The_Triumph_of_Propaganda_Film_&_National_Socialism_Hilmar_Hoffmann

186 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 187he recklessly exploited Riefenstahl's movies, German newsreels, h u m a n dimension because all this is done without zealousand American anti-Nazi films. \"Prelude to War\" comes across as a pathos. During a brief pause in the fighting, the dead are putwell-rounded whole, supported by John Huston's commentary into body bags before they are buried far from their homeland.and Dimitri Tiomkin's music, that is skillfully deployed from the Highly decorated with the Legion of Merit medal, Huston canviewpoint of dramaturgy. Clearly, this is one of the best-made pro­ claim to have cast doubt on the meaning of war in an Americanpaganda films of World War II. propaganda film. The same crew also made \"The Nazi Strike\" a success. Bis­ According to Richard Griffiths, top Pentagon officials thenmarck is introduced as Hitler's precursor with the words: \"We edited the material so that a badly truncated version was ulti­shall dominate the world.\" This is then echoed in the song \"Today mately released to the public—pompously advertised as \"the bigGermany Belongs to Us, and Tomorrow It's the Entire World.\" picture\" and dedicated \"to the American soldiers who fought andScenes from Party rallies are designed to demonstrate the threat died in San Pietro.\" Not a single shot of the dead and dying in theposed by a tightly organized dictatorship and to reveal the psy­ original was to be seen in this version. Equipped with a newchology behind Hitler's military mass parades, which tries to leader, the film capitalizes on its Hollywood maker: sitdng under\"demoralize his enemies\" with these techniques. Using Nazi the Mexican sun with a stetson, Huston is interviewed during thenewsreels and Riefenstahl's films to buttress the basic argument, shooting of his Western The Unforgiven (1960). In other w o r d s , fif­the film summarizes all major events in Nazi Germany that until teen years after the end of the war he contextualizes the docu­1942 caused the rest of the world to hold its breath. A critical com­ ments of the battle of San Pietro. He remembers this period as \"amentary is added to Hitler's negotiations with Chamberlain and time when life had almost ceased to exist there.\" He continuesDaladier in 1938 that led to the Munich Agreement. Next we see laconically: \"Most of the soldiers that you will see on the screenPolish cavalry advancing against German tanks—probably using are dead, have died in battle. All men who served their colors andfilm from Polish maneuvers. Capra calls the Nazi-Soviet Pact of humanity.\" In Huston's memory, they are all heroes whoAugust 1939 \"the kiss of death for the Poles.\" Churchill's states­ advanced until death or their injuries stopped them. Huston thenmanlike speech is juxtaposed with footage showing the faces of lifts his stetson a n d The Battle of San Pietro begins.desperate people next to their dead. The film ends with theV(ictory) sign. Although the movie has been severely cut, it nevertheless rep­ resents an authentic report of the fighting around the villages of The Battle of San Pietro is a m u c h m o r e shattering m o v i e t h a n L u n g o and San Pietro during the fall of 1943. With Huston's intro­words could express, showing pictures of the front line in the ductory statements in mind, the viewer will note more attentivelydevastated mountains of Cagliari province in Italy. It is no exag­ the closeups of GIs whose faces are marked by death than wouldg e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t this m o v i e is a document humaine t h a t , have been the case without this macabre preknowledge. The rota­because of its sincerity and grim authenticity, reveals all heroi­ tion of the camera (held by Jules Buck, among others) resulted incizing Nazi propaganda as absurd. John Huston depicts the hor­ frequently blurred pictures, explained in the text with the wordsrors of war from the perspective of the victims. Their boundless that the soil \"never stopped trembling.\" For a while, the camerasuffering is reflected in the faces of innocent w o m e n and the closely follows those shock troops whose fate Huston commentsangst-filled eyes of children that provide a physiognomical com­ on with the sober words: \"Not a single member ... ever camementary from the ruins of the village of San Pietro, the site of back alive.\" During a fire break, the survivors nail the identifica­fierce fighting. The extent of the destruction and the number of tion tags of their fallen comrades to a wooden cross: \"The livesvictims appear in starkest contrast to the strategic significance of lost were precious lives to their country, to their loved ones, andthis battle. Huston does not shrink from exposing the viewer to to themselves.\"closeups of dying soldiers and the most extreme moment oftheir life, i.e., their violent death. Huston thus breaks the great The leader of the second documentary that the Pentagon com­taboo of the documentary, i.e., to show the dying. The cai^-era missioned Huston to make reads like a medical bulledn.'^\" As anunderwrites their death certificates. The scene assumes a very invisible witness, the camera yields shattering images of six sol­ diers >vho had suffered nervous breakdowns with symptoms

188 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 189including loss of speech, loss of memory, partial paralysis, an end­ hesitated to recognize the self-appointed leader of the \"true France.\"less flow of tears. In this case, this indiscretion as a legitimate It w a s only at the Casablanca summit of Roosevelt, Churchill, andfilmic means of uncovering truth had a deep ethical impact. de Gaulle in January 1943 that La France Libre received the Allies'Because it unsparingly undertook psychiatric interviews with blessing after they had agreed to work for the unconditional sur­American invalids of differing IQs who had suffered shell shock at render of the Axis powers. In May 1943, then, de Gaulle was finallyvarious sections of the front, it was only in 1948 that the film w a s nominated spokesman of La France Libre by the groups that h a dreleased under registration No. PMF 5019, to be screened before formed the National Resistance Council. Still, the image of a heroicaudiences of clinical experts. resistance army successfully fighting the fascists was more a reflec­ tion of \"wishful thinking than of historical reality. \"^^ A s early as 1933, E u g e n H a d a m o v s k y , a Stabsleiter in Goebbels'sReich P r o p a g a n d a Office a n d director of the Deutschlandsender, To launch a French film propaganda campaign, de Gaulleh a d defined \"sobriety (Sachlichkeit) as a d a n g e r for w e a k c h a r a c ­ lacked resources comparable to those that Roosevelt and Churchillters.\" Later he viewed the care of injured Americans from the had at their disposal. Consequently, the only two importantatrocity perspective of his office when he denied that the Allies movies about the French Resistance were produced by Holly­offered their veterans humanitarian support: w o o d . In 1 9 4 2 Reunion in France w a s m a d e u n d e r the artistic supervision of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), followed in 1943 Whereas Soviet invalids simply go to the dogs and invalids in the b y The Cross of Lorraine. Based on H a n s Habe's 1941 novel A Thou­ Westem democracies live a miserable life as beggars depending on sand Shall Fall, the latter is a feature film b y Tay G a m e t t , which the charity of the plutocrats. National Socialist Germany, under the was partly shot in France. The leader shows the rustiing flag of de leadership of outstanding physicians and psychologists, tries not to Gaulle's La Libre France with the Lorraine Cross. There are t w o condemn to an unsatisfying life as pensioners even those who by narrative t h r e a d s running t h r o u g h this film. T h e first reflects the general standards are severely wounded, but to give them the divergent moral responses and physical conditions of French pris­ opportunity to reintegrate themselves into professional life.'^' oners in German labor camps; the second depicts French soldiers w h o h a d e s c a p e d to F r a n c e a m o n g Resistance fighters n e a r the In 1 9 4 1 C a n a d a started its World in Action series, w i t h J o h n village of Cadignon as they join General Cartier's army.Grierson taking charge of production. Among the legions of Alliedpropaganda films, the series, despite the enormous amounts of Reunion in France b y Jules Dassin offers an ambivalent critiquematerial used, excels as a work that combines irony with intelli­ of the causes behind France's precipitous capitulation in 1940 andgence. Director Stuart Legg avoids all crude attempts to shape identifies what Andrzej Szczypiorsky called the \"moral dilem­viewers' opinions. By providing associative connections between m a s \" of the Grande Nation. O n the one hand, Dassin a d v a n c e s thethe different parts, he gives the impression of objectivity, thereby hypothesis that the generals and industrialists had betrayedaugmenting the propaganda value of the series. A n d yet it is diffi­ France to the Nazis since they were collaborating with them; oncult to overlook that this intelligent series, too, is commissioned the other hand, he praises the activism of the Resistance move­and primarily operates to a certain matrix. ment exclusively from a rightist perspective. From 1940 onward France was partially occupied, and the cine­ Etienne Lallier's F r e n c h - m a d e d o c u m e n t a r y Reseau X (1944)matographic infrastructure, where it had not been smashed by the portrays the \"Secret Service\" trying to rescue Allied pilots whoGermans, was strictly controlled by them. As a result, few impor­ h a d been shot d o w n . Camera sous la Botte ( C a m e r a under the Jack­tant films, for example, by the Resistance against the \^chy regime boot, 1944) relates kaleidoscopically the liberation of Paris. Even ifand the German occupiers, were made. From his London exile, these films had possessed a different technical and aesthetic qual­Charles d e Gaulle h a d m a d e the Croix de Lorraine the official flag of ity, there w a s no chance to show them to larger French audiences.his La France Libre organization in the spring of 1942. However, d eGaulle proved to be an awkward ally for the British, and the French However, there are at least two documentaries dating fromthemselves failed to follow him with the exception of the French this period that continue to be historically significant. In 1943colonies in Central Africa and the Pacific. The British, therefore. Luis Daquin, Jean Gremillon, Jacques Becker, Pierre Renoir (Jean's b r o t h e r ) , a n d o t h e r s h a d founded the Comite de Liberation

190 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 191du Cinema Frangaise w h i c h included a t e a m of technicians. O p e r ­ The following names m a y suffice as examples of feature filmating under a constant threat to their lives, this latter group took directors who, by making compilation films, moved into foreignpictures of the Paris uprising from its first beginnings on 19 terrain: E d w i n S. Porter {The Life of an American Fireman, 1910),August 1944. The documentary that emerged from this was C a r l J u n g h a n s {Weltwende, 1 9 2 8 ) , Walter R u t t m a n n {Die Melodieshown immediately following the withdrawal of the German der We/f—The M e l o d y of the World, 1929), Luis Bufiuel {Madridt r o o p s f r o m the o c c u p i e d territories u n d e r the title La Liberation ' 3 6 , 1 9 3 7 ) , F r a n k C a p r a a n d Anatole Litvak {Why We Fight series,de Paris. 1943ff.), J o h n H u s t o n {The Battle of San Pietro, 1944), A l e x a n d e r D o v s h e n k o {Victory on the Right Bank of the Dnieper, 1 9 4 5 ) , One of the few prominent directors of France was Jean-Paul Le L u c h i n o Visconti {Days of Glory, 1 9 4 5 ) , Carol Reed {The True Glory,Chanois who had made a name for himself before the war through 1945), Sergei Yutkevich {Liberated France, 1945), Joris Ivens {Song ofhis work with the Prevert brothers and with Jean Renoir, and who the Streams, 1 9 5 4 ) , A l a i n Resnais {Night and Fog, 1 9 5 5 ) , E r w i nactively participated in the resistance movement. Operating in the L e i s e r {Mein Kampf, 1 9 6 0 ) , C h r i s M a r k e r {Description d'unmidst of the fighters of Vercors Massif in the French Alps, the cen­ combat—Description of a Battle, 1960), Jacques P r e v e r t {Paris later of the French Resistance between 1942 and 1944, he filmed the belle, 1 9 6 0 ) , Sayajit R a y {Rabindranat Tagore, 1 9 6 1 ) , A l e x a n d e rc o v e r t and open guerrilla activities of the Maquisards against the K l u g e / P e t e r S c h a m o n i {Brutalität in Stein—Brutality in Stone,German occupation. However, this important document could 1 9 6 1 ) , J e r z y H o f m a n {Fatherland and Death, 1961), Frederic Rossifonly be s h o w n in 1 9 4 6 , after the war, u n d e r the title Au Coeur de (Le Temps du Ghetto—Ghetto Times, 1961), Paul Rötha {Das LebenI'Orage (In the E y e of the Storm, 1945). Adolf Hitlers—The Life of Adolf Hitler, 1961), Jean-Luc G o d a r d (Les Carabiniers, 1 9 6 3 ) , Jerzy Bossak {Requiem for 500,000, 1963), JeanThe Genre Is Upvalued by Well-known Names A u r e l {La Bataille de France—The Battle for France, 1964), Lionel Rogosin {Good Times, Wonderful Times, 1965), Michail R o m m {Daily The person who is being filmed is no more than the raw material for Fascism, 1 9 6 5 ) , Marcel Ophüls {The Memory of Justice, 1975). Well- the filmic phenomenon that is put together later on through montage. known photographers and intellectuals like Henri Cartier-Bres- The individual angle is no more than a single word. \"Montage sen­ son (Le Retour, 1 9 4 6 ) or J o a c h i m C. Fest {Hitler—eine Karriere, 1977) tences,\" the individual scenes and episodes and, finally, step-by-step have also tried their hand at this genre. the completed work, the film itself, emerge only from the artistic shap­ ing of this raw material. However, this \"step-by-step\" should not merely be described; the director must use it as an effective instrument. Vsevolod I. Pudovkin^^^Many big names can be found among the authors of compilationfilms, as well as writers who did not think it beneath them to pro­duce from other material \"essayistic\" movies, as Hans Richtercalled the genre in 1940 before the new term came into use. Richterrecommended this type of movie to illustrate \"intellectual con­ceptions\" and to m a k e visible w h a t \"is basically invisible.\" H e r e ,he argued, it was possible to draw upon an immeasurably largerreservoir of expressive opportunities than was available to thepure documentary. The director was not bound to a reproductionof external phenomena or to a particular chronological sequence.On the contrary, the illustrative material could be drawn froma n y w h e r e in order to be left moving freely in time and space.^^*

192 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 193 The Newsreel Chapter B (Internal Propaganda), with the above quotation to be found under the heading \"Covert Films\" on page 12.'^^ The newsreel shall no longer be a more-or-less interesting and ran­ domly compiled hodge-podge of pictures from all over the world; rather \"Kinofreudig\" a n d \"kinowillig\"—these w e r e the m a g i c w o r d s . it is to be shaped into an artistic whole that is self-contained. Its optic Hitler, Goebbels, and their aides were very serious about supply­ effect shall be cultural and propagandistic education and construction, ing the cinemas with as much \"unburdened\" entertainment as without the viewer realizing it.... We intend to use, by means of a possible. The feature film that p u r s u e d clear propagandistic aims newsreel that is artistically rounded, the possibility of spreading state- was to remain the exception. The most powerful weapon was the political, ideological propaganda and popular education. production of a good mood and its constant proliferation. Hans Weidemann, Vice President of the There can be no question that strict limits were set to the free­ Reich Film Chamber, July 1935 d o m of cultural expression. A doctoral thesis, completed in 1938, formulated this with striking frankness and without the authorGerman Newsreels before World War II realizing the cynicism of his words: \"It is not in the interests of National Socialist cultural policy to act patronizingly toward cul­\"The meaning of propaganda is the excitement of ecstasy!\" Thus tural a n d artistic creativity. The state merely [!] d e m a n d s of e v e r yspoke Adolf Hitler as quoted in H a n s Traub's 1933 booklet Film als cultural producer, just as of every German, that the Nationalpolitisches Machtmittel (Film as a Means of Political P o w e r ) . A n d Socialist Weltanschauung be the lodestar of all his work.\"'^*like his models Hitler and Goebbels, Traub warns against the dan­gerous blending of propaganda, entertainment, and art. Again he Kinofreudig and kinowillig w a s w h a t the G e r m a n s w e r e expectedquotes Hitler as his master, this time in a conversation in Berlin to be; then they would also be able to enjoy exemplary propa­with the actress Tony van Eyck: \"True, on the one hand I want to g a n d a . A s Traub put it: \"The first law of all p r o p a g a n d a reads thatuse film fully as a means of propaganda, but only in such a w a y people must be kept receptive and capable of enthusiasm.\"that all viewers know: 'Today I'll be seeing a political film.' Just like Kinofreudigkeit w a s thus the precondition for Nazi p r o p a g a n d a ' sin the Sportpalast w h e r e he does not have sports mixed with politics favorite tool—the newsreel—and conversely this genre stimulatedeither. I find it revolting if politics is m a d e under the guise of art. the cinematic interests of the masses.It's either art or politics.\" The purpose behind this restraint is alsomade very clear: \"We have to realize that a basic function of the To be sure, the rulers of the Third Reich never tired of givingcinema, i.e., of entertainment, begins to swerve in its foundations, public assurances that the newsreel must not be misused as aif w e deploy in the daily program the open, active propaganda fea­ means of propaganda; for it w a s wrong \"always to beat theture film that can make its full impact only when it is shown before drums.... The public will slowly get used to the sound and thenclosed audiences or in special public screenings. The challenge will fail to hear it.\"'^^ H o w e v e r , if w e analyze the care that w a s takenbe to concentrate on the overall production of films a n d their suc­ with the newsreel in subsequent years, it is easy to recognize thatcesses in individual cinemas if, by judiciously mixing political a n d it constituted the Nazis' most important propagandistic means ofgeneral feature films, we want to keep the public enjoying the convincing people.m o v i e s {'kinofreudig') a n d willing to g o there {'kinowillig').\" The aspects of the Nazi newsreel that are to be discussed here, As e a r l y as 1 9 3 1 w e find in a m e m o r a n d u m i s s u e d b y the with reference to a few typical examples, demonstrate how easilyParty's Reich Film Office that one should not lose sight of the pro­ reality can be falsified with the help of sequences that are, as such,duction of \"covert N S films\" as \"a v e r y considerable p r o p a g a n d a authentic. However, as is well-known, this statement does not justfactor.\" It was Georg Stark w h o was responsible for drawing up, apply to Nazi newsreels. Thus a study, commissioned by UNESCO,in May 1931, principles of Nazi film propaganda that appeared in about newsreels from all over the world came to the conclusion that the vjewei^\"has to concentrate so much on the fast s e q u e n c e ^ pictures that any response that goes beyond simple reception is f o r c e d i n t o the subconscious. E v e n if the viewer is critically dis- posed, heTiäs no opportunity to check or compare the information that is offered to him.\" _

