behaviour, or dynamics of the atmosphere. For example : seeding generators, propane devices, flares, rockets, artillery pro- jectiles, jet engines, etc.

Appendix Q Report of the World Meteorological Organizatiox/United Na- tions Environment Program Informal Meeting on Legal Aspects of Weather Modification World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Program, Geneva, November 17 to 21, 1975 1. organization of the meeting J. I Opening of the meeting 1.1.1 The Chairman, Professor R. List, declared the meeting open at 10 :00 a.m. on Monday 17 November 1975. The list of participants is reproduced in Ap- pendix A. 1.1.2 Mr. O. M. Ashford, Director of Program Planning and UN Affairs of the WM() Secretariat, welcomed the participants to the Headcpiarters of WMO on behalf of the Secretary-General, expressing appreciation to UNEP for having taken the initiative in arranging the meeting and for providing support to the par- ticipants. He observed that when the Seventh World Meteorological Congress in April 1975 decided to launch the Weather Modification Program, this marked a considerable change in the position of the Organization in this respect which was in line with the trend to give greater attention to the broad socio-eco- nomic responsibilities of WMO as a specialized agency of the United Nations. WMO already collaborated with UNEP in some ten different projects, and the present meeting where persons from different disciplines could discuss together topics of common interest was a good example of such collaboration. In conclu- sion Mr. Ashford gave a special word of thanks to the six experts nominated by WMO who had agreed to come to present on behalf of the Organization the current scientific situation in weather modification. 1.1.3 Mr. R. S. Mikhail, Deputy Director of the Division of Geophysics, Global Pollution and Health of the UNEP Secretariat conveyed the greetings of the Ex- ecutive Director of UNEP and expressed appreciation to WMO for having orga- nized the meeting in Geneva and thanked the co-chairman and participants for having come. He informed the meeting that the Governing Council of UNEP in March 1975 had agreed that the dialogue between WMO and UNEP on legal aspects of Weather Modification should continue since it was essential that inter- national legal principles and guidelines should be considered hand in hand with the scientific advancement of the subject. Mr. Mikhail expressed the opinion that if the present state of scientific knowledge in the area of weather modification was not yet adequate to permit the development of formal legal instruments for the regulation of activities in this area, it was nevertheless feasible to develop general principles and operating guidelines as a first step in that direction. X.% Adoption of tlte agenda 1.2.1 The agenda as adopted as reproduced in Appendix P>. List of supporting paper* available at the time of the meeting is reproduced in Appendix C. 2. REVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTS SINCE THE THIRD SESSION OF THE WMO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE PANEL ON WEATHER MODIFICATION IN NOVEMBER 1974 2.1 Relevant decision 8 of the third session of the Governing Council of T'NEP 2.1.1 The meeting was informed that according to the decisions of the Governing Council, the strategy of UNEP in respect of the legal aspects of weather modifi- cation is as follows : 1 ;i ' Consultations will be continued towards development of legal provi- sions which would define the responsibility of States to ensure that weather modification experiments and operations within their jurisdiction or control (728)

729 do not cause damage to the environment of other States or to areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction ; (b) The Executive Director will continue to consult with WMO and other scientific and legal experts as necessary on the desirability of developing general principles and operating guidelines on weather modification experi- ments and operations. He proposes a meeting between scientists and legal ex- perts to develop such principles and guidelines. The question of calling an in- tergovernmental meeting to approve such principles and guidelines would be considered at a later stage, after consensus is reached between scientists and legal advisers. 2.2 Relevant decisions of the seventh session of Congress and of the twenty- seventh session of the Executive Committee of WMO 2.2.1 The Weather Modification Program of WMO incorporates as its most im- portant component a Precipitation Enhancement Project (PEP) which will be an internationally planned, executed and evaluated experiment in artificial pre- cipitation stimulation. The meeting was informed that in Resolution 12 (Cg-VII) Congress had specifically asked the Executive Committee in developing the plans for PEP to give particular consideration to minimizing any legal liability of WMO. 2.2.2 The position of the WMO Congress was in accord with that of the UNEP Governing Council in that international legal principles and guidelines should be developed hand in hand with the scientific progress in the field of weather mod- ification. Congress was of the opinion that a better understanding of the physical basis of weather modification was needed before WMO would be able to provide definitive advice to Members on this aspect of weather modification experiments or operations. 2.2.3 The meeting agreed that scientific advancement in general did not pro- gress smoothly, but was somewhat erratic and even subject to reverses on occa- sions. It was suggested that over a relatively short time scale the keyword should perhaps be 'in phase' rather than 'hand in hand'. 2.3 Relevant decisions of the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (CCD) of the United Nations 2.3.1 The meeting noted with interest that at the request of the Conference of the Commitee on Disarmament, some experts had attended an informal meeting in Geneva in order to provide the Committee with scientific and technical back- ground information concerning weather modification. Following this scientific briefing, the representatives of the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. had submitted inde- pendently an identical draft text for a convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques. The General Assembly of the United Nations was currently discussing the report of the CCD and would indicate the future action to be taken on this draft. 2.3.2 The meeting was also informed that it was proposed to include a limita- tion on the use of environmental warfare in the protocols to the Geneva Conven- tions of 1949 now under discussion in a Diplomatic Conference on Humanitarian Law (Geneva). 3. REVIEW OF THE STATE OF THE ART AND POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENTS 3.1 National laws related to weather modification 3.1.1 Professor Samuels introduced this item and drew attention to some of the difficulties encountered in obtaining accurate up-to-date information, and in com- paring different legal systems. After summarizing the principal control tech- niques and substantive rules as found mainly in the special laws of Australia, Canada, South Africa, and the United States, he recommended in particular the establishment of an international register of relevant national legislation and the development of a model national law comprising certain essentials such as registration and data reporting for all weather and climate modification activities. 3.1.2 In the ensuing discussion, reference was made to additional sources of national law, including the applicable rules contained in water legislation (e.g., Peru 1969), in natural resources legislation (e.g. Colombia 1974), and in the general body of environmental, administrative and civil law (e.g., in the U.S.S.R.) . It was pointed out that even in those countries where special legisla- tion had been enacted, a single statutory text normally could not cover all rele- vant aspects of weather modification.

