Communication and Crisis Communications

UNIT 2Communication and Crisis Communications Reading and identifying strategies

Task 1 You are going to read about forms of communication.1) What forms of communication do you know?2) Judging from the prefixes intra- and inter- , explain the intrapersonal andinterpersonal forms of communication.3) Why is communication vital in breaking down barriers between the patient anddental health professional?Read the extract “Intrapersonal Communuication”and identify whenintrapersonal communication occurs in a dentist’s office. Tick (V) therelevant boxes. Before During After It does treatment treatment treatment not apply toCalm oneself treatmentdown in astressfulsituationBuild a self-conceptMaintain ourself-conceptLet off steamProcessemotionsThinkthrough thetreatmentprocess aboutsomethingRehearsequestions to adentist what atreatmentplan for thefuture is   2  

CommunicationForms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, andcontexts.Communication can be represented through one of the followingforms:1. Intrapersonal communication2. Interpersonal communication3. Group communicationIntrapersonal communication is communication to oneself usinginternal vocalization or reflexive thinking; it is triggered by some internalor external stimulus: • we may communicate with ourselves, • we may react to an event we witness.Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communicationtakes place inside our heads. The other forms of communication must beperceived by someone else to consider them to be forms ofcommunication.Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions:a) internal vocalization or talking to ourselves can help us achieve ormaintain social adjustment, such as 1) to calm oneself down in a stressfulsituation, 2) to build and/or maintain our self-concept, 3) to let off steam,process emotions, think through something, 4) to rehearse what we planto say or do in the future.b) internal vocalization helps facilitate social interaction and can enhanceour well-being.Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to communicateintrapersonally is associated with mental illness.Interpersonal communication is communication between two peoplewhose lives/messages influence each other. Interpersonal communicationbuilds, maintains, and/or ends our relationship. It occurs in variouscontexts and has various representations, such as: a) intercultural communication, b) organizational communication, c) health communication, d) computer-mediated communication.   3  

Interpersonal communication (planned or unplanned) is: a) influenced by social expectations, b) goal-oriented (e.g. greeting, thanking, desire to be in a committed relationship), c) fulfils instrumental or instructional needs.Since this form of communication deals directly with building personalrelationships, it is the most common form that may lead/result inmiscommunication and communication conflict (e.g. couples, bosses andemployees, students-teaching staff, family members) To be a competentinterpersonal communicator, one needs conflict management skills andlistening skills, among the others, to maintain positive relationships.Group communication is communication among three or moreinteracting to achieve a shared goal. Group communication is moreintentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Individuals ingroup communication are often assigned to their position in the group.Group communication is: a) often task-focused; members of the group work together for an explicit purpose that affects each member of the group, b) directed to attaining goal of the whole group (e.g. project work, team work)Many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandingamong group members. The extract is adapted from Saylor URL http://www.saylor.org./books, 1-14   4  

Crisis CommunicationsA crisis is a major occurrence with a potentially negative outcomeaffecting the organization, company, or industry, as well as its publics,products, services, or good name. A crisis interrupts normal businesstransactions and can sometimes threaten the existence of the organization.A crisis can be a strike, terrorism, a fire, a boycott, product tampering,product failure, or numerous other events. The size of the organization isirrelevant. It can be a multinational corporation, a one-person business, oreven an individual.Crisis management is a process of strategic planning for a crisis ornegative turning point, a process that removes some of the risk anduncertainty from the negative occurrence and thereby allows theorganization to be in greater control of its own destiny.Crisis communications is the dialog between the organization and itspublic(s) prior to, during, and after the negative occurrence. The dialogdetails strategies and tactics designed to minimize damage to the image ofthe organization.Effective crisis management includes crisis communications that not onlycan alleviate or eliminate the crisis but also can sometimes bring theorganization a more positive reputation than it had before the crisis.Public relations deal with publics. Publics are the specific audiencestargeted by programs. People frequently use the term “general public”,but public relations professionals are usually more specific in theirtargeting.Public relations are concerned with reputation. It exists to avoid anegative image and to create or enhance a positive reputation. It is largelythe fear of a negative image that causes organizations to develop publicrelations departments, hire public relations agencies, or both. Too often,an organization does not consider utilizing public relations until it is in acrisis. Then it wants a speedy recovery.   5  