The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 195194 i This is precisely what Goebbels and his accomplices in the Pro­ as Reich Chancellor: \"At the foot of the podium stands an army ofpaganda Ministry knew so well. Dr. Fritz Hippler being one of photographers, an army of film technicians. The entire speech is tothem. H e wrote in 1942: \"In comparison with the other arts, film, be put on sound film to be used propagandistically during thefrom a mass psychological and propagandistic viewpoint, has a next few weeks.\"particularly deep and lasting impact because of its property toaffect the visual and emotional, i.e., the nonintellectual.\"^^^ A s soon b e c a m e clear, the Gleichschaltung (totalitarian integra­ tion) of film occurred with terrifying speed and thoroughness. The following brief summary is designed to show that National Licht-Bild-Bühne h a d this to say a b o u t the w o r k of the newsreelSocialism remained a \"propaganda movement\" even after the men on 1 May 1933, the day that the Nazis had meanwhile con­seizure of power in 1933. When Goebbels took over the newly verted from the traditional Labor Day to a \"Day of Nationalfounded Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda on Labor\": \"The newsreel coworkers have the great task to put the13 March 1933, he assumed supervisory powers not only over the celebrations of this day on sound film and to preserve them forpress, radio, and theater, but also over film. The Ministry's film later periods and subsequent generations [as well as] to makedepartment was characterized by some remarkable continuities. them visible in the five thousand movie theaters of Germany forThus, Dr. Seeger, who had been a lawyer with Bufa in World War all those who were unable to participate.\"I until 1917 before serving as director of the Film CensorshipOffice, was appointed as its director. After World War I, Seeger And week after week, propaganda was disseminated withh a d acted as director of the Film-Oberpüßtelle in the Reich Ministry newsreel in these five thousand theaters. As Hippler, since 1939of the Interior which also had censorship tasks. Goebbels simi­ the director of the film department in the Goebbels Ministry,larly used experienced people in the newly established division admitted after the war, this was not a matter of \"objective report­for \"Film Technology and Film Reporting.\" It was led by Eberhard ing, of balanced neutrality, but... of [providing] optimistic propa­Fangauf who had joined the Party in 1931. During World War I, he ganda that spread confidence in victory and was designed tohad been a war correspondent and later had been involved with strengthen the spiritual fighting potential of the German people.the production of documentaries at Ufa. Some 92 percent of the Corrunentator and language, texts and music had to conform topersormel in Goebbels's Ministry were longtime party members. this objective.\"'™As he once remarked: \"For me, a National Socialist is only thatp e r s o n w h o h a s c o m e to us before 3 0 J a n u a r y [1933]. There a r e o v e r Before 1945 Nazi propagandists like Hippler expounded very300 members in m y Ministry whose membership numbers [in the different claims. Thus, Hans-Joachim Giese, author of the bookNSDAP] are below 100,000.\"i2' Die Film-Wochenschau im Dienste der Politik, published in 1 9 4 0 , turned the matter on its head when he asserted that the hostile Fangauf had well understood the signs of the new times. He Entente powers had developed their newsreels into \"an extremelyquickly built up an efficient and fast coverage of events so that in effective instrument\" of propaganda, whereas \"the German news-film and photos tribute could be paid to the new masters and the reels were to convince through truthful pictures.\"'''^ Giese wentp o m p o u s ways in which they presented themselves. These \"film on: \"Very many things can accidentally give a tendentious color­reporters,\" w h o were given green armbands, IDs, and all sorts of ing to pictures on the long path that film has to traverse from the special passes, received support from many offices. Thus, the chief moment the camera begins to shoot to the screening in the movie newsreel cameramen participated in the dress rehearsals for mam­ theater. Newsreel will therefore never be a mirror of an event that moth rallies and other events. Their working conditions were conforms to reality to the last detail.\" Giese then inadvertently ideal. The wishes of the cameramen were taken into account as far lapsed into a self-accusatory mode: \"This is why newsreel can be as possible so that the \"intellectual content\" of Nazi speeches and called a 'document' only in a conditional sense.\" the parades that advertised the movement so effectively could be turned into impressive pictures. Indeed, already in the infancy of the newsreel, events that the camera had failed to capture were later staged for the benefit of As early as 10 February 1933 Goebbels had exclaimed enthusi­ the moviegoer. A telling example of this is provided by the genial astically when he gave a radio report on Hitler's first appearance Georges Melles when in 1902 he produced a credible studio ver­ sion in Montreuil of the coronation of king Edward VII. With the

196 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 197 help of ships' models in his bathtub, Edward H. Amet restaged the the policies of his party, the DNVP, and of policies marked by a destruction of the Spanish fleet by the Americans in 1898.'^^ A few Prussian spirit, while playing down the Nazi share.'^* years later, Pathe similarly remade the battle between the Russian and the Japanese fleet outside Port Arthur on 10 August 1904 by Having lost his cabinet post in June 1933, Hugenberg's dis­ setting it u p with m o d e l s on a small pond.^^s missal by Hitler was probably accelerated by the fact that Hugen­ berg's Deulig Newsreel No. 76 of 14 June 1933 highHghted The thematic structure of the Nazi newsreel corresponded to its excerpts from a speech by Vice-Chancellor Franz von Papen, gung-ho tendency. Let us take a production phase that can be sur- Hitler's cabinet rival, and incurred the wrath of Hitler and\"veyedTelatively easily. During the period from 1 June 1935 to 31 Goebbels. Here are the words that Deulig reported from Papen's May 1936, Ufa newsreels showed on average per reel some 180 speech at Naumburg on Saale on the occasion of the leadership feet of parades, 180 feet of speakers, 100 feet of armed forces, 90 meeting of the Langemarck League, the student wing of the feet of fighting in the Italo-Ethiopian War, 90 feet of other political Stahlhelm veterans association: events. Hardly a single precious foot of film was squandered with unpolitical topics.'^ The word about the revolution of our time is on everyone's lips. A nation, that experiences itself anew; that becomes newly conscious As late as two years prior to Hitler's seizure of power, Siegfried of its past, its values, its power and its hopes. We would fail to do Kracauer bemoaned the opposite trend in Weimar newsreels. justice to the heritage of Langemarck [one of the mythical battle Newsreel, he said, avoided political and social implications and sites of World War I—Transl.] if we were only to uphold the tradi­ instead wasted its time with natural catastrophies, acrobatics, pic­ tion of this patriotism. Of course, the object of this love, this Ger­ tures of happy children and zoo animals: many, is dear and sacred to us. But the moral greatness that we encounter in this commemoration of the Langemarck sacrifice By retreating, time and again, to the portrayal of imtamed nature, should be just as sacred to us. their viewers gain the impression that social events are as inex­ orable as some flood calamity. He who has natural catastrophies It was with such words that the German Nationalists around constantly served up to him, will inevitably transpose its causalities Hugenberg tried to transfigure the misguided idealism of the to human affairs and will willy-nilly confuse the crisis of the capi­ Langemarck League. talist system with an earthquake.'^ Hugenberg's Deulig-Ton-Woche thus strictly avoided showing a Nazi newsreel is even better at distracting the viewer from real­ single clip of Hitler between the middle of May and the middle of ity b y mythologizing the N a z i Volksgemeinschaft as a social ideal July 1933 w h e n the Reich Film Chamber disenfranchised it. Nor and by producing indistinction instead of insight when it shows were any of the Führer's words reproduced. Instead, the newsreel the regimented masses with their flags. Instead of picturing m a n showed Hugenberg or Hugenberg together with Papen, who had in his individuality, Goebbels's newsreel presents him as the for­ been Reich chancellor for six months in June 1932.'^^ mulaic part of a larger composition. His life becomes a phantom­ like presence in the milling crowd. In 1934, then, Goebbels issued an executive order via the Reich Film Chamber that all cameramen working in the Reich had to be F o r c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s , the statistics of Deulig-Ton-Woche a m e m b e r of this institution if they wanted to receive a labor per­ m a y be of interest here that cover the period from 30 January to 11 mit. This brought the cameramen into line. March 1933, i.e., the weeks before the establishment of Goebbels's Propaganda Ministry—relevant information from around the T h e rest of this section will analyze five Deulig-Ton-Wochen a n d world: 41.8 percent; sport: 17.6 percent; customs and fashion: 13.2 compare them with later Nazi newsreels in order to throw light on percent; military affairs: 13.2 percent; economic questions: 4.4 per­ the first m o n t h s after 3 0 J a n u a r y 1 9 3 3 w h e n the G e r m a n electorate cent; entertainment: 2.2 percent; and a meager 8.8 percent for had the choice between two reactionary ideologies. Deulig, inci­ reporting of current political events. In this connection, Hugen­ dentally, w a s the first newsreel c o m p a n y that m o v e d from silent berg used his company mainly to highlight the \"National Revolu­ to s o u n d film in J a n u a r y 1 9 3 2 , one year prior to the Nazi seizure tion of 30 January\" which he portrayed as a fruit particularly of of power. It was a system that was one of the best in the world at the time.

198 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 199 Deulig-Ton-Woche No. 57 (passed b y censor o n 1 F e b r u a r y 1933): Hitler cult film, she developed a new pictorial language that wasThis newsreel covering the period from the end of January to the aesthetically daring.beginning of February is not yet dominated by Nazi propaganda.In c o n t r a s t to later reports that w e r e gleichgeschaltet, tiiere is a cos­ Deulig-Ton-Woche No. 63 (passed b y censor on 15 M a r c h 1933):mopolitan variety of themes whose information value is, as was This newsreel begins with a report on Franklin D. Roosevelt andusual, small: a ship is being demolished in a dock—islands along his assumption of office on 4 March 1933. With Deulig at this pointthe North Sea coast are being supplied with the help of a Ju-52 air­ still firmly in Hugenberg's hands, this issue is then devoted to theplane—a Japanese rent-a-crowd bids farewell to soldiers going off imposing rallies of nationalist associations and organizations ofto the Manchurian front—horse races in the second-largest city of Hugenberg's DNVP in Berlin and Munich that met to cultivateIndia, Calcutta, before local high society—skiers doing salti mortali the past in cult-like fashion. As late as six weeks after Hitler'sin the Bavarian resort of Garmisch—international riding competi­ assumption of power, this newsreel continues to give much spacetion in Berlin with dresses from the time of Frederick the Great to heroic reminiscences in cormection with right-wing rallies onand review to the tune of the Hohenfriedberger March. Memorial Day in Berlin and with celebrations of the Fallen Soldier {Heldengedenkfeier) o n Wartburg Castle at which the DNVP's lead­ The transition to a scene that was to assume great historical sig­ ership intones a hymn to the flag: \"Ascend to the top of Ger­nificance is then surprisingly casual: \"The Reich President many's Wartburg Castle, you noble colors of the Bismarckianappoints the [Hitler] Cabinet of National Concentration.\" The cor­ Empire, you glowing flag in Black-White-Red, sacred to everyresponding pictures are as innocuous as these words: Relaxed and German heart through the millions of heroic sacrifices that havedressed in civilian clothes Messrs. Hitler, Hugenberg, Goring, been made in your name! And you ascend, too, baimer that hasFrick, Papen, Krosigk et al. pose, like the presidium of a private been chosen as its flag of conquest by a powerful nationalistclub, for a group photo, with a newspaper headline fade-in movement that is determined to fight! Be [our] witness before theannouncing the \"new Hitler-Papen-Hugenberg Cabinet.\" The entire world that the German nation has awakened and that it isoccasion apparently silenced the corrunentator. Nor was Hitler setting out, loyally following the call of its dead, to fight for life,given an opportunity to say something, like Papen had done in freedom, and honor!\"Deulig-Ton-Woche N o . 2 3 of 9 June 1 9 3 2 w h e n h e h a d been n o m i ­nated Reich Chancellor. The film treats as self-evident that Hugen­ Deulig-Ton-Woche No. 62 (passed b y censor on 8 M a r c h 1933):berg and Papen hold leading positions in the Hitler government. This newsreel similarly moves in the wake of the German Nation­Nor does the newsreel make much of the thousands of Storm alists and gives more sympathetic coverage to the mass parades ofTroopers and SS men who formed an endless torch parade the Stahlhelm than to those of the Nazis: \"In the d a y s prior to thethrough Berlin when Hitler's seizure of power became known. [Reichstag] elections, SA and SS formations held numerous pro­This historic torch parade that was used in many later documen­ paganda marches. On the afternoon of election Sunday [5 March],taries is accompanied by a \"balanced\" c o m m e n t a r y that is 26,000 Stahlhelmers marched through the Brandenburg Gate, sur­unlikely to have pleased Goebbels: \"After the news became rounded by popular jubilation.\" Looking at these columns, Hein­k n o w n , m e m b e r s of the Stahlhelm [veterans association] as well as rich Mann, the leftist author and brother of Thomas, demanded:SA and SS formations gathered for an enormous torch parade that \"The time has come for real human beings to become visiblelasted for hours.\" Prussian marching music and the national behind and beside all these parades. The actual labor, the realanthem, but no Nazi songs, accompany the demonstrators on this deprivation, attitudes toward life, and the direction of popularwinter evening. Peter B u c h e r has noted that the inscription \"Der moods that prevail in reality—all this ought to be expressed inStahhelm\" on one of the flags that h a d been filmed in m o r e favor­ pictures. It is not just in newsreels that this is called for....\"'^'able daylight was probably edited into the newsreel after the However, the newsreels did not take heed of the truth.e v e n t . T h e answer to the question of what Goebbels's propa­gandists might have done with this event may be found in Riefen­ M e a n w h i l e , Emelka-Tonwoche No. 14 of 14 April 1 9 3 3 d e v o t e dstahl's Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933). In this m o d e l of a seven and a half minutes to the \"Day of Potsdam\" when Hin­ denburg and Hitler appeared with many other right-wing digni­ taries for a memorial service in the town just outside Berlin

200 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 201which symbolized the old monarchical Germany. But most of this the foot of the Bismarck Monument in the Müggel Mountains nearnewsreel is devoted to entertainment, the more so since the pro­ Berlin, demanding \"Back to Bismarck.\" In his speech at this jointducers could not resist including, in two places, the usual non­ patriotic celebration, Goebbels extols the rally as a \"miraculoussense reserved for April Fools Day. And yet authenticity is not sign of national revival.\"taken literally. There is a sentimental scene showing deer in thepark of Nymphenburg Palace being fed in deep snow. In the H u g e n b e r g ' s Ton-Woche is likely to h a v e irritated its s y m p a ­meantime, it had been thawing for a month, and the pictures had thizers for the first time when it reproduced the blaring sounds ofthus been deprived of their asserted topicality.'*\" the N a z i song \"Die Straße frei den braunen Bataillonen\" (Clear the Streets for the Brown Battalions). From the mid-1930s, stylistic ele­ The Potsdam report remains silent about an important \"omis­ m e n t s taken from the A m e r i c a n n e w s m a g a z i n e The March of Timesion\" in the story, not only by its one-sided selection of pictures, but temporarily exerted an influence on German newsreel production.also by its failure to comment on important facts. Thus, it neglects tomention that Hitler had originally refused to attend the service. Nor Deulig-Ton-Woche No. 279 (passed b y censor on 4 M a y 1937):is reference made to the absence of the Social Democratic Reichstag The Führer is introduced to fifty of the \"best youth workers ofdeputies, who—^in the words of one SPD deputy—did not wish to be Germany.\" Trivia are offered between this introductory sequencethe physicians at the bedside of hospitalized capitalism. If w e count and further adorations of the Nazi leadership: a pedigree dogthe number of pictures of Hindenburg in comparison with Hitler, we show in Munich; record pole vaulting in Los Angeles; a steeple­m a y also gauge how little this newsreel had been poisoned by chase in Wimbledon.Goebbels's propaganda and exuded a conservative spirit instead:Hindenburg appears twenty times as against Hitler's ten. Moreover, Referring to the 1936 Four-Year Plan, the commentatorHitler is shown in various marginal situations. The legendary shot of proudly reports that such a plan had first been presented \"shortlythe sjmibolic handshake between Hindenburg and Hitler was cele­ after the seizure of power.\" Goebbels had his speech marking thebrated in papers and broadcasts at the time as sealing the alliance occasion enriched with closeups to provide visual support forbetween the old Prussiandom and the yoimg Nazi Movement. what is being proclaimed as \"a show of German efficiency.\" Robert Ley's \"Strength through Joy\" organization is presented Deulig-Ton-Woche No. 66 (passed b y c e n s o r on 5 April 1933): during the 1 May festivities. Cheerful spectators are shown in anThough Deulig was still privately owned at this point, this news- overcrowded stadium. Reich Youth Leader Baldur von Schirachreel had clearly begim to take sides after the Ministry for Popular reports to his Führer the opening of \"the largest youth rally in theEnlightenment and P r o p a g a n d a w a s established on 11 M a r c h 1933, world.\" Emil Jannings receives an award from Goebbels for hisand chicaneries were to be expected. There is a brief review of Pope title role in the film Der Herrscher (The Ruler). Friedrich Bethge isPius XI at the opening of the \"Holy Year\" of 1933, next to reports on given a book prize.an earthquake in far-away Japan and on the boat race betweenOxford and Cambridge. The newsreel homes in rather casually on W h e n Hitler, in addressing the G e r m a n youth, discovers \"joi dethe new rulers of Germany: \"Daughters of the Spreewald region vivre in their faces,\" the c a m e r a provides reinforcement by show­[near Berlin] pay their respects to the Führer,\" the text announces. ing blue-eyed faces. His charisma is supported by visual effects.The boycott of Jewish shops is highlighted from a Nazi perspec­ Hitler's enlarged figure is skillfully faded over smiling young­tive. Posters scream the slogan \"Germans defend yourselves! Do sters. Apart from a nebulous irrationalism and references to thenot buy from Jews!\" and the corrunentator adds: \"Despite the boy­ \"resurrection of the German people\" the Führer's speech does notcott, law and order in Berlin.\" The fade-over shows orthodox Jews offer anything special. Nevertheless, his words are synchronizedin the United States to suggest the \"progress\" that the Nazis have with the response of the masses, whose broad consent stems moreintroduced in this respect in Germany. from grandiose emotions than from intellectual insight. The pon­ derous concluding metaphor is provided by the May Tree, a birch A longer sequence is devoted to the DNVP. Together with other that is taken from a tilted angle.national associations and delegations of the right-wing NationalUnion of Student Governments, its members are seen standing at Meanwhile, Ufa's Wochenschau w a s calling the tune. Being the instrument of the Party and the mouthpiece of partisanship, it showed reality only with the intention of interpreting the facts