730 3.1.3 There was general agreement on the desirability of an improved col- lection and mutual exchange of legislative information, also from an educational point of view. It was noted with satisfaction that WMO was initiating a register of weather modification activities and that the questionnaire circulated to Mem- bers to obtain information for inclusion in the register inquired as to the existence of laws relating to weather modification activities in the country concerned. The meeting suggested that WMO Members should be invited to supply full details of such laws so as to facilitate a complete compilation of national laws. However, the meeting agreed that indiscriminate transfer of laws from one country to another was not practicable, but that laws needed to be adapted to specific requirements of different legal and social systems. 3.1.4 In this connexion, reservations were expressed as to the feasibility of technical assistance and expert advice by WMO/UNEP to individual states on legal aspects of weather modification at the present stage of scientific knowledge. In particular, while legal rules on registration and data reporting were generally considered as beneficial, premature rules on liability for damage were viewed as potentially counter-productive. 3.2 The science of weather modification 3.2.1 The meeting agreed that the discussion would be concerned solely with intentional weather modification. 3.2.2 The meeting had the opportunity to examine the official WMO state- ment released in 1974 entitled 'Present state of knowledge and possible practical benefits in some fields of weather modification' (see Appendix D) and also the amplification of this statement which had been prepared for use by the Secretary- General of WMO. 3.2.3 It was agreed that the statement and its amplification represented the current state of knowledge in the field of weather modification ; the meeting noted that the International Commission on Cloud Physics of the International Asso- ciation of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics (IAMP) and indicated satisfaction at the statement and at Weather Modification Programs of WMO. It was recalled that the Precipitation Enhancement Project of WMO was de- signed to obtain further scientifically acceptable information concerning the feasibility of artificial stimulation of precipitation. 3.2.4 The meeting was informed that the role of WMO at the present time in helping developing countries was to give advice, on request, concerning proposed weather modification projects and occasionally to provide experts under the UNDP to visit countries in order to assess the possibilities of artificial precipita- tion augmentation. It was hoped to arrange courses in weather modification and to offer fellowships in these courses to a certain number of scientists from developing countries. 3.2.5 Seventh Congress strongly urged that when a Member country or a group of Members wished to conduct their own weather modification with the advice of WMO, a special WMO group of experts be set up to advise on the planning, implementation and evaluation of the project. The high scientific stat- ure and independence of such a group would permit it to guide the project along sound scientific lines and thereby assume the greatest chance of success and ultimate acceptance of the results by the scientific community. The cost involved In providing for a WMO group for a special project of this kind would be borne by the Member or Members concerned. 3.2.6 There was a considerable discussion on the distinction for legal pur- poses between a weather modification experiment and an operation. It was gen- erally agreed that in an experiment the major objective was using scientifically acceptable met bods to obtain information, whereas in an operation the objective \\a- i.) influence the atmospheric processes so as to produce a desired effect, e.g. additional rainfall. In the latter case, a scientific evaluation of the intervention was frequently not made. It was pointed out however that for the purpose of determination of legal liability the distinction was irrelevant. l.i Legal problems facing public and private operators 3.8.1 Professor Samuels introduced this agenda item. He suggested that the key problem facing operators is tbe legal responsibility they may hear for damage cans. , i by their activities. He pointed out the difference between legal systems ae regards tbe type of damage for which compensation may be received, the 111 Of liability and tbe kind of proof required. He also drew attention to possible Links between an operator's liability and a State's international respon- sibility in the event of alleged extended area effects.

731 3.3.2 After a general discussion on the state of international environmental law and on the recourse available in situations involving alleged trans-frontier damage, the meeting briefly reviewed past experience with court litigation regard- ing injunctions and liability for damage. Weather modification activities, no adverse effects of which have been proved on the basis of the present state of scientific knowledge, were distinguished from other activities involving pollution and other harmful effects ; the view was expressed that the development of new beneficial technology should not be constrained unduly by 'Punitive' legal sanc- tions. Instead, the preventive function of administrative law was emphasized, especially in the field of licensing procedures and mandatory environmental impact assessment. 3.3.3 There followed a discussion on the practices of, and available controls over, private operators engaged in weather modification abroad, especially in developing countries. The meeting was informed of the 1973 recommendations of the WMO Commission for Atmospheric Sciences, which advised governments to seek advice from WMO on this subject and of the consequent decision of the WMO Seventh Congress authorizing the Secretary-General to establish on re- quest a special WMO group of experts to advise on the planning, implementation and evaluation of projects where the costs involved will be borne by the Mem- ber (s) concerned. (See paragraph 3.2.5 above.) 4. DISCUSSION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND OPERATING GUIDE- LINES FOR WEATHER MODIFICATION 4.1 The meeting discussed in general terms the scientific, economic, ecological, sociological and political considerations which need to be taken into account in the development of general legal principles and operating guidelines for weather modification activities. It then turned to a discussion of the background paper on legal principles prepared by Professors E. B. Weiss and J. W. Samuels, UNBP legal experts. It was made clear that the discussion was not aimed at developing binding legal rules but rather at developing proposals for general principles to be considered in the formulation of a future legal regime. The legal experts expressed their desire for the advice of the scientists in the elaboration of general legal principles and operating guidelines. The WMO experts noted that they did not feel qualified to engage in detailed discussion of principles which were essentially political in spirit. 4.2 The first proposed principle which recognized the interest of all mankind in the weather was introduced. It was explained that this legal concept was employed in other common resource areas, such as the deep sea-bed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. The meeting considered that a proper formulation of this principle, in this context, would be: 'The earth's atmosphere is a part of the common heritage of mankind'. It was suggested that ultimately any statement of principles should be preceded by a Preamble in which reference is made to the WMO Statement on Weather Modification and the uncertainty of the state of the art. Furthermore, it was suggested that any commentary on this principle should make reference to the inextricable links between the atmosphere and other environmental spaces, e.g. the world's oceans, which are also part of the common heritage of mankind. 4.3 Concerning the second proposed principle which called for the limitation of the use of weather modification techniques to peaceful purposes, the meeting was of the opinion that the inclusion of the following provision in the general principles would be useful : 'Any techniques developed to modify weather shall be dedicated exclusively to peaceful purposes.' Whereas the original proposals concerned weather and climate modification, on the advice of WMO experts reference is made only to weather modification. 4.4 The third proposed principle, which concerned the gathering and exchange of meteorological information was introduced. It was made clear that the WMO Convention already calls for such an exchange. Bearing this in mind, the meeting was of the opinion that a useful formulation would be : 'Further to the continued exchange of meteorological and related information in accordance with the WMO Convention, States shall facilitate the gathering and exchange of infor- mation on weather modification activities and shall ensure that such information is made available to WMO and to interested States.' It was noted that WMO already receives reports from States on weather modification activities.