The Five Stages of a CrisisA crisis has five stages: 1. Detection 2. Prevention/preparation 3. Containment 4. Recovery 5. Learning1. DetectionThe detection phase may begin with noting warning signs, or what Barton(in Feran-Banks, 2017: 5) referred to as prodromes or the prodromalstage. Some crises have no noticeable prodromes, but many do. Anorganization should watch for prodromes and make attempts to stop acrisis at this stage, before it develops into a full-blown crisis. To detectthese early signs, organizations form employee committees that functionlike lighthouse keepers watching for vessels at sea, watchdogs, orwhistle-blowers.Crisis detection also refers to a system within the organization in whichkey personnel are immediately notified of a crisis. An organization has aconsiderable advantage if it knows about a crisis before its publics do,especially before the news media get the tip. This gives the organizationtime to draft a statement, make preparations for a news conference, notifythe crisis team, and call in spokespersons.2. Crisis Prevention/ Preparation2.1 Crisis PreventionThere are other specific tactics and actions that an organization mayadopt to prevent crises. These tactics must be communicated toappropriate publics. A company must not only do what is right. It alsomust tell its publics that it is taking appropriate action. This may appearto be bragging, but if the company does not reveal ethical andprofessional business practices, publics will never know. Crisisprevention tactics include the following: a) fostering the continued development of organizational policies that allow for updates and changes based on variances of publics and mission, b) reducing the use of hazardous material and processes,   6  

c) initiating safety training and providing rewards for employees with stellar safety records, d) allowing the free flow of information from employees to management with no punishment of employees who deliver bad news, e) following up on past crises or problems,2.2 Crisis PreparationThe crisis communication plan is the primary tool of preparedness. Thisplan tells each key person on the crisis team what his or her role is, whomto notify, how to reach people, what to say, and so on. The crisiscommunications plan provides a functioning collective brain for allpersons involved in a crisis, persons who may not operate at normalcapacity due to the shock or emotions of the crisis event.3. ContainmentContainment refers to the effort to limit the duration of the crisis or tokeep it from spreading to other areas affecting the organization.4. RecoveryRecovery involves efforts to return the company to business as usual.Organizations want to leave the crisis behind.5. LearningThe learning phase is a process of examining the crisis and determiningwhat was lost, what was gained, and how the organization performed inthe crisis. It is an evaluative procedure designed to make the crisis aprodrome for the future.   7  

Crisis Communications TheoryAcademic researchers study the methods and procedures of professionalcommunicators and develop theories of what is and what is not effective.Professionals rarely study theory but many have “tried and true” methodsof practice that are, in effect, theory. Often, these practices ofprofessionals are the same theories that academicians have studied andnamed.A theory is used to explain what will work, what decisions should bemade and how, what actions are likely to result and how, and how thingsrelate. It is a prediction based on what has happened before. Theory-based practice is preferable because, in most aspects of life, we learnfrom our previous experiences and the experiences of others. Theoristshave examined the actions of numerous practitioners and culled theirfindings into succinct theories.Some theories are described below. They are followed by thepredominant public relations/crisis communications theory called theexcellence theory, proposed by James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt in 1984.Apologia TheoryWhen an organization has been accused of a misdeed, its reaction to itspublics is often called apologia. It is, as one would assume an effort todefend reputation and protect image. But it is not necessarily an apology.The organization’s effort may deny or apologize for the action throughcommunication discourse.The organization may insist that the charges are false and totally denythem. Or the organization may communicate to its public(s) that it did not“intend” to commit the misdeed. This is called redefinition. Publics tendto forgive if the organization’s policies are above reproach and somehow,someway, something unforeseen happened. One individual, whoseemployment may subsequently be terminated, might be blamed.However, the public’s forgiveness is not guaranteed. If the organizationcan show how it has taken steps to prevent the occurrence or therecurrence of the misdeed, all may be forgiven.Apologia strategy may also include informing publics that theorganization might seem to have committed a misdeed but actually hasnot. This is called dissociation. Facts explaining should follow.   8  