2021 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 203and of proclaiming Nazi ideology. Objective meaning was wrapped Cologne—all without a word of explanation. The cameramen whoin propagandistic commentary. Thus, Hans-Joachim Giese were also taken to Cologne with their equipment had a similardemanded that the newsreel be given a strictly partisan role as a experience. It was only in Cologne that they were told that Ger­carrier of ideology: man troops were on the march. This method was extremely suc­ cessful: the event could be fully captured on film and then During the years of struggle [prior to 1933] the NSDAP was able to transformed into an impressive journalistic feat. use film only in a limited way. Now after the seizure of power, how­ ever, it consciously moved to put it in the service of one single great The same year saw the establishment of a \"War Corresponden:^ idea, the idea of the people's state, and to imprint upon it the char­ and Propaganda Unit.\" The decision unleashed a bitter feud acteristics of its Weltanschauung. In clear recognition of its suitability between Wehrmacht and Propaganda Ministry over who was in as a means of political leadership, it was above all the newsreel that charge and who would assume supreme conunand over the sys­ was now geared to its actual journalistic task. The noncommittal t e m of w a r reporting in times of war. pictorial news of the previous years was replaced by film reporting that was guided, in the first place, by state-political, cultural-politi­ Goebbels won an ephemeral victory on this point. When at cal and popular-pedagogical considerations. This approach pro­ maneuver time \"total chaos\" broke loose among the civilian vides valuable educational reconstruction work without the reporters, the Wehrmacht had sufficientiy strong arguments on its individual viewer becoming conscious of it. Following the spiritual side to take charge of \"war reporting.\" On 3 May 1938, the Reich renovation of film, the German newsreel has to some extent already War Ministry in its \"Guidelines for the Cooperation between the succeeded in exemplary fashion to commuiucate and deepen the Armed Forces and the Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment insight among all strata and circles of the population within and a n d P r o p a g a n d a in Respect of W a r P r o p a g a n d a \" firmly insisted outside the borders of the Reich just how vital and concerned with that a military way of reporting be instituted through propa­ the preservation of the state {staatserhaltend) are the measures that ganda companies. the leadership has taken, and just how many fruits they can bear for the present and the future.^*^ Even before this date, newsreel reporters were mandated to wear uniforms. Apparently, the black shirts of the Italian reporters In order to give events as much authenticity as possible, the during Mussolini's visit in 1937 had left a deep impression. Longnewsreel confined itself to a strictly realistic reproduction. How­ before Hitler, Mussolini had called propaganda \"the best weaponever incredible it m a y sound, the Nazi newsreel, its role as the pri­ in the struggle for interests.\" However, the Propaganda Ministrymary media instrument notwithstanding, hardly ever staged an failed to convince the Wehrmacht that German war reporters wearevent; instead virtually all pictures were taken from reality. b r o w n shirts or even SA uniforms. It w a s finally agreed to intro­ duce a \"pike-blue\" uniform—so to speak, a \"neutral\" color. It was It was only during the second stage that reality came to be this uniform that is said to have made a big impression on the Ital­manipulated. Thus, all elements of reality that were detrimental to ian population when Hitler visited Rome in the spring of 1938.the needs of the hour were deleted without further ado. The restthat was useful to the line of argument was given a suggestive Ufa-Tonwoche No. 3 5 5 of 2 3 June 1 9 3 7 is a telling e x a m p l e ofcommentary. It provided the intended propagandistic effect in how clumsily Goebbels's newsreels tried to produce in the mindorder \"to empower and to educate a nation to promote its vital of \"the viewer connections between ideas by the montage of top­claims,\" as Goebbels put it. ics.\" J o h a n n e s E c k a r d t , w r i t i n g enthusiastically in 1 9 3 8 in Der deutsche Film, h a d this to say: The remilitarization of the Rhineland by German troops on 27March 1936 offers an example of how propaganda could be pre­ If the newsreel puts images of the German Labor Service right nextsented very effectively and in general staff fashion. This event was to gripping scenes from the Spanish Civil War, then almost everyturned into a perfect show. According to eyewitness reports, jour­ viewer will connect in his mind the two picture complexes, which asnalists and photographers were asked to come to the Propaganda such have nothing to do with one another. However, in this way theMinistry on the previous day. There they were kept waiting for reproduction becomes a symbol. It grows beyond its technical pre­h o u r s until they w e r e taken b y b u s to the airport a n d flown to conditions and completion and comes to be shaped in the realm of ideas—a realm in which we can actually speak of artistic creation.'''^

1204 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 205 In October 1938 another milestone in the triumphant rise of the Olympic ski jump in Garmisch-Partenkirchen evidently recog-Nazi newsreel had been reached: Goebbels issued a decree man­ ruzes only winners from Germany or the Scandinavian countries.dating movie theaters to show his newsreels. He also stoppedolder newsreels from being available at a reduced price. This Some 60 percent of newsreel No. 4 3 9 / 1 9 3 9 is devoted to themeant that all cinemas now screened the most up-to-date news. sixth anniversary of Hitler's seizure of power. Many swastika flags decorate the Reichstag building for the occasion. Hitier's infamous In August/September 1938 a first training course was held to speech against the Jews serves as a signal for a broader anti-Semiticeducate officers about the tasks of propaganda in case of war. Pro­ campaign: \"If international finance Jewry succeeds ... this will bem o t i o n of the willingness to serve (Wehrfreudigkeit), preservation the end of Jewry\" as a whole. Compliantly, Goring, in his capacityof the will to fight (Wehrwilligkeit), raising the p r e p a r e d n e s s to as Reichstag President, reinforces Hitler's apocalyptic words. Fromm a k e sacrifices (Opferbereitschafl), preservation of law a n d o r d e r the midst of an endless torch parade, the swastika at the center of aamong the indigenous population, and military camouflage— large flag is faded in until it fills the whole frame. This euphoricthese were just some of the objectives that one hoped to achieve scene is designed to be experienced in the cinema as if the viewerwith the help of war reporting. had been present at the meeting. The noise level from the crowds that cheer Hitler and Goring reaches hurricane force. What this Increasingly, Germany's preparations for war were reflected in newsreel has in c o m m o n with so m a n y other Nazi Wochenschauen isthe creation of an effective contingent of war reporters. Numerous above all the logic of disjointedness. The synthesis of its parts ispropaganda companies were built up in the summer and fall of purely technical. The weakness of its dramaturgical scaffolding is1938. In the winter of 1938/39 General Wilhelm Keitel, the chief of papered over by the predoiiünance of the commentary.the Armed Forces High Command (OKW), and Joseph Goebbelssigned an \"Agreement Concerning the Execution of Propaganda Hitler's Fiftieth Birthday in Berlinin Wartime.\" The first sentence of this document pinpointed theimportance that propaganda was given within the overall con­ The essence of propaganda consists in the concept of winning men overception of Nazi warfare: \"In its essential points the propaganda to an idea, an idea that is so gripping and so vivid that in the end theywar will be recognized as a means of warfare that has equal status fall prey to it and find it impossible to emancipate themselves from it.next to the military war.\" Up to the summer of 1939, the navy andair force also had propaganda companies attached to them. Both Joseph Goebbelsthe War Ministry and the Propaganda Ministry were prepared forthe coming conflict. Ufa-Tonwoche No. 451/1939 (passed by censor on 2 5 April 1939): The above quotation from Goebbels seems to have been the guid­ Ultimately, Goebbels agreed to a compromise by which all ing principle for the producers of this particular newsreel, with itsquestions that \"jointly concern politics and the conduct of war emotional dramaturgy celebrating Hitler's fiftieth birthdaya n d t h a t m i g h t h a v e a n influence on s t r a t e g y (Gestaltung der around the world. Conceptually, the film has three main con­Kriegsführung)\" w o u l d be resolved in cooperation with the O K W . stituencies in mind: the Party faithful to gain self-assurance; the still wavering German population so that it would fall prey to the Ufa-Tonwoche No. 439/1939 (passed b y c e n s o r on 1 F e b r u a r y \"great idea;\" and finally foreign governments that were to be1939): The introductory sequence celebrates Franco's occupation of impressed by the display of military power. Whatever Hitler'sBarcelona. \"Women and old men are the victims of the Bolshevik and Goebbels's speeches and whatever the words of these politi­reign of terror\" and are said to be \"fleeing toward France.\" As an cal frauds that exuded barbarism were unable to transmit waseyewitness reported during a symposium at Bar Ilan University in p r o v i d e d by this film. It w a s a concentrate of the n e w mentalityIsrael in 1986, these victims were, in effect, fleeing the fascists. Pic­ whose prejudicial power was carried into the population moretures of air raid exercises in Paris are supposed to legitimate black­ impressively than by all other media taken together. This was sup­out exercises in Germany—seven months before the outbreak of posed to be the \"rise of the people's will\" through the selectivewar. There follow police athletics in the Berlin Sportpalast with ap a r a m i l i t a r y p r o g r a m : H i m m l e r a d m i r e s d a r i n g saltoes a c r o s spolice horses, etc. Finally, the cameraman who is assigned to the

206 i The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 207 1portrayal of a jubilant population. Newsreel No. 451 is a masterful and sounds of the newsreel remain restrained. The commentarydirectory for this kind of propaganda. leaves it to the music to provide the sense of elation. The parade begins after Hitler has assumed the appropriate position under With two hundred copies distributed on 25 April 1939, No. 451 the canopy on the platform. The \"largest parade of the Thirdwas shown at 40 percent of all German cinemas up to the middle of Reich\" takes four and a half hours. There are many aerial photosJune. This means that some forty million people became partici­ of the parade grounds and of the iconographic expressions of mil­pants in Hitler's cinematographic birthday party, i.e., more than itary power that look like toys from above. All services goose-stephalf of the German population of seventy million. That the rather past Hitler. Hitler's physical stairüna is shown as he salutes thelinear dramaturgy did not miss a single important phase in the fes­ troops with his arm either stretched out or half raised. Foreigntivities was due to the rare fact that the script had been meticu­ military attaches and the diplomatic corps witness this demon­lously prepared and had been synchronized, with great logistical stration of power, \"astonished\" or dumbfounded. Hitler hadprecision, with the tightly organized birthday schedule. The camera given his Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop the followingcrews used up about seven miles of film of which a mere 1,500 feet mandate: \"I ask you to invite a number of foreign guests to mywere ultimately deemed suitable for inclusion in the final version.'*' fiftieth birthday, among them as many cowardly civilians andSince it had become more and more difficult to deploy Hitler as the democrats as possible before whom I shall parade the most mod­magnet of popular sympathies, the newsreel did not contain a sin­ e m of all armed forces [in the world].\"'**gle closeup of him. Only photogenic material was selected for masspropaganda purposes. In order not to imdermine the image of a Time and again faces are shown from among the crowd thatgenius and hj^notic figure that had been so painstakingly built up look as if they have abandoned themselves to this historicover the years. Hitler was shown without imperious gesturing and moment, a technique clearly designed to purvey affective enthu­vmcontroUed facial expressions. Indeed, on his great day he did not siasm. The camera's angle of vision is not that of the participants;utter a single word in front of the camera. it is the perspective from above. The static pictures are edited to give the impression of dynamic movement. Repetitions hardly The prelude to the pompous show starts on the eve of Hitler's make the montage more tolerable. The finale culminates in thebirthday. To the sounds of festive music by Wagner, Berlin's inevitable ritual when the flags are lowered as the nationalSiegessäule (Victory C o l u m n ) is c a p t u r e d on film. There then fol­ a n t h e m is intoned: \"Deutschland, Deutschland über alles in der Weltlows a long glance at the avenue that runs from west to east ...\" At this point content is dictating form.through the Zoological Garden, which comes to form the centralaxis of the newsreel. This provides a foretaste of the great parade The newsreel contains the following texts: \"Preparations for thethat has been planned as a major historic event. For a few sec­ Führer's fiftieth birthday/Thanks and congratulations of theonds, the tyranny behind the fagade shows its true face. Porten­ entire nation belong to the creator of the Greater Germantously, the camera shows the turning of the calendar page from 19 Reich/Presents are being delivered to the Reich chancellery all theto 20 April 1939. time from all regions of the Reich and from all strata of the popu­ lation/ Guests arrive in Berlin from all over the w o r l d / O n the eve The bright sun celebrates Hitler's birthday; it is \"Führer of the birthday, Albert Speer, the Inspector General for the Recon­weather.\" T h e b a n d of Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler, his b o d y g u a r d struction of the Reich Capital, opens the East-West Avenue withcontingent, has the honor of opening the event. Next to various the Führer/The remodeled Victory Column sends a welcomeNazi bigwigs, only Josef Tiso and Emil Hacha, respectively the from the m i d d l e of the grosser Stern r o t a r y / O n the m o m i n g of theSlovak puppet minister president and puppet president of the birthday, the serenade by the Leibstandarte opens the defile of theReich Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia conquered by Hitler well-wishers/The Slovak minister president Dr. Josef Tiso, theduring March, can be seen among the prominent foreign guests. president of the Reich Protectorate Bohenüa and Moravia, EmilGoebbels's children, all dressed in angel white, remain near Hitler Hacha, and Reich Protector Freiherr von Neurath (Neurath getsreflecting decorative irmocence so that some of their affection may into the black l i m o u s i n e before foreign g u e s t H a c h a ) / T r o o p sfall on the Führer. The convoy of Mercedes cars begins to move assemble for the march-past/The largest military parade of thethrough the enthusiastic crowds of the Reich capital. The words

208 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 209Third Reich begins/For four and a half hours formations from all Gerd Albrecht has quantified the various elements of the news- reel and has calculated that 64 percent of the newsreel's runningthe services march past their supreme commander/Paratroop­ time is devoted to depicting the program's military aspects. The treatment of the official ceremonies and activities that involve thee r s / A m o t o r i z e d infantry d i v i s i o n / A tank c o n t i n g e n t o n trail­ c r o w d s m a k e u p 3 6 percent. Some 81 percent of the film's total angles deal with military sequences; meanwhile, some 75 percenters/\"Fahnenbataillon—Halt!\" There is no expectation that the of the nonmilitary sequences represent closeups and blowups. W h a t is of interest in an analysis of Nazi p r o p a g a n d a films in gen­moviegoers make their own differentiating, intellectual contribu­ eral is to see how far they were made up of symbols that were intended to impress.tion to the consumption of this film. In the first part, s o m e thirty-five to fifty angles c o n v e y the s y m ­Since the cameras are omnipresent, commentary becomes dis­ bols of this celebration. Among these are some twenty-eight angles of the Third Reich (flags, standards, swastikas, and Führerpensable. Words w o u l d unnecessarily exert pressure on the effi­ photos) and some seven angles with historic symbols (Branden­ burg Gate, Victory Column) that cannot be deciphered by theciency of the optical language. It is only by aesthetic means that fleeting glimpse of the moviegoers. They absorb everything as cre­ ations for the higher glory of the Führer. In the second part, wethe event is raised to a festive level; the commentary has been encounter the armed forces relatively seldom, four times alto­ gether. By contrast, the SS is presented in twenty-eight angles andreduced to providing sparse information. The quality of the Nazi is clearly meant to reflect power. The population appears twenty- three times, in half of the cases as an unspecified c r o w d . W h a t isidea is not to be expressed through verbal messages, but through striking in this part is that Hitier's car is shown in connection with the Wehrmacht on nineteen occasions, but only nine times in theits carriers—as a filmic message. The newsreel about Hitler's context of the spectators. With reference to the fourth part, Albrecht reminds us that although cameras had been put up at allbirthday, therefore, represents a demonstration of how film came important points so that it was unnecessary to use a telephoto lens, such a lens is nevertheless deployed whenever the mass ofto be instrumentalized by Nazi propaganda to create a reality of parading soldiers was to be \"compressed\" in order thus to weld them into \"a barely dissoluble unit.\" Albrecht counted no moreits own in the public consciousness. than seven angles in the epilogue that return to the same places as in the second part. Here we should note the quick shifts in per­U n d e r the heading \"Parade als Paradestück\" (\"Model P a r a d e \" ) , spective that are achieved by the tilt of the camera.G. Sante published an instructive report on how the twelve cam­ A p a r t from Hitier, it is the flag that figures as a m y t h in this newsreel. When Hitier assumes his seat, the Führer standard iseramen who had been sent out to document the events of 20 April solemnly hoisted. A specially constituted flag battalion keeps s w i n g i n g its e n o r m o u s n u m b e r of flags in w a v e s all across the1939 went about their work. Apart from describing the planning avenue, until it finally lowers the consecrated cloths respectfully a n d to the tune of the national a n t h e m before the Führer. In a finalof the program in general staff fashion and its capture on film, his a n d striking sequence, the flag ritual disappears behind a fade- over showing boys and girls of the youth organizations who lookpiece also offers a reliable impression of the mood, cast in the lan­ up to something without the object of their pious gaze being immediately evident. Only the next angle shows that it is noneguage of the period. Take, for example, how cameraman No. 2 fol­lowed his instructions:Move along the troop lineup. Capturing of the entire imposingparade lineup. These shots were among the best. The cameramansearched for and foimd new angles not by focusing his cameradirectly on the Führer, but by constantly leaving rows of soldiersbetween himself and the Führer's car. He thus obtained a completepanorama that looked both purposeful and sensible. We may there­fore begin to mention at this point what, as the objective, pervadedthe entire creation of the newsreel: [it was to be] a picture that inequal measure satisfied and gripped eyes and emotions. The shooting of the parade alone used up some thirty thousandfeet of film, and the cameramen left nothing untried that \"couldcontribute to the augmentation of the impact\": \"The event con­tained a sufficient dynamism within itself; and still the attemptw a s made to reinforce it by using different focal distances. Thecameras moved from the panorama to the closeup. From normaldistance to reflect natural size they zoomed in on a contingent ofsoldiers and sometimes literally almost moved into their midst.\"'*^