732 4.5 The fourth proposed principle concerned the giving of prior notification of prospective weather modification activities to interested States It was ex plained that 'adequate' and 'timely' notification would help to defuse interna- tional tension arising from misinformation and speculation concerning a neieh hour s activities. 'Adequate' imports that the information provided shows clearlv what will be done. 'Timely' means that the notified State is given the time to analyze the information and consult with the acting State before the activitv is conducted. In discussion, reference was made to UN General Assemblv reso lutions 3129 (XXVIII) and 2995 (XXVII) in which the Assemblv expressed its consideration that the development and management bv States of shared natural resources should be based on a system of information and prior consultation in the spirit of co-operation and good neighbourliness. It was pointed out that the I NEP Governing Council was of the opinion that weather modification activi- ties were related to the area of shared natural resources but that a separate development of legal principles for weather modification is of value. 4.6 The meeting discussed in considerable detail the problems inherent in the formulation of a principle concerning notification. In particular, the meeting explored the questions of how the decision is made on whom to notify, and what would be the mechanics of this notification. The WMO experts emphasized the limitations of the state of the art and the problems this posed in suggesting that neighbouring States might be affected by the weather modification activities. The meeting considered that a useful wording of a principle on notification would be : '•States shall in good faith give adequate and timely notification of prospective major weather modification activities, within their jurisdiction or control, to WMO which should transmit such notification to all interested States.' This formulation involves the concept of 'major' activities. It is only for activi- ties of this significance that notification is necessary. Because there is judgment involved in what is 'adequate', 'timely' and 'major', the notion of 'good faith' was included to provide some legal standard for the judgment. 4.7 The meeting turned to a consideration of the possibility of requiring States to undertake an assessment of the environmental impact* of an activity before it is conducted. The feasibility of such an assessment was questioned. The possibility of incorporating the concept in the aforementioned fourth principle was discussed and it was pointed out that the history of the development of national environmental legislation in several States indicated that notification and impact assessment were two separate requirements, to be dealt with as distinct obligations. 4.8 Whilst the meeting was unable to concur in recommending a principle concerned with the assessment, of the potential immediate and long-term environ- mental effects of weather modification activities, the following formulation was considered as being useful for further thought : 'States shall ensure that a care- ful assessment is made of the environmental impact of prospective major weather modification activities within their jurisdiction or control, and shall make such assessments available to WMO and all interested States'. 4.9 Discussion then turned to the possibility of prohibiting certain weather modification activities which offered the risk of significant harm, unless the con- sent of all interested States is obtained. It was pointed out that analogous limi- tation could be inferred from Recommendation 70 of the Stockholm Declaration and from UN General Assembly Resolution 2995 (XXVII). Concern was expressed that such a legal principle was unnecessary given the state of the art today and that express application of the general limitations found in the Stockholm Dec- laration, etc., to the field of weather modification was unwarranted. The meeting decided that such a principle should be deferred for further consideration. 4.10 The meeting then moved lo consideration of the possibility of requiring States to monitor weather modification activities under their jurisdiction and control and to make such information available to interested States and the WMO. It was pointed out that in several States there was already legislation pro- viding for the obligation to monitor. The meaning of the word 'monitor' was dis- cussed and it was suggested that it imports the observance of and recording of information concerning the conduct and effects of the activity during and after its undertaking. 4.11 Although no agreement was reached concerning the degree of monitoring, the meeting was of the opinion that the followng formulation was valuable for further consideration: 'States shall make every effort to ensure that weather modification activities within their jurisdiction or control are monitored, and