A third strategy might be actual apology: “We are guilty. We are sorry.Please forgive us”. This is called conciliation.Image Restoration TheoryThis theory builds on the apologia theory. In this theory, the organizationdetermines what is threatening reputation or image and also determineswhich publics must be addressed and persuaded in order to maintain andrestore positive image.Organizations sometimes take the attitude “Don’t bring me bad news!”They may refuse to read or watch negative news coverage in specificpublications or they may close their eyes to consumers or other publics.In refusing to know what some people think of them, they cannotpossibly know how to respond. Organizations should seek to read badnews just as much as they keep positive news clippings and read themcarefully.When it comes to publics, the organization must know which publicshave negative impressions and what the extent of their knowledge is.Does the public know all the facts, some of the facts, half-truths, and lies?One must know where these publics stand before they can be targeted forcommunication. In most public relations campaigns, the first step isresearch. The same holds true for crisis communications. On the otherhand, one must determine if the publics know anything at all that mightdamage reputation. Sometimes it is better to remain silent on the issue. Atother times it is best to tell your own bad news. This is a judgment callbut a crucial judgment call determined by carefully researching one’spublics continually.Decision TheoryDecision theory is concerned with counselling management and otherleaders to make the most effective decision. Decision theory may beapplied to all areas of management, but it is useful in public relationsmanagement and crisis communications. The theory is especiallyapplicable to issues management and the effort to prevent a crisis.Decisions are made under various conditions. The outcome may becertain, vague, ambiguous, or risky. The theory suggests that the decisionmaker should consider the possible benefit of each alternative; this iscalled maximizing. How useful is one alternative compared to others?   9  

The best decision possible garners the greatest benefit, the greatest utilityfor the organization. Often, decision theorists note that decision makersdo not opt for the greatest benefit but settle for the decision that willsatisfy minimum requirements, usually because they do not haveadequate data with which to formulate decisions. This practice is calledsatisficing. Obviously, when trying to build longstanding relationships itis better to maximize than satisfice.Diffusion TheoryAlso called diffusion of innovations theory, this theory examines hownew procedures, practices, and objects are adopted and accepted bycompanies and individuals.Diffusion theory has a five-step process: awareness (the body is exposedto the idea), interest (the body develops interest in the idea), evaluation(pros and cons are determined and considered), trial (the idea isimplemented, perhaps temporally to determine its effectiveness), andadoption or failure to adopt (acceptance or rejection of the idea, change,or innovation).Whether something is adopted or not depends on three variables: 1. The Past. What has happened previously? What are past problems and needs? Basically, you must know where you are before you make decisions to make changes, to go forward. 2. The Decision Makers. What are the characteristics of the decision- making body that make it open to or closed to change? Are there closed-minded persons with great influence over others? How do experience, age, education, and other socioeconomic variables impact the decision-making process? Is the body made up of all leaders? 3. The Innovation/Change. Does the innovation show more obvious advantages and few disadvantages over present practice or procedure? Does the innovation call for drastic change or can it be easily assimilated into current practices? Public Apology Of all the crisis communications theories, apology is the one most applied to life in the twenty-first century. Perhaps this is true more in the USA than other countries, but as businesses become more global,   10  