210; The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 211other thari Adolf Hitler. He stands high above them on a balcony. enthusiasm became almost boundless. The German troops thatIt was with this metaphor that the film symbolizes the byzantine invaded. Poland on 1 September 1939 v/ere accompanied by half apower relations that obtained in the Third Reich. dozen propaganda companies. They gave the public a gripping image of the \"lightning victories\" on the Polish battlefields that Newsreel No. 451 aims to be a hymn to Hitler's greatness, but were \"true to reality.\"it was also supposed to be an oratorio, created on the occasion ofhis fiftieth birthday, to the idea and reality of the Greater German When on 1 February 1939 Hippler was made director of theReich and to the unity of the new nation. The end product faith­ \"German Newsreel Center within the Ministry for Popularfully illustrates the advice that Ludwig Heyde gave in his booklet Enlightenment a n d P r o p a g a n d a , \" he also seized hold of DeutscheFilm im Dienste der Führung (Film in the Service of the L e a d e r s h i p ) , Wochenschau a s a p r o p a g a n d a i n s t r u m e n t . This C e n t e r w a s inpublished in Dresden in 1943: \"The newsreel in particular is the charge of \"the political and overall dramaturgical shape of theproper place of propaganda work in order to elucidate the world newsreels\" and, in conjunction with the newsreel directors,of the Führer for all Volksgenossen a n d to m a k e tangible his essence decided on individual commissions.'**as the embodiment of the all-German existence\"—as a fermentingmix of emotions. Hans-Joachim Giese, the Nazi analyst of the German newsreel in his book Die Film-Wochenschau im Dienste der Politik, formulatedThe German Newsreel During World War II in timely fashion for the begirming of the war the axiom that \"the newsreel was particularly suited for the political-spiritual direc­ Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from exhaustion while tion and influencing of the public,\" even if Nazi propaganda had building an anti-tank ditch is of interest to me only in the sense that been tacitly guided by this axiom ever since 1933. Goebbels siirü- the ditch will be completed for Germany.... If someone comes along larly had made a demand from the start that he imposed only and says: \"I cannot build the ditch with children or those women; later, on 15 February 1941, during the third war year: \"Film has to that's inhuman for it will kill them\"—my reply is: \"You are a mur­ fulfill a state-political function today. It is a means of educating the derer of your own kith and kin; for if the anti-tank ditch is not built, people. This means must be in the hands of the political leader­ German soldiers are going to die and they are sons of German moth­ ship, and it is irrelevant whether this is done openly or covertly.\" ers. That's our blood.\" The Nazi newsreel gave an impression of facticity that was From a speech by Heinrich Himmler at unaccountable. It mesmerized viewers and led them to believe an SS-Gruppenführer meeting that the film was taken directly at the front line and under life- in Posen on 4 October 1943 threatening conditions. Accordingly, Kurt Hubert, the director of Tobis, confirmed in the fall of 1940 that the cameramen were sol­The \"great era\" of the German newsreel started with the begin­ diers who fully lived up to their soldierly duties. They operatedning of the war. U p to the outbreak of war there had still been four from the most advanced positions, which, he added, \"explainsdifferent companies: Ufa-Tonwoche, Deulig-Ton-Woche, Tobis, a n d the realism that we show in our films.\" Heinrich Roellenbleg, the20th Century Fox. This soon changed. For a few months, a coordi­ w a r t i m e director of Deutsche Wochenschau, characterized P r o p a ­nated newsreel was shown with different credits; but_from 21 ganda Company (PK) reports as a weapon. It was said to be aN o v e m b e r 1 9 4 0 Deutsche Wochenschau b e c a m e the only one that means of \"modem government that existed right next to the for­w a s being produced. N o w it paid off that the public had been kept mations of the Wehrmacht in order to make its contribution to thekinofreudig, as Goebbels h a d h o p e d w h e n h e administered film final outcome\" of the war.'*'' Members of the PK were not onlypropaganda merely in cautious doses. trained in the use of weapons, but in emergencies could also be deployed at the front. Thus, a PK reporter in the air force might The Nazi propaganda machine operated as plarmed from the occasionally have to operate a bomber's rear machine gun; othersfirst day of the war. The techniques that had been tested during fought in the thicket of the battle. Up to October 1943, more thanthe march into the Rhineland in 1936 were now perfected as war a thousand of these men had fallen, were reported missing, or had been mutilated.

212; The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 213 Nazi literature on the subject likes to sing the praises of the Production figures confirm this picture of increased popularity.courageous correspondents who were prepared to face death. It Before the war some 500 copies were made of each newsreel film.was in this way that their pictures and reports were imbued with In 1943, if Hippler is to be believed, it was 2,400. Whereas no morethe notion that being present and facing mortal danger had some­ t h a n about 3,000 feet of film w e r e taken per w e e k before the war,thing heroic about it: after 1 9 3 9 the figure rose to 150,000 feet per week. Again according to Hippler, a total of 4 0 million feet of film w a s used for the p r e w a r Stemming from the traditional Aktualitätenschau, the newsreel has p r o d u c t i o n of newsreels; at the height of the w a r the figure w a s evolved into a imique document of the age. Only its [Nazi] bias around 300 million. With the amount of material exploding and endowed its tightly edited sequences with an idea, an objective, quantity becoming more important than quality, the average pre­ and a style of its own. It reached its high point in the German war war length of 10 minutes was extended to 20 to 30 minutes during newsreels. The extreme exertions of the men in our Film Propa­ the war. During the period when it was still in a position to cele­ ganda Companies frequently created unique documents of manly brate victories, the propagandistic quality of the German war courage in which the boimdary between life and death was being newsreel was obviously higher than that of the Allies' offerings. transgressed.'** T h u s , t h e Manchester Guardian w r o t e the following flattering w o r d s : \"We s a w t w o G e r m a n w a r films next to w h i c h even the To highlight the heroism of the PK reporters, the credits marked best British newsreels that have been shown until now looked likewith a cross the names of those who had been killed in action. In immature schoolboy pieces. British newsreels compare with Ger­his Das eherne Herz Goebbels, writing in 1 9 4 3 , attributed the suc­ m a n ones like lukewarm water to a stiff whisky.\"'^'cess of the newsreel exclusively to the PK men, adding explicitlythat m a n y of them gave their life in service to the German nation: Accordingly, the number of copies rose from 800 to 2,000 for\"Here the modern way of conducting a war finds its highest man­ domestic distribution, while the number distributed abroadifestation with which the amateurish propaganda of the enemy increased from 30 to 1,000, dubbed in 15 different languages. Apowers cannot even begin to compete.\"'*' Goebbels was wrong. newspaper article, published in June 1941, had this to say about theThe first cameraman who was killed in action was a Frenchman. J. subject: \"The foreign edition of the newsreel is sent to all countriesA. Dupre fell in 1916 near Verdun during a German artillery bar­ around the globe, including North and South America, and israge. F o u r G e r m a n c a m e r a m e n m e t their death w h e n filming on flown there from Lisbon. W e e x c h a n g e newsreels with Russia. It isthe Somme. The number of Soviet newsreel reporters killed on the particularly widely seen in Japan. In Europe, the German warGerman front was particularly high during World War II. Maria newsreel has editorial offices in Vienna, Paris, Madrid, Brussels,Slavinskaya c o m m e m o r a t e d their w o r k in her d o c u m e n t a r y Fron- The Hague, Copenhagen, Oslo, Warsaw, Pressburg, and Zürich.\"tovoi Kinooperator ( C a m e r a m a n at the Front, 1 9 4 6 ) with material b y Rudolf Oertel summarized the situation as follows:Vladinur Sushinskij, who was killed near Breslau toward the endof the war. As the Russian director Esther Shub noted, \"the cam­ During the Polish campaign and during our victories in the West,eraman is the film's main hero.\"'^\" millions of people stood in line outside movie theaters not because of the feature films, but because of the newsreels [they wanted to The determination of the Nazi leadership and the combat effec­ see]. This demonstrates how enormously important film hastiveness of the Wehrmacht that the German newsreels suggested become as a report on contemporary events.'^^or demonstrated continued to leave the impression of armyadvances even at a time when it had long begun to beat the retreat. The German newsreels that were circulated abroad had anThe statistics show how far the newsreel, even before its central­ exclusively propagandistic mission: the visual and verbal argu­ization within the Goebbels Ministry, was able to strike a respon­ ments that had been turned into a National Socialist iconographysive chord among the public simply by virtue of the suggestive were designed to generate sympathy among neutral govern­power of its pictures from the Polish campaign. According to ments. Hitler wanted to secure this sympathy in order to buttressGiese, newsreel reporting pushed up cinema attendance by 90 his plans psychologically and to be able to pursue his conquestspercent in June 1940 as compared to June 1939. without critical reactions from abroad.

214'; The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 215.: As to the territories that the Wehrmacht and A r m e d SS had Presented in segments 1 and 7, they are designed to create a pro­occupied, newsreels were supposed to contribute to paralyzing totypical Pole represented as a collective homunculus. The filmresistance efforts. They tried to promote German confidence in the speaks of a \"Polish murder gang\" that had killed such loyal ethnicfinal victory of Nazism and to stifle partisan activities as well as Germans as the Storm Trooper Josef Wessel, who was shot in theorganized underground work. What Hitler said with regard to back. Segments 9, 10, and 12 suggest to the German moviegoerGermany in 1937 applied even more so to occupied Europe: \"I that Britain, in fact, is the main enemy, the next threat to the nationhave no use for opposition. That is w h y I have built concentration that must be countered in time with anti-air raid preparations,camps. I could have done all this through the courts; but for me blackout exercises, and munitions production. Hitler Youths arethis takes too long.\" seen sandbagging the Pergamon Freeze in Berlin to protect it against bombs. The newsreel illustrates the tactical interaction As early as the summer of 1939, the German population had between armaments and enemy actions.been prepared through newsreel reports that a violent solution tothe conflict with Poland w a s imminent. Thus, Ufa-Tonwoche No. Ufa-Tonwoche No. 472/39 (passed b y c e n s o r on 2 0 S e p t e m b e r468 (passed b y censor on 2 3 A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 ) offered a tendentious 1939): When this newsreel was given its first screening. Hitler and\"retrospective o n P o l a n d a n d D a n z i g since W o r l d W a r I\" a n d Stalin had agreed on the demarcation line between Germany andwished Foreign Minister Ribbentrop farewell on his trip to the Soviet Union which carved up Poland. Remnants of the PolishM o s c o w . Ufa-Tonwoche No. 469 (passed b y censor on 3 0 A u g u s t army are seen \"crawling from their hideouts\" near Gdingen. As the1939), the last peacetime newsreel, informs the Germans about the commentator says sneeringly, after such \"scenes of chaos ... secu­signing by Ribbentrop of the Nazi-Soviet Pact that sealed Poland's rity and order returned with the German soldiers.\" Confidencefate. Reports about \"the deprivations of Germans who had fled radiates from another sentence, according to which \"all forces inPoland\" are given a prominent place, accompanied by a commen­ the homeland rally to fight the defensive struggle.\" This is followedtary that indirectly anticipated the invasion of Poland: \"A glance by idyllic sequences with blond maidens gathering in hay andat these refugees shows what terrible things they have experi­ w o m e n working for the Red Cross, underlined by lyrical tunes:enced and what they had to go through before they chose the final \"Women replace their husbands and contribute energetically.\" Thisway out ... the escape across the border.\" The refugees who are is the new moral imperative. Neat female gymnasts of thebeing heroicized in these pictures are then shown the newsreel \"Strength Through Joy\" organization do a display in front of men t h a t is d e d i c a t e d to t h e m in their c a m p . Film-Kurier c a r r i e d a woimded in the Polish campaign. Everything is going perfectly in report on what happened next: Hitler's war: supply trains carry munitions to the eastern front; the field bakery is busy baking bread. A French fighter pilot who has Warmest sympathies are being extended to our German brothers been shot d o w n is buried \"in chivalric fashion\" and with full mili­ and sisters. Almost all women pulled out their handkerchiefs; no tary honors: whoever fights honorably, xmlike the Poles, will also one was ashamed of their tears. The men sit upright, their faces be buried honorably in foreign soil. A captured British officer \"vol­ have hardened and show determination. Ten minutes of news- unteers\" that he is being well treated, has good accommodation, reel—an experience that will never go away.'^' and is fed well: he has \"no complaints.\" Meanwhile, Polish prison­ ers of war are given an unsympathetic portrayal and are thrown Ufa-Tonwoche No. 470/37 ( p a s s e d b y c e n s o r o n 7 S e p t e m b e r together as negative prototypes of \"inferior\" Slavs. After having 1939): The first wartime newsreel was released a mere six days been put behind barbed wire, \"the expelled ethnic Germans are after the beginning of the German attack on Poland. Many combat able to return to their villages.\" Nor is the home front spared some scenes and the hate-filled leader were later incorporated into horrifying pictures: \"This man had his eyes gouged; this woman Feldzug in Polen ( C a m p a i g n in Poland, 1940). The 18-nünute Ufa- had her face mutilated; this man had his right hand pierced\"—of Tonwoche No. 470 is divided into seventeen segments. W i t h the course by Polish \"subhumans.\" Jews with shovels are shown in the exception of clips from Hitler's speech before the Reichstag on 1 Warsaw ghetto: \"For the first time in their life they are forced to September, it uses almost exclusively material taken during the work.\" This scene w a s later edited into Hippler's Der ewige Jude. \"lightning campaign\" or from conquered Polish \"enemy pictures.\"

216 i The Triumph of Propagai\da Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 217 i Hitler flies over the front in a Ju-52 airplane. Back on earth, he taken up arms against German vital rights in a threatening man­is seen affably eating some soup served from a field kitchen: \"The ner, German troops marched across the German-Polish border onFührer stays with his soldiers.\" Goring and Walther von Brau- 1 September 1939.\"chitsch, the A r m y Commander in Chief, report to him at head­quarters on the military situation. Next, Hitler inspects the town Since the film was unable to provide realistic pictures toof Lodz \"shortly after its conquest.\" This is how the folks back demonstrate the alleged threat—except for the burning hut thath o m e like t o see the Führer: \"Hitler and his soldiers—a community has been mentioned—Hippler relied on the persuasive power of abonded together in life and death.\" faded-in map. On it, Polish expansionist designs toward Ger­ many's eastern provinces can be seen in the shape of giant tenta­ Finally, on 19 July 1940 Hitler said with reference to Poland: cles. In this way, Hippler enables the viewer to witness the work of the general staff and its ingenuity. Having been incited to become ... One of the creations of the Versailles diktat that was very remote accomplices to these policies, the population, it is hoped, will give from reality; politically and militarily an ii\flated bugaboo; behaves support to its leaders. As to the border lines that appear on the offensively toward a state for months and tfireatens to knock it out, map, the commentator offers a retrospective justification for Ger­ to make mincemeat of the German armies, to move the frontier to many's alleged need to conduct a preventive war against Poland: the Oder or Elbe rivers and so on.... Germany patiently watches \"Excessive annexationist aims are proclaimed [by the Poles].\" The this behavior for months, although it would have required no more latter \"have visions of the Polish frontier nmning along the Oder than a single movement of the arm to beat up this bubble filled river or even along the Elbe.\" with stupidity and arrogance. The panzer units that overrun Poland with the speed of aFeldzug in Polen (1940) and Feuertaufe (1940) \"lightning war\" are shown without commentary. Only euphoric music by Herbert Windt accompanies the rolling commandos forT h e 4 0 - m i n u t e report titled Feldzug in Polen ( C a m p a i g n in P o l a n d ) about ten minutes. Unencumbered by distracting words, thethat w a s compiled from several newsreels is a good example of viewer was supposed to be able to visualize the precision withtrends in propaganda at this time. Through the demagogic use of which the general staff did its work at all stages. In this way, thewords and pictures, Hippler tries to justify the invasion of Poland. German attack on Poland came to be extolled as a historicThe very much expanded newsreel movie begins with the obliga­ moment. The moviegoer on the home front was to be its witness.t o r y omissions w h e n it talks about the \"urdeutsch character of thecity of Danzig\" that the \"Polish robber state\" had gobbled up. Overjoyed by the swift victory that even Hitler had not thought\"With an ice<old mind\" the Polish government had pushed for possible, the regime compiled two full-length documentaries fromw a r in order to \"eternalize the injustice of Versailles.\" And: \"It newsreel material. Both tried to outdo each other in their overes-was Poland's task permanently to threaten Germany from the timation of the German armed forces and of the air force in par­East. It is the proclaimed objective of Britain to uphold this threat.\" ticular. After Feldzug im Polen b y the p a r t y h a c k Hippler, there followed Feuertaufe by the professional H a n s Bertram. M a n y film A single burning hut was sufficient proof for Hippler that \"the histories, even those by Kracauer and Courtarde/Cadars, erro­Poles are burning and devastating farmsteads of ethnic Germans.\" neously list both movies as one and the same.Looking from a very different perspective at the trigger that theNazis had set up to justify their invasion of Poland, Günther Feuertaufe ( 1 9 3 9 / 4 0 ) s h o w s the Führer getting out of his M e r c e ­Anders wrote after the war: \"Following the ignominious farce at des car in the small hours of 1 September 1939 to make athe Gleiwitz\" radio station in Silesia w h e r e G e r m a n agents provo­ thimderous speech to the nation broadcast over millions of Volksem­cateurs h a d been p u t in Polish uniforms to fake a Polish attack. pfänger, the cheap radio sets that the Nazis had been marketing afterHitler \"assaulted the East, razed villages and towns to the ground 1933. His infamous words signaled the catastrophic consequencesand murdered millions upon millions of people.\" The newsreel that followed: \"For the first time Poland has sent regular fightingcommentary, by contrast, reads as follows: \"After Poland had troops into our territory during the night; we've been shooting back since 5:45 a.m.! And from now on we'll retaliate bomb for bomb!\"

Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 219218 i The Triumph of Propaganda Shouts of joy flare up. When we reach the prologue of that combat scene is guided by the same hand that will grab a gunB e r t r a m ' s Feuertaufe, action follows without delay. Standing a l o n gthe runway under the machine guns of their dive bombers, pilots in another moment.\"'^^tighten their helmets. The camera revels taking in the neat techni­ Films like Feuertaufe, Feldzug in Polen a n d Sieg im Westen w a g ecal gadgets that spell death: machine guns, control stick, wheelhubs, emblems, etc. The engines are started. The aestheticism of the baffles for a second time, this time to win t h e m also with aes­war takes its disastrous course. Like swarms of locusts, one thetic means. By compressing the battle, picking some scenes andsquadron after the other climbs into the steel-blue sky, accompa­ deleting others, constructing rudimentary contexts that nevernied by the noisy war chant \"We are flying eastward!\" written by existed in reality in this density, these movies discard all that isWilhelm Stoeppler, with music by Norbert Schnitze: undesirable from a propagandistic point of view. They show \"images of horrific beauty\" instead of brutal horror pictures. The ... the password is known ... opulent display of pictures is made to overlay the true misery of Close up with the enemy! war and the legions of Germany's own fallen heroes, and in the Close up with the enemy! viewer's mind the campaign is turned into thrilling legend. Frank B o m b s for Polenlandl M a h r a u n , writing in Der deutsche Film, N o . 11, 1 9 4 0 , w e n t on to We flew to the rivers Vistula and Warthe describe its theme: \"a single dark pyramid of smoke hovering W e flew o v e r Polish land above the burning city and even higher up the overarching dome We hit it hard. of cumulus clouds glistening in the sun topped by squadrons of The enemy army o u r fighter planes unloading their lethal loads into the clouds a n d With lightnings and bombs and fire. smoke\"—until Warsaw surrendered. The moviegoer back home is drawn in emotionally; he is himself a participant in the war with­ It was not just the conduct of this lightning war and the verbal out being exposed to imminent danger. By tampering with the hurrah patriotism that Schultze's shrill music is supposed to under­ reality of the actual war, the event is divested of its tangibility (ent- line. The roaring soldiers' songs also generate an affective tension dinglicht). Thus, to m a n y w a r b e c a m e p a r t of their experience in a n that binds the emotional response to the verbal message. Thus, the aesthetically transfigured form. trivial pathos of \"Close up with the enemy!\" will have its impact on the viewers in the theaters many thousands of miles from the T h e m o v i e w a s compiled from s o m e fifty t h o u s a n d feet of d o c ­ front. To quote F r a n k M a h r a u n , they will receive the film as the umentary material and, in terms of its structure and approach, \"heroic song of a service a r m . \" Or as Völkischer Beobachter p u t it: which adopted the high ground of the victor, did not differ much \"Millions will catch fire from the g l o w of Feuertaufe.\" B e r t r a m also from the many PK reports that were to emerge from Hitler's reports his \"most unforgettable experience.\" This w a s his flight \"lightning war.\" They all confirmed from begirming to end what along the Bzura river, \"where the encircled Polish troops tried des­ Goebbels had proudly announced to the world on 19 January perately and vainly to break out and the air force rained down 1940: \"We have planned and thoroughly organized this war to the their bombs over a space of thirty square kilometers.... No one last detail.\" This w a s also true of Bertram's film, w h i c h turns the escaped alive through this fiery curtain that our pilots put u p along compilation of history into a m a s t e r p i e c e of film m o n t a g e a n d , the river banks. Wherever our air force attacks, its hits are fatal.\"'^ indeed, served as a model for this genre. As Goebbels wrote in Thus, the battle of armihilation near Kutno marked not only the Der deutsche Film: \"World history w a s written here with the help strategic but also the dramaturgical climax of the campaign. of the camera.\"i56 By making direct camera contact with the enemy, the war newsreel had developed its own martial standards; being part of In a \"Wehrmacht Order of the Day\" Hitler expressed his thanks the offensive, it had itself gone on to attack. It \"abandoned the a n d appreciation to the soldiers of the Polish c a m p a i g n for a fight noncommittal attitude of the leisurely observer and moved into that \"tells of the best of German soldierdom.\" Nor did he forget to firing range; and one senses that the camera that captures this or thank those w h o h a d fallen—^just as t w o million m e n w h o died in World War I had given their lives so that Germany might live. \"We stand together more closely than ever before and tighten our h e l m e t s u n d e r the flags t h a t fly e v e r y w h e r e in G e r m a n y w i t h

The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 221j220p r o u d joy.\"'^^ Seven P K reporters w h o participated in the m a k i n g the breathtaking continuous illustration [of the fighting] has alsoof Bertram's Feuertaufe w e r e a m o n g the fallen. yielded something of the spirit of the troops about which the war correspondents have been reporting in the press and on the radio.\" Deutsche Wochenschau No. 513/28 (passed by censor on 3 July1940): This newsreel celebrates the Führer in a retrospective on With the help of maps, the \"course of Germany's fate\" (thus thethe campaign against France. Hitler's appearance obviates the accompanying brochure) was to be made visible for all \"withneed for a general staff map. Thus, we see him \"touring the Vos- utmost brevity\" against the background of Hitler's strategic vision.ges Mountains,\" \"in the midst of his soldiers w h o d r o w n him in In this way, confidence in the infallibility of the Führer and his inge­their cheers;\" he is seen in Strasbourg and \"on the battlefields of nuity was to be strengthened that would also guide future actions.the Maginot Line.... The Führer's train rolls through the jubilantcountryside; he encounters signs of love, devotion, and grati­ Sieg im Westen is an epos that Svend N o l d a n a n d Fritz Bruneitude.\" Celebratory images and texts certify that Hitler's charisma forged from newsreel through a cleverly organized structure. Hav­is infallible. Having gotten back to his Reich capital, the \"victori­ ing served as a prototype for many others, it is a movie in whichous leader is received by his people against the background of the the Wehrmacht figures as a \"community of fate\" that has beenfestive ringing of bells\"'^* that celebrate his strokes of genius. welded together by the belief in the \"final victory.\" Close to oneM a n y of these clips from F r a n c e will reappear in Sieg im Westen a million feet of film w e r e used to extract an ideal-typical portrait ofyear later to provide another boost to collective morale. the warrior—the image of the \"German hero.\" This heroic charac­ ter is confirmed by a closeup of a soldier's face that KracauerSieg im Westen (1941) describes as \"soft,\" yet which \"unintentionally betrays a close link between blood and soul, between sentimentality and sadism.\" Think of the Führer by day and by night and no bullet, no bayonet will ever reach you. Because Hitier's heroes had to be portrayed as invulnerable, all documents were deleted that reported human and material losses. O K W leaflet Clearly, the ideology of invincibility would have been nullified by scenes of cripples and corpses, which would also have put a Victorious we want to beat France damper on the delirious enthusiasm. However, corpses that are And die as a brave hero. s h o w n buried in the film look like bodies that are not part of the Soldiers' song from Musketier seins lust'ge Brüder national c o m m u n i t y (volksfremde Körper). The optimistic portrayal of the war culminates in Hitier as the personification of all Wehrmacht (The Musketeers Are Funny Guys) successes and those of its generals. With the exception of the last two editions, Nazi newsreels turned Hitler into \"superman.\" War moves across the fields Up and down the streets. In contradistinction to Feldzug in Polen, the heroism of the Ger­ Many a soldier's grave m a n soldiers in this film is mirrored in the c o u r a g e of their o p p o ­ Lies in the dim woods. nents. The \"hereditary enemy\" France is not denigrated; the c o m m e n t a t o r explicitly concedes that the \"Poilu\" fought bravely. Song from Sieg im Westen The Teutonic victory was not due to the weakness of the French, but alone to superior military leadership.The campaign against France was likewise turned into a full-length documentary compiled from newsreel. The film sang the To the v e r y end Sieg im Westen remains nationalist to the core,high praises of the Führer a n d his genius. The journal Der deutsche but it is not a typically National Socialist strip of the kind regularlyFilm called Sieg im Westen the greatest of all G e r m a n newsreels. p r o d u c e d by Deutsche Wochenschau. E v e n the oft-cited episode inMoreover, \"by reproducing the most direct pictures that, in defi­ which the camera lingers over captured Senegalese soldiers per­ance of death, had been w n m g from reality at the very front line. forming \"negro dances\" is presented without commentary. The m o v i e g o e r is left to d r a w his o w n conclusions. Deutsche Wochen­ schau No. 5 1 3 of 3 July 1940, b y contrast, a d d e d biting c o m m e n t s

222 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 223about the black barbarians who had been selected by the French to The introduction starts off with the oath to the flag and showsdefend European civilization. the devout faces of those who have just taken the oath. The cere­ mony is given a festive exultation with rousing music. The sug­ Der deutsche Film s p e c u l a t e d that it w a s possible to see gestive impact of this prelude was supposed to induce young\"naivete\" (Ahnungslosigkeit) in the faces of French P O W s a n d c o m ­ viewers to soon join those who were presented to them as modelspared their \"playful private attitude\" and their \"aimlessness\" on the screen: \"I swear that I will be prepared, as a brave soldier, towith the diametrically different German mentality and its virtues. risk m y life for this oath at any time!\" This is followed by postcard-Thus emerged \"the clear and noble image of the optimistic Ger­ style clips of beautiful German landscapes that are presented asm a n soldier who remains upright even in the toughest battle and symbols of all that is sublime, for which Germany goes to war.is used to being victorious.\" It was an image that was \"also won­ Scenes from the idyllic homeland are continuously faded in. Inderfully highlighted by closeups.\"'^' their interaction with photos from the front, they are supposed to give the impression of a nation that is united in its struggle. There According to the accompanying brochure, the film's most noble is also the statue of Saint Uta in the eleventh-century Naumburgtask was \"to make apparent the values for which we are fighting Cathedral that is used as a symbol of the Germanic female. Ittoday.\" Sieg im Westen w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d b y the A r m y H i g h serves as an object of identification just as the Horseback Rider ofCommand (OKH) and was designed to conjure up the power of Bamberg was deployed in other documentaries. Both figures werethe all-powerful. This glorification is divided into three chapters: designed to embody the myth of the Nordic ideal. As Alfredthe introduction, titled \"Der Entscheidung entgegen\" (\"Toward the Rosenberg, the Party's chief ideologist put it: \"The hero is alwaysDecision\"), the m a i n part, called \"Der Feldzug\" (\"The C a m p a i g n \" ) , beautiful, but this means [he is] of a certain racial type.\"'*'followed by the finale. It is above all in the idealized sculptures of Klimsch, Breker, The introduction takes as its guideline the formula of the pro­ and Thorak that the fascist aesthetic of physical perfection cele­fessional Nazi film ideologue Hans-Joachim Giese. In 1949 Giese brates its greatest triumphs. Their figures look like healthy nudespublished his b o o k Die Film-Wochenschau im Dienste der Politik in homeopathic journals. To quote Traub's statement of 1933: \"It is(Newsreel in the Service of Politics) in which he wrote: \"This jour­ the first commandment of all propaganda to keep men receptivenalistic means of leadership, in fulfilling the basic axiom of all and capable of enthusiasm.\"'*^p r o p a g a n d a , d o e s n o t represent the objective truth per se. B u t ,using decent means, it does represent that side of truth that it is Like Adolf Hitler, the Führer and Reich Chancellor, Bismarck,necessary to proliferate in the interests of the German people.\" Of the \"Iron Chancellor,\" is said to have fulfilled a historic mission,course, the \"necessary\" version of \"the encirclement policy of the i.e., to weld the Reich together. In order to tie Hitler's greatness to e n e m y p o w e r s u p to the [First] World W a r a n d the Versailles dik­ Bismarck, the latter's \"ingenious leadership\" is pronounced as the tat\" w a s , in Giese's view, p a r t of this picture that he continued to heritage to be honored. Hitler's wars of conquest are legitimized spread even after 1945.'*° as a task that is rooted in Bismarck's policy of expansion. With original clips from World War L we move to the assertion that The following sentences are taken from the leaflet advertising inflation and unemployment were a consequence of the \"Versailles the movie: diktat.\" As the c o m m e n t a t o r explains the ideological background, \"it w a s in this period of decay that Hitler founded the NSDAP.\" In Adolf Hitler, the German people gained a leader toward new unity and freedom. The injustices of Versailles are removed step by With the slogan \"The Führer takes back what belongs to Ger­ step; universal service is reintroduced; the lost German territories many,\" the optically opulent introduction was supposed to cover are liberated; Czechoslovakia is put out of action as an air base of up the problems of legitimating the horrors that follow: the occu­ the Western powers. Despite the Führer's repeated peace initia­ pation of the Saar; the annexation of the Memel district; the Sude­ tives, war breaks out with Britain and France. Poland is destroyed tenland; the occupation of the Czech territories, now cynically within eighteen days. The Westwall [German fortifications in the called the \"Protectorate\" of Bohemia and Moravia; the invasion of West] is reinforced. In the North, Germany secures Europe from Austria; and finally the assault on Poland. Narvik to Copenhagen.

224 ! The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 225 The \"authentic\" pictures fail to prove the film's contention that true, i.e., that this campaign \"will decide the fate of the German\"Germandom in Poland experiences terror of the worst kind.\" The nation for the next thousand years.\"occupation of Denmark and Norway is merely noted in passing,as if it had been a little armed outing. The verbal introduction of the main part is supported by a ster­ ile sequence of faces of \"typically German\" heroes. Clips from The movie's main part is titled \"The Campaign.\" The s u m m a r y captured newsreel material have been effectually edited into theof contents presents the following operations in terms of a heroic film. T h e y m a k e u p a p a t c h w o r k of \"enemy faces,\" with Sene­drama for which some optical shortcuts were justified: galese soldiers being particularly in evidence to reinforce racial prejudices. Their \"alien\" ecstatic dancing is meant to be viewed as The major advances in the West in May and June 1940; the German disgusting. The technique of contrasting montage is also used armies move against Holland and Belgium on a broad front; the when German troops, parading to the tunes of dashing march fortress Holland is taken after five days; the Maas river is taken; the music, are juxtaposed with colunnns of flabby P O W s . All viewers Maginot Ltae is pierced; the EngUsh Charmel is reached; the encir­ are meant to realize that the emergence of the Germans as the clement of the Anglo-French troops is completed and triggers the master race is preordained by nature. chaotic flight of the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk; the king of the Belgians offers his country's capitulation; another major Still, the w a r against the French is depicted as chivalric. A assault by the German army is prepared along the lower Somme \"hygienic war,\" it spares the viewer from the sight of dead and river, the Oise-Aisne Canal, and the Aisne river; the Weygand Line wounded soldiers. Instead, death is turned into the decorative is smashed; Rouen is taken; Paris surrenders on 14 June; the First symbol of a double g r a v e covered with flowers. A fresh bunch of Army attacks the Maginot Line along the Saar; it crosses the upper flowers will r e a s s u r e the m o v i e g o e r b a c k h o m e that fulfilling Rhine; fortresses are taken; the last major constructions of the Mag­ one's duty with fatal consequences will result in lyrical transfigu­ inot Line are being occupied; France offers a truce; Compiegne ration: a noble death guarantees that the dead person will be taken becomes the site for truce negotiations.^*' into the Valhalla. The mourning of genuine loss is to be mitigated by sacralizing it. The actual combat scenes are as interchangeable as they are tir­ing, even though the most dramatic parts from a variety of news- In order to illuminate the prospect of an aesthetic transfigura­reels are incorporated. The symbolic power of the Maginot Line, tion with greater theatrical effect, the camera repeatedly capturestogether with its fortifications, is to be destroyed by showing for the diffuse light of dusk and heavily clouded skies. This enablesseveral long minutes the artillery bombardment of this \"complex the directors to move all the more impressively through thedefense mechanism.\" What the film tries to put across is that \"the vapors that hint at impending calamity toward the light of victory.m a c h i n e itself c a n never be the deus ex machina in itself;\" even \"the Conversely, the unreal morning fog of another scene is designedmost perfect organization remains useless if it is not an instru­ to mitigate looming dangers. To perfect their scenario, the skillfulment, but is viewed as an autonomous force by a decadent gener­ engineers of viewer moods include backlighting in their drama toation\" of Frenchmen.'** This sequence has no other purpose than give the impression that danger is merely threatening the darkto demonstrate that the Maginot Line represents what this quote shadows they have produced. After all, there is no space in thisasserts: that the German victory is also a victory of life over death, moribund backdrop for individuals who have become heroes.of the future over the past. Pictures of British POWs in a camp are They disappear as extras; they submerge among Hitler's anony­accompanied by the popular British song \"We will hang our mous supernumeraries who are destined to die. The theatricalwashing on the Siegfried Line!\", but set in a minor key to offer a hocus-pocus on the battlefield in the rrtiddle of enemy countrytelling illustration of \"Perfidious Albion's\" waning optimism that endows the heroic struggle of the German \"community of fate\"victory is on their side. When invading paratroopers are shown w i t h the mystical flair of the unreal, helping the viewer in the cin­over Holland at a height of three hundred meters, the commen­ ema back home feel that both fronts are one. The tragic death hastary proudly anticipates the sentiments of the moviegoers: \"The been deleted from the script; in Hitler's world theater, only theworld is holding its breath—Eben Emael Fortress has capitu­ death that is draped in heroism gets a w a r m exit, as in an epic oflated.\" However, the film makes one prognosis that did not come