733 shall make such information available to WMO and interested States in accord- ance with Principle Three'. 4.12 The possibility was considered of a formulation which would apply Prin- ciple 21 of the Stockholm Declaration to the field of weather modification, namely that States should ensure that weather modification activities within their juris- diction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. The WMO experts considered that it was premature to recommend such a principle in view of the present limited state of scientific knowledge. 4.13 The meeting then moved to a discussion of the possibility of a principle calling for consultation between the acting State and other interested States in order to alleviate points of difference between the parties concerning proposed weather modification activities. The legal experts of UNEP pointed out that such consultation can be a useful means of mantaining friendly relations among States. Mention was made of the agreement between Canada and the United States which calls for such consultation in certain circumstances. 4.14 The meeting was of the opinion that a principle imposing a duty on States to consult would not be desirable, but that the following draft text would be pref- erable : 'It is desirable that a State, in whose territory major weather modifica- tion activities are to be undertaken, should engage in meaningful and timely con- sultation with interested states at their request, with a view to working out mutually acceptable arrangements regarding the conduct of those activities'. The meeting made note of the following points in this formulation. Firstly, it concerns only 'major' activities. Secondly 'interested' States would involve the notion of legitimate concern. Thirdly, the consultation would be at the request of the interested States. 4.15 The meeting turned to the discussion of a possible principle recognizing the obligation of States to compensate persons beyond their national frontiers for significant damage caused by weather modification activities within their juris- diction. It was noted that the state of the art today precluded any assessment of damage and the WMO experts express the opinion that the recommendation of any such principle was premature. 4.16 The legal experts of UNEP were of the opinion that it would be useful to include the principle that States shall co-operate in the development of a legal regime for the international regulation of weather modification activities. 4.17 In conclusion, reference was made to the future possibility of national legislation to implement any international legal principles and operating guide- lines. The view was expressed that it might be useful to include in the general principles a provision that would call on States to adopt legislation to regulate weather modification activities at the national level. 5. LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE WMO PRECIPITATION ENHANCEMENT PROJECT 5.1 In Resolution 12 (Cg-VII) the WMO Congress, in approving the Precipita- tion Enhancement Project (PEP) as part of the Weather Modification Pro- gramme of WMO requested the Executive Committee to give particular considera- tion to minimizing and legal liability of WMO. 5.2 The meeting was informed that preliminary preparations for PEP were already under way but that the experiment itself would not start for at least two years and would toe of several years' duration. 5.3 It was agreed that in the implementation of PEP careful attention would need to be given to the various legal aspects involved in any agreement between WMO and the state in which PEP will be conducted (for example immunity and liability in the case of gross negligence), and it was suggested that advice from legal experts be sought by WMO in this respect. The meeting observed that con- siderable legal experience had been acquired by organizations in the UN system in conducting projects in many different States, and that experience had shown that the time required to draw up such an agreement might amount to as much as a year. 6. ADOPTION OF THE FINAL REPORT The meeting was able to approve the text of the report of items 1 to 4 during the session and it was agreed that the chairman and co-chairman should be authorized to approve the remainder of the report on behalf of the meeting. 34-857 O - 79 - 49

: 734 7. CLOSING OF THE MEETING The chairman and co-chairman each thanked the participants for their valu- able contributions, and especially for the great lengths to which the legal and scientific experts had gone in endeavouring to understand each other's point of view. Appreciation was expressed to the authors of the documents for the session and for the support given by the WMO Secretariat. The representatives of UNEP and WMO also associated themselves with these remarks. The meeting was declared closed at 5 :30 p.m. on Thursday 20 November 1975. WMO/UNEP Informal Meeting on Legal Aspects of Weather Modification, Geneva, November 17 to 21, 1975 list of participants Experts nominated by UNEP J. W. Samuels (Co-Chairman), A. C. Kiss, M. Piskotin, P. H. Sand, and E. Brown Weiss. Representatives of UNEP R. S. Mikhail, H. Ahmed, and P. A. Bliss. Experts nominated by WMO R. List (Chairman), A. L. Alusa, A. Gagin, P. Goldsmith, R. Lavoie, and Y. Sedunov. Representatives of WMO 0. M. Ashford, and N. K. Kljukin. WMO Secretariat R. D. Bojkov, E. Bollay, and R. M. Perry. AGENDA 1. Organization of the meeting 1.1 Opening of the session. 1.2 Adoption of the agenda. 2. Review of developments since the third session of the WMO Executive Committee Panel on Weather Modification in November 1974 : 2.1 Relevant decisions of the third session of the Governing Council of UNEP. 2.2 Relevant decisions of the seventh session of Congress and of the twenty-seventh session of the Executive Committee of WMO. 2.3 Relevant decisions of the Conference of the Committee on Disarma- ment (CCD) of the United Nations. 3. Review of the State of the Art and possible developments : 3.1 National laws related to weather modification. 3.2 The science of weather modification. 3.3 Legal problems facing public and private operators. 4. Discussion of the development of general principles and operating guide- lines for weather modification experiments and operations. 5. Legal aspects of the WMO precipitation enhancement project. 6. Adoption of the final report. 7. Closing of the meeting. list of supporting papers available at the time of the meeting 2.1 : The decisions of UNEP Governing Council. 2.2: The decisions of Seventh WMO Congress and twenty-seventh WMO Executive Committee. 2.3 : The draft-convention proposed to CCD by U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. on 21 August 1975. 8.3 : Review paper prepared by UNEP consultant Professor Samuels. 8.2 : Official WMO Statement on the present state of knowledge. 8.8 : Review paper prepared by UNEP consultant Professor Samuels. 4: Review paper prepared by UNEP consultants Professor Samuels and E. Brown Weiss. 6 WMO decisions on Weather Modification Programme and Precipitation : Enhancement Project.

Appendix R Text of Senate Resolution 71, Considered, Amended, and Agri to July 11, 1973 93d CONGRESS S. RES. 71 1st Session [Report No. 93-270] IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES February 22,1973 Mr. Pell (for himself, Mr. Hath, Mr. Case, Mr. Chuhch, Mr. Cranston, Mr. Gravel, Mr. Hart, Mr. Hoijjngs. Mr. Huohes, Mr. Humphrey, Mr. Javitk, Mr. Kennedy, Mr. MuGovern, Mr. Mondale, Mr. Muskie, Mr. Nelson. Mr. Stevenson. Mr. Tuxxey, and Mr. Williams) submitted tlie following resolution; which was referred to the Committee on Foreign Relations Jvne 27 (legislative day, June 25), 1973 Reported by Mr. Pell, with amendments July 11,1973 Considered, amended, and agreed to RESOLUTION Expressing the sense of (lie Semite that the United States Gov- ernment should seek the agreement of oilier governments to a proposed treaty prohibiting the use of any environmental or geophysical modification activity as a weapon of war, or the carrying out of any research or experimentation directed thereto. Whereas there is vast scientific potential for human betterment through environmental and geophysical controls; and Whereas there is great danger to the world ecological system if environmental and geophysical modification activities are not controlled or if used indiscriminately; and Whereas the development of weapons-oriented environmental and geophysical modification activities will create a threat to peace and world order; and V APPENDIX R (735)