public apologies seem to be part of the routine. Google the word “apology “and you will get a lot more than you want to know – from athletes, politicians, celebrities, business spokespersons. As public apologies are so overused, they are often not trusted. Why Apologies? Given that one may not be believed anyway, determine whether a public apology is needed. Might the public appearance make you look worse? Can private apology work if there are few people offended? Who will know? Who cares? Is an apology needed at all? Apologies are intended to help restore or repair relationships, retain loyal customers, fans, constituents. Will critics believe the apology is just an attempt to benefit financially? If the offender - a politician, an athlete, an entertainer, a business owner – is honest, financial gain is often the core reason. Even if one is truly sorry, the positive response to the apology is ultimately some financial gain. Be honest with yourself and know that convincing the public of true regret is difficult and not easily faked. What Constitutes an Apology? If a company or individual in public life has committed an offensive act made an offensive statement or if the public perceives that an offensive act has been made, steps must be taken to restore image. There may be denial, evasion of responsibility, reduction of offensiveness, or corrective action. The corrective action may take place before the apology or after, depending on how long a correction may be required. Nevertheless, the apology includes a confession, a plea for forgiveness, and a promise to make corrections. Others suggest that an explanation also be included. The apology also takes into consideration fault, humility, dignity, validation. There is no one magic formula for an apology. Sincerity is the key. When to Make an Apology? Most apology experts advise that individuals and companies should apologize immediately even if one does not have the entire picture. You can still regret that the offense related to you or your company occurred. “Apologizing immediately shows you acknowledge that something wrong has occurred. It does not equate to admitting any wrongdoing” (Fathi, 2013 in Fearn Banks, 2017: 31). The extract is adapted from Crisis Communications by Fearn-Banks, K. (2017), New York and London: Roultledge, 1-33   11  

TASK 2: Reading and Evaluating StrategiesA patient- dentist communication should include several aspects thatenable the dentist 1) to recognize significant health problems that mightaffect dental treatment, 2) to elicit information suggestive of new healthproblems that have been previously unrecognized, undiagnosed oruntreated, 3) to elicit patient’s concerns.Consider the extract on interpersonal communication in the textabove and evaluate which type of interpersonal communicationmatches the statements that have occurred in a dentist’s office. Tick(V) the relevant boxesStatements: dentist’s office Refer to intercultural Refer to health communication communicationWhat is the date of your last dentalexamination?How often have you had dental visits?What are oral hygiene practices in yourcountry?What is oral hygiene history?Are clinical examinations covered by apatient or by a state in this country?The missing teeth cause serious functionalproblemsCan teeth restorations be provided by thestate for the patients of your age group?What treatment have you received in thiscountry?Do you suffer from such problems assyncope (fainting), general anxiety, reactionsto medicines used in dentistry?What are your priorities and attitudes forseeking treatment?What is time availability for dental visits?   12  

TASK 3: Reading, Justifying, Investigating and ComparingStrategies. Read the extract below and a) justify a communication type, b) investigate if there are steps taken in your country/community to solve the problem below, c) compare the measures taken in your country/community with practices encouraged in another country/community to handle the problem.Youth are exposed to messages about alcohol in popular media outlets.The negative effects of excessive alcohol use include 32 deaths per day inautomobile crashes involving someone driving drunk or impaired. Abouttwo-thirds of all instances of intimate partner violence involve alcoholuse. Another practice that makes alcohol consumption particularly riskyis drinking alcohol in combination with high caffeine or energy drinks,such as Red Bull or Monster. These “energy” drinks contain caffeine,along with other stimulants or sugars. They have no effect on the body’smetabolism of alcohol but can make one feel less intoxicated. (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011, USA, paragraph 19)TASK 4: Identifying Communication TypesIdentify the type of communication in the three cases below; support youranswer by your example. Invent/imagine the situations when the respective typeof communication is/can be applied in your daily routine.1. This communication is, as a rule, task-focused, and it is directed totackling the common goal and explicit purpose that affects eachparticipant of communication.2. This communication can help one achieve or maintain socialadjustment in order to calm oneself down in stressful situations or tobuild and/or maintain one’s self-concept.3. This communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationship. Itoccurs in various contexts and has various representations.   13  

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