2261 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 227,1classical antiquity. Whatever the pictures fail to transfigure is left Maginot Line in their war against the \"arch enemy.\" After all,to opera-like music: \"Yes, the flag is more than death!\" \"Siegreich woll'n wir Frankreich schlagen\" (\"Victoriously W e A r e Aiming to Beat France\"). There now follows, neatly presented, a The c a m e r a captures the tirelessly a d v a n c i n g G e r m a n soldiers special announcement that promises victory: frame and con­as engineers of action who, bursting with energy, march across sciousness a r e once again filled with pictures of the trenches.bridges. Their eyes are fixed firmly on the other side as the goalthat holds out victory, in a symbolic as well as a literal sense. If the verbal polemic against France is relatively restrained, the root cause for this is probably to be found in the fact that the Ger­ The notion of \"home front\" represents the qualitative equiva­ mans did not wish to offend unnecessarily the collaborating Vichylent of the front line. Those fighting for Hitler's victories are to b e government and its aging Marshal Retain. Accordingly, the caval­found at both fronts; they constitute an inviolable \"community of cade of riders on white horses on the Champs Elysees in Parisfate\" in their certain knowledge that they can mutually depend looks rather tamely anachronistic, as if this sequence had beenon each other. Clips from a German armaments factory show the taken from a historical feature film. Incidentally, Hitler w a s absentintelligent and serious faces of German skilled laborers that from this parade and only Colonel General Fedor von Bockreflect an unconditional confidence in their precision work. In the attended. Meanwhile, the G e r m a n flag flies from the top of the Eif­next sequence we are given, high above in the cloudless skies, a fel Tower and above the monuments of Verdun and Compiegne,powerful impression of how reliably the technical production symbols of Germany's defeat in World War I.empire of Armaments Minister Fritz Todt is capable of operating.Relentlessly, dive bombers and heavy bombers are seen unload­ The film culminates in a depiction of the capitulation c e r e m o n ying their deadly cargo on military and civilian targets. With the in Compiegne Forest that is trotted out with gusto. After thetarget firmly pinpointed, stuka pilots dive to one h u n d r e d m e t e r s French general has reviewed the German guard of honor, Hitier—above the ground. Accompanied by a nerve-grinding, whining s h o w n here for the first t i m e — a n d O K W chief Keitel receive thenoise, the speeds they reach are endowed with a sensuous qual­ defeated enemy in the same railway car in which the Germansity. M a n and machine become a single unit. Effectively presented had been forced to sign the armistice in 1918, the historic requisitem a p s introduce the assault on the l e g e n d a r y Chemins des Dames of the \"German trauma.\"!^^fortress, designed to demonstrate the accuracy of logistical gen­eral staff work, in this instance personified by Colonel General T h e finale s h o w s Hitler, as triumphator Germaniae, a n d hisGerd von Rundstedt. entourage strutting through Reims Cathedral. The choral music f r o m \"Lieb Vaterland magst ruhig sein\" (\"Dear F a t h e r l a n d , Rest Of course, the German soldier is also permitted to relax Assured\") reaches a crescendo. The viewers can now comfortablybetween his victories. Even hardened old blades can be fuimy—or lean back in their seats. They knew they could rely on thewhat the scriptwriters thought to be funny. Billeted on a farm and Wehrmacht and its supreme commander Adolf Hitler.surroimded by cackling hens, men who have been through toughbattles splash around in a tub of water that is much too small. The In a concluding tour d'horizon, a final attempt is m a d e to con­ camera catches them getting a haircut, polishing their boots, vince potential doubters of the justice of this German war. Accord­brushing their horses, and writing letters. Meanwhile, the fire ingly, the most impressive scenes from the movie appear as a brief break notwithstanding, the commanding officer continues his jumble, peaking in a clip of the inexorable advance of Germany's sacred duties: he studies the m a p in preparation for the next soldiers. The sequence resumes the opening theme: the hands of attack. W h o among those sitting in the theater would not like to be soldiers taking their oath to the flag stretched u p w a r d s into the with those happy victors. The pulsating rhythms of march music sky—the symbol of utmost loyalty. then change to the more elegiac sounds of an organ-playing sol­ dier. His mood is represented through a soft fade-over showing U p to this point, H e r b e r t W i n d t ' s soldiers' s o n g \"Auf den water in which a blond German woman back home rinses her Strassen des Sieges\" (\"On the Roads of Victory\") has been skillfully laundry. A s this scene intends to convey, it is to fight for her in nüxed in with the visual material. Now the refrain becomes the order to preserve her happiness that the boys have crossed the movie's leitmotif, replacing the slowly m o v i n g swastika flag:

2281 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 229 When German soldiers are on the march lengthening of the war the problem of the newsreel would become No devil will stop them. more acute. He was no longer certain what should be shown. Then the war's die will be cast Then the turn of world history will come Around this time, during the spring of 1943, the propaganda Together with the flags of victory. units of all the services totaled some fifteen thousand. As to film reporters, the army had about eighty-five, the navy, forty-two, theApproaching the Downfall • air force and the Armed SS, forty-six each. Every week they sent their roughs per express to the studios in Berlin where Goebbels Soldier, you are my buddy. personally supervised the editing with relentless energy, turning When our bones begin to fade. the interplay of text and context into masterpieces of propaganda. The moon will shine upon us like blue smoke. As we know from his diaries, he considered the newsreel to be one The monkey roars in the bamboo bushes. of the \"really important means of propaganda that we have in war Soldier, you are my buddy. at this time.\" He added that it was hard work each week to put the When our bones begin to fade. newsreel together in such a w a y that it constituted effective pro­ paganda. Overall, Goebbels appears to have applied to the news- Song by Klabund that was banned in the Third Reich reel what Musil said about literature, i.e., that it was its task to describe not what is, but what should be.The regular peacetime cinema program consisted of a shortm o v i e , followed b y a Kulturfilm d o c u m e n t a r y a n d the newsreel, When the escalating campaign in the East resulted in anand concluded with the main feature film. During the w a r and erilargement of the propaganda units, a special department wasdepending on availability, this program tended to be weighted in established in the O K W to take charge of their work. At this timefavor of the newsreel. Newsreel content was adjusted to times that the \"Twelve Commandments for Film Reporters\" were alsohad become increasingly darker. Offering humorous relaxation drawn up. The first of these rules read: \"Always remember thatcame to be frowned upon. As early as 1940, Goebbels warned millions participate in world events through your personal com­against coloring the newsreels with too much optimism. His Min­ mitment and that you must give present and future generations aistry avoided giving the impression that the war had ended with truthful and lively description of the gigantic struggle for Ger­the capitulation of France. When, at the end of 1941, the Russian many's greatness.\"campaign experienced its first crisis, Goebbels even admitted thatpsychological mistakes had been made. Until now, the population U p to the bitter end, Goebbels continued to believe in thehad been shielded from getting too much unpleasant news. power of propaganda and in victory with the help of the images it produced. However, reality had long taken a different turn among In the spring of 1942 the Propaganda Minister recorded in his the PK units and had destroyed all illusions that they had helped diary that it was necessary to show the population the realities of to create. F r o m the end of 1 9 4 4 , all P K persormel that w e r e \"fit for warfare in the East. This would prevent them from falling prey to the front\" (frontverwendungsfdhig) w e r e ordered to join the c o m b a t illusions, but also tell them that there is no difficulty that cannot, troops. By October 1943 more than one thousand PK reporters had in the end, be overcome by human will power.'** been killed in action or had been reported missing or wounded. In November 1943 Ufa's main office in which all newsreels were pro­ Long after the end of the Thousand-Year Reich had appeared duced was heavily damaged by bombs. The newsreel studios on the horizon, people quite naively continued to ramble on about were moved to a shack in Buchhorst on the outskirts of Berlin. Yet, the final victory. However, as the war wore on, Goebbels recog­ Goebbels's optimism remained unshakable, even if at most one nized that new and additional psychological difficulties kept aris­ third of the regular personnel was still around. On 22 March 1945 ing. Thus, in May 1943 he wrote in his diary that with the he notes his surprise in his diary \"that the German people still feel inclined to go to the movies. Nevertheless, this is the case to a v e r y large extent.\"'*^ It w a s on this 22 M a r c h that the last Deutsche Wacfen§c/jau was release^

The Triumph of Propaganda NonficHonal Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 231230 : As matters went from bad to worse in the Reich, the desperate suggestive question of German history: \"Do you want total war?will to achieve final victory was nourished among the front line Do you want it more total and more radical than we can imaginetroops and at the home front by Goebbels's fanatical slogans to even today?\" To be sure, the concept of \"total war\" was coined byhold out. Veit Harlan, a man who was in a position to know, later Erich Ludendorff w h o g a v e this title to his 1 9 3 5 study on the sub­characterized the Propaganda Minister as the \"master of disinfor­ ject of patriotic sacrifice.'*'mation.\" Hitler and Goebbels had long begxm to realize that theyw e r e driving the G e r m a n s into an abyss. The ultima ratio of their The newsreel also records the response—the \"Yes\" shoutedcynicism was precisely this: those \"who would be left after the with great enthusiasm with which the invited representatives ofstruggle would merely be those of inferior quality, since the good the German people voted for the descent into total chaos. Whenones had been killed in action.\" According to Speer, Hitler is said Goebbels asked the question whether \"your confidence in theto have opined on 18 March 1945: \"If this war is lost, the German Führer is greater, more deeply held, and more imshakable thanpeople will also be lost. This fateful outcome is inexorable.\" It was ever before,\" the banner-carriers spontaneously raised their flagsimnecessary, he thought, to take account of the Germans' needs in order to give Hitler a noisy salute, albeit from great distance.for their survival under the most primitive conditions. On the con­trary, it was better to destroy everything. This would then prove When Goebbels's speech culnünated in the words: \"Now, Peo­that the people had been too weak. The future. Hitler concluded, ple, arise! And storm be unleashed!\" the cameras succeeded inbelonged exclusively to the stronger peoples of the East.'*^ making such an impact with their pictures of ecstatically jubilant masses that this may explain why so many viewers found them­ Hippler had this to say in response to intermittent reproaches selves in total agreement with the Minister's words. What hap­that the newsreel minimized total war and suppressed the extent p e n e d a t the Sportpalast is w h a t Hitler h a d d e s c r i b e d in Mein of German losses from the perspective of the front soldier: the lat­ Kampf as the \" c o m m u n i t y of the great rally.\" To him, this w a s the ter would be \"the last to demand that the most gruesome war- rally at which the individual would fall under the spell of mass related events be reproduced. It will be enough for him personally suggestion, at which the person who joined at the beginning, vac­ to experience the horrors of war.... The German soldier would illating a n d v e x e d b y doubts, left with firm convictions, having object to the publication of pictures that showed a comrade being b e c o m e b y the end \"a m e m b e r of a community.\"''''' hit by an enemy bullet.\" In this connection, Erwin Leiser quoted from the reports of the Deutsche Wochenschau No. 651/10/1943 (passed b y censor o n 2 4 Security Police (SD) that regularly monitored morale and public February 1943): This edition of newsreel provides a good example opinion in the Third Reich until the Nazi leadership stopped them of the demagogic power exerted by Nazi propaganda. It deals because they had become too gloomy. When the newsreel was with the capitulation of the 6th Army at Stalingrad on 2 February released, it is said to \"have tangibly heightened the propagandis­ 1943—a historic date that marks the turning point of the war. This tic effect of the Sportpalast rally a n d to h a v e raised it even in places defeat was reinterpreted as part of an offensive strategy; the war where skepticism had hitherto prevailed. Even more diffident cir­ was now fought in an imaginary place, somewhere, and the cles of the population found it difficult to escape from the capti­ moviegoer was not told where. vating impact of the speech that was now to be seen on film together with the response from those who attended it.\" Newsreels like this one became famous not only because of the infamous way in which the propagandistic dialectic had been per­ By this time the fate of the 6th A r m y at Stalingrad h a d already fected in pictures and commentary, but also because of Goebbels's been sealed. Yet, the newsreel did not even hint at this defeat. On artful rhetoric. His a d d r e s s to the nation f r o m the Berlin Sport­ the contrary, it suggested that German troops were continuing palast on 1 8 F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 3 m u s t be c o u n t e d a m o n g those m a c a b r e their advance. performances that hypnotized the German people and dragged them into the abyss of defeat. It documents the moment w h e n To be sure, Goebbels advocated a more realistic reporting on Goebbels asked, \"before our enemies who are listening to us at the military situation in the E a s t so that Deutsche Wochenschau the side of their radio sets,\" what was probably the most fatally would not suffer a further loss of confidence among the popula­ tion. B u t Hitler explicitly v o t e d against putting the facts o n the screen by showing starkly realistic pictures. As Goebbels recorded

232 s The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 233in his diary on 21 January 1943, the regime had to begin to face up One of the hate-filled slogans that the newsreels spread systemat­to telling the population about Stalingrad. He himself had advo­ ically was the notion that Germans would be unable to live acated this for some time, but Hitier had been opposed to it. It was, worthwhile life in a world dominated by Jews. In the language ofGoebbels felt, dangerous to let matters drift and to inform the the Third Reich, Jews existed only in the plural or in the collectivehome front only after the event.'''' singular as \"the Jew.\" There is no space here to e n u m e r a t e all the c)mical statements about Jews in their infinite variety. In the words of the postwar German writer Hans MagnusEnzensberger, Hitier had never thought it possible that the impend­ The Normandy invasion by the Western Allies on 6 June 1944ing catastrophe, captured on newsreel, might become \"the only accelerated the impending defeat of the Third Reich. Thenceforth,propellant of history.\" What Hitler wanted was to present Nazi N e m e s i s w a s on Flitier's heels also in the West. Deutsche Wochen­ideas as the sensational n e w s in optically interesting w a y s in order schau No. 719/26 (passed by censor on 14 June 1944) focuses on thisto satisfy the himger for \"auti:ientic reality\"; and he did not plan to invasion that h a d been thought impossible until then. A s Film-achieve this by showing \"corpses that had been flattened, cities that Kurier c o m m e n t e d on this particular newsreel: \"The G e r m a n fronthad been laid in ruins, and ships that had been blown up.\" The is being jerked into action.... Fire is spewing from all guns.... Theonly authentic reality that the Führer wanted to display was a invaders run straight into the hell of the German defenses, into aNational Socialist one; no other reality was even allowed to exist.\"'^ s y m p h o n y of blood a n d filth.\"\"'^ A n d : \"The traces of annihilation, of the enormous losses in men and material that the enemy suf­ As Peter Bucher has demonstrated in his comprehensive study, fered in this hell are to be seen everywhere.\" We can hearthe Nazi newsreel never again achieved the degree of credibility Goebbels from the prompter's box.that it had gained during the campaigns against Poland andFrance. Instead, it \"increasingly became an object of ridicule.\" Deutsche Wochenschau No. 746/1944 (passed b y c e n s o r o n 2 0Bucher also quotes a contemporary source from the period after D e c e m b e r 1944); Deutsche Wochenschau No. 747/2/1945 (passed b ythe fall of Cherbourg in July 1944: \"'For months on end the News- censor on 4 J a n u a r y 1945); Deutsche Wochenschau No. 749/4/1945reel s h o w e d us the invincibility of the Atlantikwall. N o w the lovely (passed by censor on 18 January 1945): In December 1944 the Sovi­d r e a m is over.'\"'^^ ets had begun to move into East Prussia and the Americans were a p p r o a c h i n g the G e r m a n frontier in the West. A n d yet Deutsche After Stalingrad, the Germans who saw newsreels became wit­ Wochenschau s p r e a d the tale of a n offensive G e r m a n strategy.nesses to Hitler's gradual deterioration, which he tried to control Thus, No. 747 reported that the Wehrmacht was taking buildingw i t h iron discipline. Deutsche Wochenschau No. 660/19 of 2 8 April after building, village after village, and that the Allies' tank arrrues1 9 4 3 provides a n illustration of this. Officially d e v o t e d to his fifty- were being smashed.fourth birthday, it was more concerned with his campaigns in theLeningrad region, in the Ukraine, and around the bridgehead at In No. 746 the commentary's heroic tone is reinforced by theKuban. Congratulating h i m on 19 April 1 9 4 3 , Goebbels h a d a fit­ m u s i c in the background: \"Bursts of fire scan the skies ... A battieting explanation for Hitler's outward appearance: \"Working all of materiel of unimaginable proportions is raging on the ground.day and waking and worrying at night unmistakably inscribe Walls of fire and steel are put u p between the combatants on boththemselves in his face in w e e k s like these. \"'^* sides and create a zone that appears to be impenetrable.\" Again, the handwriting was Goebbels's. Up to the middle of 1944, Hitler The newsreels of the 1940-1943 period had been devoted to a h a d still personally supervised the production of Deutsche Wochen­single theme: to secure the \"final victory.\" Relying on the incapac­ schau; now, from the winter of 1 9 4 4 that r a n g in the last phase of ity of the people to make clear judgments, the psychology of the chaos, he no longer showed an interest. Deutsche Wochenschau had been completely fixed on this objective. Against the background of the commentary, pictorial arguments On 24 December 1944, the last Christmas Eve under Nazism, were geared toward activating the so-called will to hold out. Each Goebbels's trivial pathos blends with a line from the \"Forward! issue was directed to condemn as diabolical the \"mortal enemy.\" F o r w a r d ! \" s o n g that, h e a d e d b y the flag, promised to lead to eter­ This enemy was denounced either as an \"Eastern subhuman\" nity. It w a s the flag that w o u l d then also m e a n death to m a n y in {ostischer Untermensch) or as an exploitative \"decadent capitalist.\" reality. Speaking on German radio, Goebbels is more derisory of

234 i The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 235;the fallen heroes than he offers comfort to those who mourn them: \"Germany must force a reversal in the fate of Europe.\" In newsreel\"Forward across the graves! The armies of the dead are stronger No. 751 horrifying scenes are to be found of fleeing Germans whothan w e are on land or at sea. They march ahead of us. They left us had \"to give up their homeland and their belongings and to takein the noisy battles of the war. They will return to us when the refuge before the a d v a n c i n g H i m s {Mongolensturm).\" These pic­bells ring in a victorious peace. We owe them the Reich more than tures spoke a language that reflected reality.w e owe it to all the living. That is the only mandate that they haveleft us. W e are duty-bound to fulfill it. Let us keep our hands a n d Deutsche Wochenschau No. 753/8/1945 (passed by censor on 5hearts prepared for this. As the poet says, the world will then soon March 1945): \"The newsreel that is shown of Berlin is incredible. Itrejuvenate itself like a n e w b o r n child.\" In his m o v i e Hitler, ein Film is m y intention to turn the battle for Berlin into a hero's song. Theaus Deutschland (Hitler, a F i l m from Germany, 1 9 7 8 ) H a n s - J ü r g e n Berliners deserve this. The entire Reich looks toward the ReichSyberberg used these cynical words to contrast them with pictures capital today with restrained expectation, but always also in theof the gas chambers at Auschwitz. fear that the city is not up to the pressures. We shall demonstrate that these fears are groundless.\" It is worth remembering these Deutsche Wochenschau No. 749 of the m i d d l e of J a n u a r y 1 9 4 5 words by Goebbels in connection with No. 7 5 3 / 8 / 1 9 4 5 which,threw out the last anchor of hope. It deals with those miracle apart from \"atrocities committed by Soviet soldiers\" and \"defen­weapons for which the war-weary population had been prepared sive battles\" in the regions of Jülich in the Rhineland, Budapest,for months through the deliberate spreading of rumors. Goebbels Ratibor, and Frankfurt on Oder, reported for the first time on thetried desperately to propagandize the magic \"V Weapons\" as d e p l o y m e n t of the Volkssturm (People's A r m y ) in Berlin w h o s eready for deployment, although they literally were no more than members—the very young and elderly draftees—^were construct­empty shells: \"We bring you the first pictures of the V-2 rocket on ing barricades in the beleaguered Reich capital.its flight to Britain. For security reasons they were taken from adistance, and therefore they provide no more than a faint idea of Deutsche Wochenschau No. 754/9 (passed b y censor on 16 M a r c hthe actual size of the V-2.\" Hitler had personally reserved for him­ 1945) will be recorded in the armals of journalism as an example ofself all decisions concerning newsreel reports on this topic. imbridled demagoguery. It turned every defeat into a victory and celebrated even the spasms of death as signs of recuperation. It Meanwhile, Speer had told Hitler on several occasions that he also transformed a wage strike in the United States into a conso­considered this propaganda quite wrong.'''* On 2 November 1944 lation for the German population's misery.he added in a letter to Goebbels that he thought it \"unwise toarouse hopes in the public which cannot possibly be fulfilled for a In m o v i e s like Sieg im Westen, Hitler's troops h a d in fact beenconsiderable time.... I would therefore request you take measures victorious. Yet, in 1940/41 the commentaries tended to be muchso that the daily press and technical journals refrain from alluding less euphoric than now during the last phase of the catastropheto future successes in our armaments production.\"'*^ and in the face of many deaths. As early as 1930 Ernst Jünger had predicted a German hour of fate that \"possessed mythical dimen­ Goebbels h a d a n n o u n c e d the c o m i n g of the V-2 in Deutsche sions.\" Only in Germany, he wrote, and \"in the face of death w a s Wochenschau No. 723/30/1944, No. 725/32/1944 a n d No. 737/44/1944, it possible that Germanic irmocence was preserved in the hearts ofa n d for the first time in a speech in Breslau o n 8 July 1944. Deutsche Wochenschau No. 724/31/1944, No. 732/39/1944, a n d No. 735/42/1944 the best.\"'78 had also presented pictures of another miracle weapon, the \"one- man torpedo.\" Of course, those who kept on producing the newsreels knew that all was lost. Nevertheless, they fabricated texts that, while In the meantime, the endless streams of refugees from the East they read like satire today, must have sounded to contemporaries, could no longer be covered up. Faced with these pressures, if not deadly serious, at least like pure C5micism. Goebbels had Goebbels for the first time conceded that military defeat was a once wished to attract the Jewish satirist Robert Neumann to the fact, though not an inevitable fate. He thus constructed the fiction Völkischer Beobachter \"so that e v e r y o n e w o u l d read the p a p e r with of a bulwark that would bring about a last-minute turn of the tide. interest.\"\"^ Now it was mostly the Minister himself who beefed As newsreel No. 752 put it, it was upon the soil of the Reich that up the demagogic content of his propaganda. He ordered Hip­ pler, the director of the Ministry's film department, to submit the I