736 2 Whereas the United States Government should seek agreement with other governments on the complete cessation of any research, experimentation, or use of any such activity as a weapon of war Now, therefore, be it : Resolved, That it is the sense of the Senate that the 1 United States Government should seek the agreement of 2 3 other governments, including all Permanent Members of the Security Council of the United Nations, to a treaty along the 4 following general lines which will provide for the complete 5 y cessation of any research, experimentation, and use of any 7 environmental or geophysical modification activity as a weapon of war: 3 'The Parties to this Treaty, 9 'Recognizing the vast scientific potential for human 10 H betterment through environmental and geophysical 12 controls, 13 'Aware of the great danger to the world ecological 14 system of uncontrolled and indiscriminate use of environ- 15 menial and geophysical modification activities, 1G 'Recognizing that the development of wcapons- 17 oriented environmental and geophysical modification 18 techniques will create a threat to peace and world order, 19 'Proclaiming as their principal aim the achievement 20 of an agreement on the complete cessation of research,

737 3 experimentation, and use 1 of environmental and geo- 2 physical modification activities as weapons of war, 3 'Have agreed as follows: 4 'Article I 5 '(1) The States Parties to this Treaty undertake to 6 prohibit and prevent, at any place, any environmental or 7 geophysical modification activity as a weapon of war; ' 8 (2) The prohibition in paragraph 1 of this article shall 9 also apply to any research or experimentation directed to 10 the development of any such activity as a weapon of war, 11 but shall not apply to any research, experimentation, or use 12 for peaceful purposes; ' 13 (3) The States Parties to this Treaty undertake not to 14 assist, encourage or induce any State to carry out activities 15 referred to in paragraph 1 of this article and not to partiei- ](> pate in any other way in such actions. 17 'Article II 18 'In this Treaty, the term 'environmental or geophysical 19 modification activity' includes any of the following activities: 20 '(1) any weather modification activity which has 21 as a purpose, or has as one of its principal effects, a 22 change in the atmospheric conditions over any part of 23 the earth's surface, including, hut not limited to, any 24 activity designed to increase or decrease precipitation,

; . ; 738 4 1 increase or suppress bail, lightning, or fog, and direct 2 or divert storm systems 3 '(2) any climate modification activity which has 4 as a purpose, or has as one of its principal effects, a 5 change in the long-term atmospheric conditions over G any part of the earth's surface; 7 '(3) any earthquake modification activity which 8 has as a purpose, or has as one of its principal effects, 9 the release of the strain energy instability within the 10 solid rock layers beneath the earth's crust n '(4) any ocean modification activity which has as 12 a purpose, or has as one of its principal effects, a change 13 in the ocean currents or the creation of a seismic dis- 14 turbance of the ocean (tidal wave) ir> 'Article III Hi 'Five years after the entry into force of this Treaty, a 17 conference of Parties shall be held at (ieneva, Switzerland, 18 in order to review the operation of this Treaty with a view 1!) to assuring that the purposes of the preamble and the pro- visions of L»0 I lie Treaty are being realized. Such review shall 21 take into account any relevant technological developments 22 in order to determine whether the definition in Article If 23 should be amended. 24 'Article IV 25 '1. Any Party may propose an amendment to this 26 Treaty. The text of any proposed amendment shall be sub-

739 5 1 mitted to the Depositary Governments which shall circulate 2 it to all parties to this Treaty. Thereafter, if requested to do 3 so hy one-third or more of the Parties, the Depositor}' (Jov- 4 ernments shall convene a conference, to which they shall 5 invite all the Parties, to consider such an amendment. 6 '2. Any amendment to this Treaty shall be approved 7 by a majority of the votes of all the Parties to this Treaty. 8 The amendment shall enter into force for all Parties upon the 9 deposit of instruments of ratification by a majority of all 10 the Parties. 11 'Article V 12 '1. This Treaty shall be of unlimited duration. 13 '2. Each Party shall, in exercising its national sov- 14 creignty, have the right to withdraw from the Treaty if it 13 decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject 1o' mailer of this Treat}', have jeopardized the supreme interests 17 of its country. It shall give notice of such withdrawal to all 18 olher Parties to the Treaty three months in advance. V.) Article VI 20 '1. This Treaty shall be open to all States for signature. 21 Any State which docs not sign this Treaty before its entry 22 into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this Article 23 may accede to it at any time. 24 '2. This Treaty shall be subject to ratification by sig- 25 natory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of

740 6 1 accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the 2 United States of America, , and 3 which are hereby designated the Depositary Governments. 4 '3. This Treaty shall enter into force after its ratifica- 5 tion by the States, the Governments of which are designated 6 Depositaries of the Treaty. 7 '4. For States whose instruments of ratification or ac- 8 cession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of 9 this Treaty, it shall enter into force on the date of the de- 10 posit of their instruments of ratification or accession. 11 '5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform 12 all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signa- 13 ture, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of 14 and accession to this Treaty, the date of its entry into force, 15 and the date of receipt of any requests for conferences or 16 other notices. 17 '6. This Treaty shall be registered by the Depositary 18 Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the 19 United Nations.'

. . Appendix S Reported Cases on Weather Modification Slutsky v. City of Neiv York, 197 Misc. 730, 97 N.Y.S. 2d 238 (Sup. Ct, 1950). Southwest Weather Research, Inc. v. Rounsaville, 320 S.W. 2d 211 (Tex. Civ. App., 1958), and Southicest Weather Research, Inc. v. Duncan, 319 S.W. 2d 940 (Tex. Civ. App. 1958), both affd. sub nom. Southwest Weather Research, Inc. v. Jones, 160 Tex. 104, 327 S.W. 2d 417 (1959) Summerville v. North Platte Valley Weather Control DIM., 170 Neb. 46, 101 X.W. 2d 748 (1960). Pennsylvania Natural Weather Assn. v. Blue Ridge Weather Modification Assn., 44 Pa. D. & C. 2d 749 (1968) (741)