236 S The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 237 !roughs of every single newsreel edition. Goebbels then corrected SS-Obersturmbannßhrer O t t o Skorzeny, w h o h a d been involved init and accentuated its thrust and context. Above all, he changed the kidnapping of Mussolini in September 1943 and had become athe commentaries. At the beginning of each week, Hippler popular hero. He is trying to spread confidence with swashbuck­appeared before Goebbels with \"the silent roughs\" and later with ling words in the style of a mercenary: \"Even Ivan can be beaten.the fully edited version. \"We then discussed and decided whether Our bunch has proved it.\"and what should be modified and complemented.\"'™ Hippleradded: \"It was not a matter of 'objective' reporting, of well-bal­ The commentary accompanying the seventh sequence exudes aanced neutrality, but of [providing] optimistic propaganda that victorious mood: \"In tough fights, street after street is cleared outexuded confidence in victory and 'recognized our right.' [Our by tanks and infantry. Between burning buildings, grenadiersefforts] were designed to strengthen the spiritual potential of the equipped with anti-tank guns slowly m o v e forward to finish offG e r m a n people to fight.\"'^! the remnants of the retreating Bolsheviks. Just as in the West, the war has become more than ever a matter for the entire population It suffices to present four examples of this type of propaganda in the Görlitz region [just west of Silesia]. Liberation of the City ofd u r i n g the final phase of Deutsche Wochenschau a n d the Greater Lauban: in the first d a y s of M a r c h G e r m a n tanks a n d grenadiersGerman Reich. What is significant about them is that they, too, do launch their counterattack with strong support from the airnot say m u c h about the actual situation. The first sequence of No. against this t o w n outside Görlitz. After days of heated fighting,754/9/1945, reporting on events in the United States, s h o w s violent the Germans move into the town on 6 March.\" Goebbels is thenclashes between strikers and the police. In effect, these clips date seen decorating Wilhelm Hübner, a sixteen-year-old Hitler Youthfrom 1937 and were taken in Chicago. The commentary perpe­ with the Iron Cross \"in the marketplace of L a u b a n that has onlytrates several lies at the same time: \"Workers protesting against just been retaken.\"low wages in an American industrial town are beaten up [by thepolice]. Since the seizure of power [in 1933], police clubs have dis­ The eighth sequence, dealing with Soviet atrocities, is designedappeared in Germany.\" Indeed, Hitler's henchmen did not need to distract from the regime's terrible crimes against the Jews ofclubs; they had concentration camps. E u r o p e b y denouncing the Russians: \"In this field, too, the Bolshe­ vik beasts have corrunitted the worst crimes. All decent Germans The next sequence suggests the advance of German troops in see their blood pressure rise when considering the bestial activitiesthe West: \"These are the mercenaries of an ambitious U.S. general of these subhumans. These are the allies of Roosevelt's Christianwho once again closely rrüssed his target. He did not succeed in soldiers. Murderous deeds betraying a horrific sadism have oncewinning a Cannae [total victory] against the German troops. Just again demonstrated to the German soldier that there must be nolike in the East, German soldiers fight on stolidly for as long as retreat before, and no pardon for, this enemy.—^A w o m a n in chainsthey breathe. The bulk of the German army group has crossed the w h o has been dragged to her death.\" This is where the newsreelriver with all its heavy weapons.\" What the newsreel did not say followed Goebbels's advice from the time of stmggle before 1933was that the Wehrmacht was crossing the river on its retreat. literally: to keep the propaganda machine \"intact... we must now appeal to the most primitive mass instincts.\" The third sequence shows units of the \"Committee for the Lib­eration of the Peoples of Russia\" marching by, equipped with the In the runth sequence Goebbels's neurotic rhetoric triimiphs one\"most modem weapons,\" which belonged to the collaborationist more time. The camera discovers signs of hope on the gaunt facesVlassow Army. In the fourth sequence, Bolshevik soldiers are seen of armaments workers and of exhausted soldiers as they listenattacking the Kurland bridgehead in the Baltics no less than four devoutly to the Minister's words that will be quoted here only intimes. And \"four times their offensive was tumed back with enor­ their most typical key sentences:mous losses in men and material.\" The conunentator does not saywho suffered those losses. Our soldiers will know and offer no pardon when they now start their offensive in various parts of the eastern front. The divisions The fifth sequence depicts refugees trekking across the frozen that have already begun their smaller offensives and will, in theHaff o n the E a s t Prussian Baltic c o a s t \"from d a w n t o d u s k \" to course of the next weeks and months, launch major offensives, willreach \"the shelter of the Reich.\" The next sequence captures enter the fight as if they are going to a chvirch service. And when

238 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda i239 they shoulder their arms and mount their armored vehicles they when he met with Gauleiter Karl Wahl, Hitler made \"the impres­ wiü have in front of their eyes nothing but the killed children and sion of a m a n w h o w a s visibly ill and at the end of his tether.\"'*^ their raped women. And a shout for revenge will rise from their Although Hitler knew that the war had been lost, he nonetheless chests that will cause the enemy to turn pale. Just as the Führer has prided himself on his \"success\" in having exterminated the Jews mastered the crises of the past, he will also master this one. He is of Europe. Thus, he wrote in his \"Testament\": \"I, at any rate, have firmly convinced of this. As he said to me only the day before yes­ forced world Jewry to drop its mask; and even if our efforts have terday, \"I am firmly convinced that we shall overcome this crisis, failed, that failure will merely be ephemeral; for I have opened the and I firmly believe also that we shall beat and roll back the enemy eyes of the world to the Jewish danger.\"'^ once we throw in our new offensive armies; and I believe as firmly that one day we shall pin victory to our banners as I have ever T h e t e n - p a r t Deutsche Wochenschau No. 755/10/1945 that w a s firmly believed in something in my life.\" To our Führer Adolf released on 27 March 1945 adds up to a fateful document not just Hitler: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil. because of the w a y it ends; it also contains the last clips of Hitler. Together with Reich Youth Leader Arthur Axmann, the Führer,As during the p r e - 1 9 3 3 period, Goebbels, d u r i n g the final agonies marked by death and a psychic wreck, distributes the Iron Crossof the Nazi regime, transforms the faith in Hitler's invincibility to twenty teenage Hitler Youths in the garden of the Reich chan­into a \"religion of success\" (Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker). For cellery. The last gesture that we have of him—his gentle strokinghim rhetoric was argument, not enlightenment. of the cheek of a thirteen-year-old Pimpf—was perhaps the only sign of humanity or even of reluctant emotion on the part of the We can be certain that this newsreel promising victory by the Führer during his demise; but it also symbolizes the perversion ofside of the mass grave of the Third Reich, made with demagogic a war to the bitter end. Erich Fromm, the psychoanalyst, hasvirtuosity and including Goebbels's speech, will be used in semi­ argued that whoever wants to understand Hitler's personality,nars to analyze paradigmatically his verbal, mimic, and gestural should realize that \"the mask that covered the face of this restlesspowers. Apart from providing an insight into his psyche, his Gör­ man was that of an affable, polite, self-contained, and almost litz speech also offers a telling picture of the state of the (German) timid person.\"'*^ Fromm, w h o had left Germany in 1934, did not mass soul that the Nazis would have liked to preserve forever. know Hitler. The tenth sequence of the newsreel shows Hitler for the penul­ The other parts of the newsreel, reporting on the retreat along timate time as a man who is a physical and mental wreck. Yet, the the eastern front from Breslau, Körügsberg, and Stettin, give the commentator annovmces him cheerfully: \"The Führer is here! The impression that General Lasch and Gauleiter Koch are the masters joyful welcome of the soldiers is like an oath of loyalty of all fight­ of events and even of the offensive, as they lean over their maps. ers to the m a n w h o is holding Germany's and Europe's fate in his A screen-filling map does not offer any details about the location hands—and w h o will master it!\" Once this m a n had been Ger­ of the front line. German troops had abandoned the bridgehead m a n y ' s shining h e r o . N o w the Götterdämmerung is d e t e r m i n e d around Stettin on 20 March 1945, the week before this newsreel more by the somber figure of that same man: slowly dragging his was released. Another scene tells the viewer that half a million feet and bent forward by ill health, he walks u p to a g r o u p of offi­ Germans were being \"brought back into the Reich\" by ship, while cers whom he greets with a handshake. Seated at a table, he makes German warships are said to be delivering weapons to the Kur­ a few jerky movements; his physiognomy looks nervous; he utters land region. Nor does this newsreel miss the opportunity to talk of some hectic sentences that the newsreel does not reproduce. Soviet atrocities, with plundering and murdering Russians raping sixty-year-old grandmothers, and—to be sure—in the most bestial Hitler walks past some soldiers toward the camera before he and perverted manner. gets into his car. The whole scene leaves a ghostly impression, as if Hitler's final \"exit\" is to be hinted at. It is difficult to conceive of a A c c o r d i n g to this last Deutsche Wochenschau \"the G e r m a n peo­ starker contrast between Goebbels's strong words just earlier on in ple [continue to] fulfill their duty ... and one pressing need: to fight this newsreel. As the Propaganda Minister notes in his diary on 4 a n d stand fast.\" However, instead of fighting a n d standing fast, March 1945: \"I noticed with dismay that the nervous twitch of his instead of \"taking up position at intersections with anti-taiik gun. left hand has greatly increased.\"'*^ A week earlier on 24 February

240 The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 241m a c h i n e pistol, a n d rifle,\" as Goebbels h a d written in Völkischer Notes iBeobachter o n 2 4 April 1 9 4 5 in a salute to the F ü h r e r ' s \"genius,\"H i t l e r p r e f e r r e d t o w i t h d r a w f r o m his m u c h - v a u n t e d Volks­ 1. F Lampe, \"Kulturfilm und Filmkultur\" in Das Kulturfilmbuch (Munich, 1924),gemeinschaft b y c o m m i t t i n g suicide in his \"Reich capital\" a w e e k p. 24.later, on 30 April 1945. Goebbels followed him on the next day towhere the flag in the Horst Wessel song had pointed both of them. 2. Rudolf Oertel, Der Filmspiegel (Wien, 1941), pp. 227f. 3. Nicholas Kaufmann, \"Sein Feld ist die gesamte Welt\" in: Filmforum, vol. 4, no. Hangmen Also Die is the title of the A m e r i c a n film a b o u t Rein-hard Heydrich, Hitler's man in charge of the Reich Security Main 11,1955, p. 7.Office. Fritz Lang made it on the basis of a script by Bertolt Brecht 4. E. W. M. Lichtwark in Kulturfilm-Almanach (Hamburg, 1948).to honor, together with the victims of the village of Lidice that had 5. Nelson Goodman, \"Kunst und Erkenntnis\" in Dieter Henrich and Wolfgangbeen razed to the ground after the assassination of Heydrich in1942, the innumerable men and women who had been murdered Iser, eds., Theorien der Kunst (Frankfurt, 1984).by Hitler's stooges Himmler, Eichmann et al. Hans Eisler wrote a 6. Oskar Kalbus, Pioniere des Kulturfilms, p. 27.moving and thoughtful song for this movie that he called \"No 7. M. Pfeiffer in Die Bedeutung des Films und Lichtbildes (Munich, 1917), p. 33.surrender.\" But it was no consolation for the victims of Lidice, 8. Oskar Kalbus, Pioniere des Kulturfilms, p. 27.Warsaw, Auschwitz, Buchenwald, and other places of terror that 9. Leopold Gutterer, \"Form und Gehalt. Die geistigen und materiellen Grund­the executioners themselves died a violent death—Hitler andHimmler, Goebbels and Goring committed suicide; Eichmann lagen der heutigen deutschen Kulturfilmarbeit\" in Der deutsche Film, vol. 7, no.went to the gallows. 8/9,1942, p. 2. 10. Kurt Tucholsky in Die Schaubühne Berlin, 23 April 1914. T h e m a s s m u r d e r e r s d o not o c c u p y a hero's g r a v e ; n o flag r u s ­ 11. Alexander Elster in Bild und Film, quoted in Marlies Krebstakies, ed.. Die Ufa. Auftles above them. On the occasion of the victory celebrations in den Spuren einer grossen Filmfabrik. Berlin von 1920 bis 1945 (exhibition catalogueMoscow, the blood banners that had once been elevated to pon­ publ. under the auspices of the Bezirksamt Tempelhof) (Berlin, 1987), p. 30.derous symbols were thrown into the slushy snow on Red Square. 12. Oskar Kalbus, Pioniere des Kulturfilms, p. 46. 13. Neue Sachlichkeit (catalogue for an exhibition on German Expressionism at the Städtische Kurwthalle Mannheim, 14 June-13 September 1925), with an intro­ duction by Gustav Friedrich Hartlaub (Mannheim, 1925). 14. Siegfried Kracauer, Theorie des Films (Frankfurt, 1964), English translation The­ ory of Film (London, 1965). 15. Ulrich Kurowski, ed., Lexikon des internationalen Films (Munich, 1975), vol. 1, p. 60. 16. B61a Baläzs, Der Geist des Films (Halle, 1930), pp. 215f. 17. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf p. 526. 18. Fritz Hippler, Betrachtungen zum Filmschaffen (Beriin, 1943). 19. Ibid. 20. Georg Lukäcs, \"Gedanken zu einer Ästhetik des Kinos\" in Peter Ludz, ed., Georg Lukäcs. V/erkauswahl (Neuwied, 1972), vol. 1: Schriften zur Literatursoziologie. 21. Joseph Goebbels, Der steile Außtieg, p. XIII. 22. Margarete Mitscherlich, \"Triumph der Verdrängung\" in Stern, no. 42,1987, p. 32. 23. Thomas Mann, Gesammelte Werke in zwölfBänden (Frankhirt, 1960), vol. 10, p. 394. 24. Leni Riefer\stahl, Memoiren (Munich, 1987), p. 212. 25. Klaus Theweleit, Männerphantasien (Basel, 1986), vol. 2, p. 64. 26. Das deutsche Lichtspielgesetz vom 16.2.1934, clause 2, para. 5 in Reichsgesetz­ blatt, pt 1, Beriin, 1934, no. 1894, p. 95.