Appendix T Glossary of Selected Terms in Weather Modification 1 GLOSSARY _!/ ACRE-FOOT—The volume of water required to cover CHAFF SEEDING -The dispensing of chaff into a cu- one acre to a depth of one foot: 43,560 cubic feet, mulonimbus cloud for the experimental purpose of 325,852 gallons altering the cloud's electrical structure and hence affecting the occurrence and character of lightning. AEROSOL—A colloidal system in which the dispersed It is hypothesized that the chaff is the medium for phase Is composed of either solid or liquid particles, and in which the dispersion medium is some gas. leakage currents (through corona point discharges) which forestall the development of the charge centers usually air. necessary for lightning tormatioa There is no clear-cut upper limit to the size of particles comprising the dispersed phase in an aerosol, CIRRUS — A principal cirriform cloud type, composed of but as in ail other colloidal systems, it is rather com- ice crystals aggregated into delicate wisps or patches monly set at 1 micron. Haze, most smokes, and some at high altitudes. fogs and clouds may thus be regarded as aerosols. The term 'cirrus' is often used as a generic term AIRCRAFT SEEDING—The use of aircraft to dispense for ail cirriform clouds. cloud seeding agent*. CLOUD— A visible aggregate of minute water and/or ALTOCUMULUS— A principal type of cloud, 8,000 to ice particles in the atmosphere above the earth's 20,000 feet, consisting of a layer where the denser surface. Cloud differs from fog only In that the latter parts have modified cumuliform characteristics of is, by definition, in contact with the earth's surface. roundness and sharpness of outline. Clouds form in the free atmosphere as a result of condensation of water vapor In rising currents of ALT08TRATU8 — A principal type of 'middle' cloud air, or by the evaporation of the lowest stratum of (altitude approx. 8,000 to 20,000 feet), appearing fog. For condensation to occ\ir at the point of satura- as a fairly uniform grey layer that often covers the tion or a low degree of supersatu ration, there must entire sky. be an abundance of condensation nuclei for water clouds, or ice nuclei for ice-crystal clouds. The size of ANVIL CLOUD— Popular name given to a cumulonim cloud drops varies from one cloud type to another, bus cloud whose upper, ice-crystal portion is spread and within any given cloud there always exists a fin- out horizontally to give the appearance of an anvil. ite range of sizes. Generally speaking, cloud drops In the International Cloud Classification, this is a range between one and one hundred microns in di- 'cumulonimbus caplllatus' cloud with the supplemen ameter, and hence are very much smaller than rain tary feature 'incus.' drops. ARTIFICIAL NUCLEATION— Any process whereby CLOUD MICROPHYSICS-A specialized field within the nucleation of cloud particles .s Initiated or accel- cloud physics dealing with extremely small-scale phe- erated by human intervention. nomena, particularly the molecular-scale processes of evaporation, condensation, and freezing of cloud par- CAP CLOUD -An approximately stationary cloud, on ticles, and the complex Interactions, Including elec- or hovering above an Isolated mountain peak. It is trical effects, among cloud particles. formed by the cooling and condensation of humid air forced up over the peak. CLOUD MODEL — In general, any idealized represents tkon of a cloud or cloud processes. Increasingly, this CELLULAR CONVECTION — An organized, convecUve. term is used for mathematical representations of cloud processes, particularly those formulated for numerical fluid motion characterized by the presence of distinct solution on electronic computers convection cells or convectlve units, usually with up- ward motion (away from the heat source) in the cen- CLOUD MODIFICATION -Any process by which the tral portions of the cell, and sinking or downward flow natural course of development of a cloud is altered by in the cell's outer regions. artificial means. CHAFF— Metallic, electrical dipoles, several centime- CLOUD PHYSICS -The body of knowledge concerned ters long, commonly made of fine wire. with physical properties of clouds in the atmosphere The original use of chaff, dropping large quantities and the processes occurring therein of It from aircraft in WWII, was to jam enemy radars It is now used experimentally to alter the electrical CLOUD SEEDING — Any process of injecting a sub- properties of thunderstorms. stance into a cloud for the purpose of influencing the 1 From Project Skywater ; 1973-74 Biennial Report. U.S. Department of the Interior. Hur»-nu of Reclamation. Division of Atmospheric Water Resources Management. REC-ERC- 70-21. Denver, December 1976. pp. A-21 to A-25. (742)

743 cloud's subsequent development. Ordinarily, this re- CUMULONIMBUS— ( Commonly called thundercloud, fers to the injection of a nucleating agent, but some- thunderhead, thunderstorm.) A principal doud type, times alludes to substances which do not directly the ultimate stage of development of cumulus or con- affect nudeation (such as carbon black). vective douds. They are very dense and very talL commonly 5 to 10 miles In diameter and sometimes CLOUD SEEDING AGENT- Any variety of substances reaching a height of 12 miles or more. The upper dispensed for the purposes of cloud seeding. In addi- portion Is at least partly composed of ice crystals, tion to the commonly used silver Iodide and dry ice, and often takes the form of an anvil ('Incus') or a number of other materials have been experimented vast plume The base of the doud Is Invariably dark with for various purposes, for example: calcium chlor- and often accompanied by low, ragged douds. ide, urea, metaldehyde, chlorosulfonlc acid, carbon black, common salt, and water spray. CUMULUS — A principal doud type, actually a doud 'family' all of which are characterized by vertical COALESCENCE — In cloud physics, the merging of two development; a convective doud. water drops into a single larger drop. DEFTV88ION — In meteorology, the exchange of fluid COALESCENCE EFFICIENCY -The fraction of all col parcels (and hence the transport of conservative prop lisions between water drops of a specified size which erties between regions In space. In the apparently result in actual merging of the two drops into a single random motions of a scale too small to be treated by larger drop. the equations of motion. In meteorology, the diffusion of momentum (vis- CONDENSATION— The physical process by which a cosity), vortlclty, water vapor, heat (conduction), vapor becomes a liquid or solid; the opposite of evap- particulate matter, and gaseous components of the oration. In meteorological usage, this term is applied atmospheric mixture, have been studied extensively. only to the transformation from vapor to liquid; any The atmospheric motions diffusing these properties process in which a solid forms directly from Its vapor may in many cases be of much larger scale than the is termed sublimation, as is the reverse process. molecular, the exchanging parcels being called eddies, and the diffusion equation extended by analogy to CONDENSATION LEVEL -That level in the atmos- turbulent diffusion phere at which saturation and hence condensation, will occur in a column of rising air. This occurs by DOPPLER EFFECT— (Also called Doppler shift) The virtue of the adlabatic cooling of the air as it rises. change In frequency with which energy reaches a receiver when the receiver and the energy source are CONDENSATION NUCLEUS — A particle, either liquid in motion relative to each other. or solid, upon which condensation of water vapor be- gins in the atmosphere. See nudeation. DOPPLER RADAR— A radar which detects and inter CONTROL CLOUD— In doud seeding experiments on pre is the Doppler effect in terms of the radial velocity of a target The signal received by a radar from a Individual douds, a. doud chosen to remain unseeded, moving target differs slightly In frequency from the but is otherwise monitored as if it had been, in order to provide data for comparison with seeded douds. transmitted wave. Doppler radar la widely used In doud studies CONVECTION— 1. In general, mass motions within a because it enables the deduction of the motions of fluid resulting in transport and mixing of the proper- doud and precipitation partides. ties of that fluid. 2. As specialized in meteorology, atmospheric motions DRY-ICE- Solid carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). It evaporates that are predominantly vertical, resulting in vertical directly from solid to gas at a temperature of -78. 5* C transport and mixing of atmospheric properties. DRY-ICE SEEDING — The dispensing of dry-ice pellets CONVECTION CURRENT — (or convective current) Into supercooled douds for the purpose of transform Any current of air involved in convection. In meteor- Ing the supercooled droplets Into ice crystals, which ology, this Is usually applied to the upward moving then grow and fall out Dry ice creates a sufficiently portion of a convection circulation, such as a thermal cold environment around the droplet* for them to or the updraft In cumulus douds. undergo spontaneous nudeation CUMULIFORM - Llxe cumulus; generally descriptive of ECHO— In radar, a general term for the appearance, all douds, the principal characteristic of which Is ver- on a radar Indicator, of the radio energy returned tical development In the form of rising mounds, domes, from a target More explicitly, It refers to the energy or towers. reflected or scattered back from a target

744 FREEZING NUCLEUS — Any particle which, when pre ICE- PHASE SEEDING -Cloud seeding with an agent sent within a mass of supercooled water, will Initiate which serves as an artificial ice nucleus. growth of an Ice crystal about itself (see nudeatlon). ISOHYET — A line drawn on a map connecting geo GLACIATION— In cloud physics, the transformation of graphical points having equal amounts of precipitation cloud particles from water drops to ice crystals during a given time period, or for a particular storm GROUND GENERATOR— In weather modification, al LIQUID WATER CONTENT — Abbreviated LWC. (The ( most invanabh referring to silver iodide smoke gen amount of liquid water (that is, not counting water erat/>rs that are operated on the ground (as opposed vapor) in a cloud, usually expressed as grams of to airborne equipment). water per cubic meter of cloud volume. HAIL SUPPRESSION — Any method of reducing the MESO-SCALE— In meteorology: having characteristic damaging effects of hailstorms by operating on the spatial dimensions somewhere between 1 and 100 hail producing cloud. miles, usually implying between 5 and 50 miles. The currently prevailing hypothesis is that silver NUCLEATING AGENT — (or nucleant) In cloud phy- iodide seeding provides more hailstone nuclei (and, at sics, any substance that serves to accelerate the nu the same time, reduces the amount of supercooled cleation of cloud particles Nucleating agents may water available to build up large hailstones) with the themselves be nuclei (silver iodide, salt, sulfur di net effect that the hail that reaches the ground Is oxide, dust ) or they may enhance the nucleation en- smaller and less damaging, and also has a higher vironment (dry, ice, propane spray probability of melting before reaching the ground ). HYGROSCOPIC NUCLEI — Condensation nuclei com NUCLEATION — Any process by which the phase posed of salts which yield aqueous solution., of a very change of a substance to a more condensed state low equilibrium vapor pressure compared with that of (condensation, sublimation, freezing) is initiated at pure water at the same temperature. Condensation certain loci (see nucleus i within the less condensed of hygroscopic nuclei may begin at a relative humidity state. much lower than 100 percent (about 75 percent for A number of types of nucleation are of interest sodium chloride), while on so-called non- hygroscopic The process by which condensation nuclei initiate the nuclei, which merely furnish sufficiently large (by phase change from vapor to liquid is of decisive im- molecular standards ) wettable surfaces, relative hu- portance in analyses of all cloud formation problems. midities of nearly 100 percent are required. 'Damp The physical nature of freezing nuclei which may be haze' is formed of hygroscopic particles In the process responsible for the conversion of drops of supercooled of slow growth in relatively dry air water into ice crystals is critically important in pre- cipitation theory, us is also the clarification of the role HYGROSCOPIC SEEDING -Cloud seeding with hygro of spontaneous nucleation near -40*C The impor scopic material which encourages condensation and tance of sublimation nuclei is promoting the growth of collect* water vapor ice crystals directly from the vapor phase is doubtful ICE CRYSTAL— Any one of a number of macroscopic NUCLEUS — In physical meteorology, u purticle of any crystalline forms In which ice appears, Including hex nature upon which, or the locus at which, molecules agonal columns, hexagonal platelet*, dendritic cry of water or ice accumulate as a result of a phase stals, ice needles, and combinations of these forms change to a more condensed state; an agent of nu cleation. I IE CRYSTAL CLOUD- A cloud consisting entirely of ice crystals (such as cirrus); to be distinguished in NUCLEUS COUNTER -Any of severul devices for de this sense from water clouds and mixed clouds termining the number of condensation nuclei or ice nuclei in a sample of air. ICE NUCLEUS - Any particle which serve* as a nucleus in the formation of ice crystals In the atmosphere, NUMERICAL MODEL— In meteorology, a mathemati used without regard to the particular physical process cal formulation of atmospheric processes constructed involved in the nucleation. so that the dynamical and thcrmodynamical equations Due to an apparent scarcity of natural ice nuclei of atmospheric motion can be solved by numerical (or. at least, freezing nuclei) in the atmosphere, cloud methods on electronic computers -eeding with ice- nucleating agents become* a practi cal endeavor Both sliver iodide and dry ice perform OROGRAPHIC CLOUD- A cloud whose lorrn and c\ the function of nucleating ice in an aggregate of su tent is determined by the disturbing effects >( imi percooled water droplet* graph>. mountains, upon the passing flow of ,ur Me

745 cause these clouds are linked with the form of the RANDOMIZE — To make random. Specifically, in weath terrestrial relief, they generaJly move very slowly, If er modification contexts, It refers to the design of at all, although the winds at the same level may be experiments and projects In such a way as to mini very strong. mlze the sources of bias in the evaluation of results by dictating that 'seed' or 'don't seed' decisions OROGRAPHIC LIFTING -The lifting of an air current (for example) be made on a purely random basis caused by its passage up and over mountains If the total number of such decisions Is sufficient, , large, this procedure ensures that a comparison of OVERSEEDING — Cloud seeding in which an excess of 'seed' versus 'don't seed' results contains minimal nucleating material is released. As the term is nor bias. mally used, the excess Is relative to that amount of nucleating material which would, theoretically, maxi- REAL-TIME — Nearly Instantaneous. mize the precipitation received at the ground. In seeding a supercooled cloud with dry ice or silver SALT NUCLEUS— A minute salt particle serving as a iodide, addition of too much seeding material may condensation nucleus. create so many ice crystals that none can grow to a size large enough to fall out of the updraft sustaining SALT SEEDING — Cloud seeding with salt particles, a the cloud. technique that has been applied to warm (non-super cooled) clouds and fog on the principle that the hy PLUME— The volume of air space containing any of the groscopic droplets of salt solution will grow at the substance emitted from a point source. expense of other particles. PRECIPITATION -Any or all of the forms of water SEEDING RATE — The quantity of seeding agent (in particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the grams or kilograms) released either per unit of time atmosphere and reach the ground (if applied to ground-based generators) or per unit of distance (traveled by an aircraft) used in cloud seeding. PRECIPITATION ECHO-A Type of radar echo re turned by precipitation SILVER IODIDE — (Chemical formula: Agl. ) The com pound of silver and iodine whose crystalline structure PRECIPITATION EFFICIENCY — For a given cloud or very closely approximates that of Ice-crystals. storm system, the ratio of the amount of precipitation actually produced to the maximum amount theoreti- SILVER-IODIDE GENERATOR- Any of several de cally possible by that system. vices used to generate a smoke of silver-iodide cry PRECIPITATION GAGE -General term for any device staJs Most burn an acetone solution of silver iodide; that measures the amount of precipitation; princi- the other Important (and newer) category is that pally, a rain gage or snow gage of pyrotechnic generators. PYROTECHNIC GENERATOR -A type of silver iodide SILVER-IODIDE SEEDING — The world-wide 'work- smoke generator in which th^silver iodide forms as horse' method of cloud seeding, where, by any of a part of the pyrotechnic fuel mbtture. A great flexi several techniques, silver- Iodide crystals are intro bility of design is possible with these generators, and duced into the supercooled portions of clouds to induce they are capable of an extremely high output of the nucleation of Ice crystals. silver- iodide nuclei. SNOW COURSE -An established line, usually from several hundred feet to as much as a mile long, RADIOSONDE- A balloon borne instrument for the traversing representative terrain in a mountainous simultaneous measurement and transmission of mete- region of appreciable snow accumulation Along this orological data. course instruments (such as snow stakes, radioactive snow gages) are installed, and/or core samples of the RAIN MAKING -Popular and general term for all snow cover are periodically taken and averaged to weather modification effort aimed at increasing pre- obtain a measure of Its water equivalent cipitation. STRATOCUMULUS-A RANDOM — Eluding precise prediction, completely Ir- principal, low-altitude, cloud regular. In connection with probability and statistics, type, consisting of a layer of rounded or roll shaped the term random Implies collective or long-run regu- elements which may or may not be merged and which larity; thus a long record of the behavior of a random usually are arranged in orderly flies or a wave pat phenomenon presumably gives a fair indication of Its tern. general behavior in another long record, although the SUBLIMATION — The transition of a substance from individual observations have no discernible system of progression the solid phase directly to the vapor phase, or vice

) 746 versa, without puitng through an intermediate liquid phase. SUPERCOOLING — The reduction of temperature ofany liquid below the melting point of that substance's eolld phase; that Is, cooling beyond its nominal freez- ing point A liquid may be supercooled to varying degrees, depending upon the relative lack of freezing nuclei or solid boundary irregularities within its en- vironment, and freedom from agitation. SYNOPTIC— In general, pertaining to or affording an overall view. In meteorology, this term has become somewhat specialized in referring to the use of meteorological data obtained simultaneously over a aide area for the purpose of presenting a comprehensive and nearly Instantaneous picture of the state of the atmosphere. Thus, to a meteorologist, 'synoptic.' takes on the additional connotation of simultaneity. TARGET AREA— la a weather modification project, the area within which the effects of the weather mod- ification effort are expected to be found TRACER— An easily detectable substance injected into the atmosphere for the purpose of subsequent mea- surement and reconstruction of Its history- (trajectory, diffusion, etc TRAJECTORY— (Or path, t A curve in space tracing the points successively occupied by a particle in mo- tion. At any given Instant the velocity vector of the particle Is tangent to the trajectory. WARM CLOUD— In weather modification terminology, a water doud that is not a supercooled cloud La, that exists entirely at temperatures above 0*C. WATER EQUIVALENT—The depth of water that would result from the melting of the snowpack or of a snow sample. WATER VAPOR— (Also called aqueous vapor, mois tore.) Water substance In vapor form: one of the most Important of all constituents of the atmosphere. WEATHER MODIFICATION— The Intentional or In- advertent alteration of weather by human agency. WEATHER RADAR -Generally, any radar which Is suitable or can be used for the detection of precipi- tation or clouds. o







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