242 i The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 243 i27. Johannes Eckhardt, \"Abbild und Sinnbild\" in Der deutsche Film, vol. 3, no. 1, 54. Sergei Eisenstein \"Über den Faschismus, die deutsche Filmkunst und das 1938, p. 44. echte Leben\" in H.-J. Schlegel, ed., Sergei Eisenstein, vol. 2, p. 210.28. Alfred Kerr, \"Kino\" in Pan, vol. 3, 1912/13, pp. 553-54, repr. in Kino-Debatte 55. Bertolt Brecht, Gesammelte Werke (Frankfurt, 1967). (Tübingen, 1978), p. 76. 56. Vsevolod Pudovkin, \"Die grundlegenden Etappen in der Entwicklung des29. Anton Kutter, \"Der 'utopische' Kulturfilm\" in Der deutsche Film, vol. 7, no. sowjetischen Films\" in V. Pudovkin et al.. Der sowjetische Film (Berlin-East, 8/9,1942, p. 18. 1953), p. 16.30. Heinrich Koch and Heinrich Braune, Von deutscher Filmkunst (Mimich, 1943), p. 57. Ibid., p. 17. 4 of photo section. 58. Ulrich Kurowski, Lexikon Film, p. 121. 59. Thomas Mann, Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man (New York, 1982), p. 402.31. Susan Sontag, Kunst und Antikunst (Munich, 1980), p. 31. 60. Paul Rötha, Documentary Film (London, 1951), p. 142. 61. Hilmar Hoffmann, \"Triumph des Willens\" in Rheinischer Merkur/Christ und32. Hans Richter, Der Kampf um den Film (Frankhirt, 1979), p. 37. Welt, 29 May 1987.33. Peter von Werder, Trugbild und Wirklichkeit. Aufgaben des Films im Umbruch der 62. Gert Kalow, Hitler—Das deutsche Trauma (Munich, 1974), p. 42. Zeit (Leipzig, 1943), p. 10. 63. Siegfried Kracauer, Von Caligari bis Hitler, p. 328 (appendix to new 1979 edition).34. Bertolt Brecht, \"Der Dreigroschenprozess, 1931\" in Siegfried Unseld, ed., 64. Siegfried Kracauer, Theorie des Films; cf. Hilmar Hoffmann, \"Abfallhaufen des Brechts Dreigroschenbuch (Frankfurt, 1960), pp. 93f. Kinos. Über Kracauers Theorie des Films\" in Nürnberger Nachrichten, 10 Octo­ ber 1970, p. 18.35. Rudolf Oertel, Macht und Magie des Films (Frankfurt, 1959), p. 75. 65. Martin Loiperdinger, Ritmle der Mobilmachung (Opladen, 1987), p. 34.36. Friedrich R von Zglinicki, Der Weg des Films (Berlin, 1965), p. 336.37. Ibid. 66. Ibid., pp. 34f. 67. Siegfried Kracauer, Theorie des Films, p. 354.38. Oskar Messter, Man Weg mit dem Film (Beriin, 1936), p. 130. 68. Friedrich Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human (Lincoln, NE, and London, 1984),39. Egon Friedell, \"Prolog vor dem Film\" in Das junge Deutschland. Blätter des p.51. Deutschen Theaters Berlin, vol. 2,1912, p. 509. 69. Pierre Bourdieu, Sozialer Sinn (Frankhirt, 1987), p. 127.40. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf 70. Ibid., p. 128. 71. Institut für den wissenschaftlichen Film, ed., Publikationen zu wissenschaftlichen41. Rudolf Oertel, Der Filmspiegel, p. 236. Filmen (Göttingen, 1977), vol. 4, p. 15 (article by A. Tyrell).42. Egon Friedell, \"Prolog vor dem Film,\" p. 510. 72. Walter Benjamin, Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit43. Joseph Goebbels, Rede des Reichsministers Dr. Joseph Goebbels bei der Eröffnung (Frankfurt, 1969), p. 42. der Reichskulturkammer am 15. November 1933 (Frankhirt, 1933). 73. Leni Riefer^tahl, Memoiren, p. 222. 74. Walter Hagemann, Publizistik im Dritten Räch (Hamburg, 1948), p. 123.44. Charles Darwin, Descent of Man (New York, 1886). 75. Fritz Hippler, \"Der Tod in Kunst und Film\" in Der deutsche Film, vol. 6, no.45. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Boston, 1943), p. 184. 6/7,1941.46. Andreas Hillgruber, \"Imperialismus und Rassendoktrin als Ken^tück der NS- 76. Hans Traub, ed.. Die Ufa, p. 165. Ideologie\" in Leo Haupts, ed., Strukturelemente des Nationalisozialismus (Cologne, 1981), pp. 11-36. 77. Ibid., p. 112. 78. Sergei Eisenstein, \"Open Letter to the German Propaganda Minister Dr.47. Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's World View (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), p. 81.48. Siegfried Kracauer, Von Caligari bis Hitler, vol. 2, p. 339. Goebbels\" in: Literaturnaya gazeta, 22 March 1934.49. Idem, Theorie des Films, p. 220. 79. Chronik 1938 (Dorhnund, 1987), p. 70.50. Quoted in Hermann Glaser, Das dritte Räch (Freiburg, 1961), p. 57. 80. Sergei Eisenstein, Ausgewählte Aufsätze (Berlin-East, 1960), p. 207.51. Hans Traub, Film als politisches Machtmittel (Munich, 1933), pp. 26ff. 81. Ulrich Kurowski, Lexikon Film, p. 83.52. Sergei Eisenstein, \"Perspektiven\" in H.-J. Schlegel, ed., Sergei Eisenstein. Schriften (Munich, 1973).53. Joseph Goebbels, \"Rede vor den Filmschaffenden in der KroU-Oper am 10. Februar 1934\" in Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 February 1934.

244 • The Triumph of Propaganda Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 245] 82.H.-J. Schlegel, ed., Sergei Eisenstein. Schriften, vol. 2, p. 138. 111. Jay Leyda, Film aus Filmen, pp. 160f. 83. Nicholas Kaufmann in Hans Traub, Die Ufa, p. 183. 112. Johan Huizinga, Im Schatten von morgen (Berne, 1935). 84. Jay Leyda, Film aus Filmen (Berlin-East, 1967), pp. 24f. 113. Michail Romm, \"Wer sich anpasst, altert rasch. Ein Gespräch aus dem Jahre 85. Hilmar Hoffmann, Marginalien zu einer Theorie der Filmmontage (Bochum, 1969), 1965\" in Friedrich Hitzer, ed., Zeitzeichen aus der Ferne (Hamburg, 1987), p. 91. p.26. 114. Kinemathek, no. 24, February 1966, p. 3. 86. Ibid. 115. Horst Knietzsch, Film gestern und heute (Leipzig, 1967), p. 444. 87. Marcel Martin, cited in Georges Sadoul, Dictionary of Films (Los Angeles, 1972), 116. Michail Romm, see note 113 above, p. 99. 117. Hermann Herlighaus, ed., Dokumentaristen der Welt (Berlin-East, 1982), p. 62. p. 150. 118. Richard Griffiths in Paul Rötha, Documentary Film, p. 310. 88. Jay Leyda, Film aus Filmen, p. 104. 119. Cf. Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, vol. 3, no. 2,1983, pp. 171f. 89. Hans-Magnus Enzensberger, \"Scherbenwelt—Anatomie einer Wochenschau\" 120. Richard M. Barsam, Nonfiction Film (Bloomington, Ind., 1973), p. 236. 121. Bundesarchiv Koblenz, R109 III—Universum Fihn AG, letter of 25 July 1944. in idem, Einzelheiten vol. 1: Bewusstseins-Industrie (Frankfurt, 1964), pp. 106-33. 122. Jan-Christopher Horak, Anti-Nazi-Filme der deutschsprachigen Emigration von 90. Jean-Luc Godard, \"Feuer frei auf die 'Carabiniers'\" in Frieda Graefe, ed., Hollywood, 1939-1945 (Münster, 1985). Jean-Luc Godard. Ausgewählte Kritiken und Aufsätze über Film, 1950-1970 123. Vsevolod Pudovkin quoted in Ulrich Kurowski, Lexikon Film, p. 76. (München, 1971). 124. Hans Richter, \"Der Film-Essay. Eine neue Form des Dokumentarfilms\" in 91. Goebbels in a speech on 8 February 1942, repr. in Joseph Goebbels, Reden. Nalional-Zeitung (Basle), 25 April 1940 (supplement). 92. Das schwarze Korps, 3 July 1941. 125. Quoted in Joseph Wulf, Theater und Film im Dritten Reich (Gütersloh, 1964), p. 300. 93. Helmut Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen (Frankfurt, 1985). 126. Kurt Wolf, \"Entwicklung und Neugestaltung der deutschen Filmwirtschaft 94. Christian Hacke, \"So unschuldig war die Generalität nicht\" in Die Zeit, 29 seit 1933,\" unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Heidelberg Uiuversity, February 1938. November 1985, p. 19. 127. Joseph Goebbels, Reden, vol. 1, p. 238. 128. Fritz Hippler, Betrachtungen zum Filmschaffen. 95. Alexander and Margarete Mitscherlich, Die Unfähigkeit zu trauern. 129. Joseph Goebbels, Reden, vol. 1, p. 250. 96. Paul Celan, \"Todesfuge\" in idem, Mohn und Gedächtnis (Frankfurt, 1975), pp. 37ff. 130. Fritz Hippler, Die Verstrickung. Auch ein Filmbuch (Düsseldorf, 1983). 97. Hans Zöberlein, Befehl des Gewissens (Munich, 1937). 131. Hans-Joachim Giese in Leipziger Beiträge zur Erforschung der Publizistik, vol. 5 98. Film-Kurier, 20 January 1941. Cf. Joseph Wulf, Lodz. Das letzte Ghetto auf polnis­ (Dresden, 1940). chem Boden (Bonn, 1962). 132. Liz-Anne Bawden and Wolfram Tichy, eds., rororo Filmlexikon (Reinbek near 99. Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, 29 November 1940.100. Illustrierter Film-Kurier, 1940. Hamburg, 1978). 133. Rudolf Oertel, Der Filmspiegel, p. 236.101. Michel Foucault, Überwachen und Strafen (Frankfurt, 1976), p.47, English trans­ \U.Film-Kurier, 18 September 1936. lation Discipline and Punish (New York, 1977). 135. Siegfried Kracauer, Kino (Frankfurt, 1974). 136. Peter Bucher, \"Machtergreifung und Wochenschau\" in Publizistik, vol. 30, no.102. Albert Memmi, Rassismus (Frankfurt, 1987).103. Ibid. 2/3,1985, p. 190.104. Joseph Goebbels in Das Reich, no. 27,1941. 137. Ibid., p. 193.105. Paul Virilio, Krieg und Kino (Munich, 1986), p. 110. 138. Ibid., p. 190.106. Carl Cranz in Der deutsche Film, vol. 6 / 7 , no. 42,1941, p. 4. 139. Heinrich Mann, \"Der Film\" in Anton Kaes, ed., Kino-Debatte (Tübingen, 1978),107. Paul Virilio, Krieg und Kino, pp. 35f.108. Antoine Saint-Exup^ry, Flug nach Arras (Stockholm, 1942), Enghsh translation p. 167. 140. Stefan Dolezel, ed., German Newsreel, 1933-1947 (Munich, 1984), pp. 9f. Flight to Arras (New York, 1942).109. Illustrierter Film-Kurier, 28 April 1940.110. Ibid.

Nonfictional Genres of Nazi Film Propaganda 247246 The Triumph of Propaganda 171. Joseph Goebbels, Tagebücher aus den Jahren 1942-43. 172. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, \"Scherbenwelt.\"141. Hans-Joachim Giese, \"Ganz gewusst\" in: Joseph Wulf, Theater und Film im 173. Peter Bucher, \"Goebbels und die deutsche Wochenschau\" in Militärge­ Dritten Reich (Frankhirt, 1983), pp. 363f. schichtliche Mitteilungen, 2 / 1 9 8 6 , pp. 53-69.142.Joharmes Eckhardt, Abbild und Sinnbild, p. 44. 174. Joseph Goebbels, Reden, vol. 2, p. 212.143. Filmdokumente zur Zeitgeschichte, No. 34,1958: Die Entwicklung der Wochenschau in 175. Helmut Hagenried, \"Dokument vom Kampf gegen die Invasion\" in Film- Deutschland. Ufa-Tonwoche Nr. 451/1939. Hitlers 50. Geburtstag (Göttingen, 1960). Kurier, 20 July 1944.144. Erich Kordt, Wahn und Wirklichkeit (Stuttgart, 1948), p. 152. 176. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (London, 1971), p. 549.145. Georg Santo, \"Parade als Paradestück\" in 25 Jahre Wochenschau der Ufa 177. Ibid., p. 550. (Beriin, 1939). 178. Emst Jünger, \"Die totale Mobilmachung\" in idem, Krieg und Krieger (Berlin,146. Peter Bucher, \"Wochenschau und Staat\" in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unter­ 1930). richt, no. 11,1984. 179. Fritz Hippler, Die Verstrickung, p. 186.147. Heinrich Roellenbleg, \"Von der Arbeit an der Deutschen Wochenschau\" in Der 180. Ibid., pp. 185f. deutsche Film, special issue, 1940/41. 181.Ibid.148. Heinrich Koch and Heinrich Braune, Von deutscher Filmkunst, p. 3. 182. Joseph Goebbels, Final Entries 1945 (New York, 1978), p. 40.149. Joseph Goebbels, Das eherne Herz (Munich, 1943). 183.Kari Wahl, Patrioten als Verbrecher (Heusendamm, 1973), p. 155.150. Esther Shub et al., Dsiga Vertov. Publizist und Poet des Dokumentarfilms 184. F. Genoud, ed., The Testament of Adolf Hitler. Bormann Documents, February-April (Berlin, 1960). 1945 (London, 1962).151. Fritz Hippler, \"Fragen und Probleme der deutschen Wochenschau im Kriege\" 185. Erich Fromm, Anatomie der menschlichen Destruktivität (Shittgart, 1974), p. 383, in idem, Betrachtungen zum Filmschaffen. Enghsh translation The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (New York, 1973).152. Rudolf Oertel, Der Filmspiegel, p. 237.l53.Film-Kurier, 25 August 1939.154. Hans Bertram, \"Wie der Fliegerfilm entstand\" in Jenaer Zeitung, 11 April 1940.155. Oskar Wesel in Film-Kurier, 8 August 1941.156. Joseph Goebbels in Der deutsche Film, vol. 5, no. 11,1940, p. 220.157. Emst Wisshaupt, ed.. Der grosse deutsche Feldzug gegen Polen (Wien, 1940).158. Felix Heseleit, \"Die neue Wochenschau\" in Film-Kurier, 11 July 1940.159. Hans Spielhofer in Der deutsche Film, February 1941.160. Harw-Joachim Giese, Die Filmxvochenschau im Dienste der Politik (Dresden, 1940).161. Alfred Rosenberg, Blut und Ehre, p. 280.162. Hans Traub, Der Film als politisches Machtmittel, p. 24.163. Cf. P. M. H. Bell, The Origins of the Second World War (London, 1986), pp. 268ff.164. Siegfried Kracauer, Kino, p. 336.165. Bundesarchiv Koblenz, NS 10, no. 44, \"Aus der Persönlichen Adjutantur des Führers und Reichskanzlers.\"166. Joseph Goebbels, Tagebücher aus den Jahren 1942-43 (Zürich, 1948).167. Joseph Goebbels, Tagebücher 1945 (Hamburg, 1977).168. Erwin Leiser, Deutschland Erwache! (Reinbek near Hamburg, 1968), p. 113.169. Erich Ludendorff, Der totale Krieg (Munich, 1935).170. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (German original), p. 563.

Bibliography 249 i SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Lowry, S. Pathos und Politik: Ideologie in Spielfilmen des National­ sozialismus. Tübingen, 1991.Albrecht, G. Nationalsozialistische Filmpolitik. Stuttgart, 1969.A n d e r s o n , M . M., ed. \"Siegfried Kracauer,\" special issue of New M o n a c o , P. Cinema and Society. N e w York, 1976. German Critique, 5 4 (fall 1991). Petley, J . Capital and Culture: German Cinema, 1933-1945. L o n ­Baird, J. W. The Mythical World of Nazi War Propaganda. Min­ don, 1979. neapolis, 1974. Peukert, D. K. Inside Nazi Germany. N e w H a v e n , 1987.Balfour, M. Propaganda in War. L o n d o n , 1979.Bessel, R., ed. Life in the Third Reich. Oxford, 1987. Plummer, Th. G., et al., eds. Film and Politics in the Weimar Repub­Bock, H.-M., a n d M. Töteberg, eds. Das Ufa-Buch. Frankfurt, 1992. lic. N e w York, 1982.B r a m s t e d , E . K. Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda. L o n ­ Rentschier, E. \"Mountains and Modernity: Relocating the don, 1965. Bergfilm,\" in: New German Critique, 51 (fall 1990), pp. 1 3 7 - 6 1 .Bredow, W. von, and R. Zurek, eds. Film und Gesellschaft in Deutsch­ Romani, C. Tainted Goddesses: Female Film Stars of the Third Reich. land. H a m b u r g , 1975. New York, 1992.C a d a r s , P., a n d F. C o u t a d e . Geschichte des Films im Dritten Reich. Rosenberg, E . S. Spreading the American Dream. N e w York, 1982. Munich, 1975.Coates, R The Gorgon's Gaze. N e w York, 1 9 9 1 . Saunders, Th. J . Hollywood in Berlin. Berkeley, 1994.Drewniak, B. Der deutsche Film, 1938-1945. Düsseldorf, 1987.Elsaesser, Th. New German Cinema. N e w Brunswick, N.J., 1 9 8 9 . Spiker, J . Film und Kapital. Der Weg der deutschen FilmwirtschaftGolsan, R. J . Fascism, Aesthetics, and Culture. Hanover, N.H., 1992. zum nationalsozialistischen Einheitskonzern. Berlin, 1975.H a k e , S. The Cinema's Third Machine. Lincoln, Nebr., 1993.H a x t h a u s e n , C. W., a n d H. Suhr, eds. Berlin: Culture and Metropo­ T h o m p s o n , K. Exporting Entertainment. London, 1985. lis. Mirmeapolis, 1990. W e l c h , D. Propaganda and the German Cinema, 1933-1945.Hull, D. S. Film in the Third Reich. Berkeley, 1 9 6 9 . Oxford, 1983.Jarvie, L Hollywood's Overseas Campaign. N e w York, 1992.Kaes, A . From Hitler to Heimat. C a m b r i d g e , Mass., 1 9 8 9 . , ed. Nazi Propaganda. Totowa, N.J., 1 9 8 3 .Kershaw, I. The Hitler Myth. Oxford, 1987.Kracauer, S. From Caligari to Hitler. Princeton, 1974. Z e m a n , Z. A . B. Nazi Propaganda. London, 1973.Labanyi, P. \"Images of Fascism,\" in: M. Laffan, ed. The Burden of History. L o n d o n , 1988, pp. 1 5 1 - 7 7 .

Index of Names 251INDEX OF NAMES Eckardt, Johannes, 203 Goebbels, Joseph, passim Ebert, Friedrich, 10,17 Gödecke, Heinz, 181Abbe, Ernst, 117 Brunei, Fritz, 176, 221 Edward Vll, King of England, 80,195 Goring, Hermann, 17,178f., 180,198,Adomo, Theodor W., 70, 85, 88, Bucher, Peter, xii, 198, 232 Eichmann, Adolf, 240 Buck, Jules, 187 Einstein, Albert, 122 205, 216, 240 93,175 Bufiuel, Luis, 168,191 Eisenstein, Sergei N., 32f., 123,144f., Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 115,131f.Albrecht, Gerd, xif., 209 Goodman, Nelson, 119Allgeyer, Sepp, 55 Cadars, Pierre, xi, 217 157,161,163f. Gorki, Maxim, 146Altdörfer, Albrecht, 2 Canetti, Elias, xi, 1,3, 5, 24 Eisler, Hanns, 27,126, 240 Graff, Anton, 49Alten, Jürgen von, 155 Canning, George, 76 Engels, Friedrich, 29, 75, Grau, Alexander, 80,82Amet, Edward, 196 Capra, Frank, 168,184ff., 191 Enzensberger, Hans Magnus, 168, 232 Green, Joseph, 175Anders, Günther, 216 Carnegie, Andrew, 77 Ettinghofer, Paul, 139 Gregory XV, Pope, 75Arndt, Moritz, 25 Carol, Prince of Rumania, 136 Ewers, Hanns Heinz, 54 Grömillon, Jean, 189Asquith, Herbert Henry, 76f., 80 Carow, Heiner, 69 Eyck, Tony van, 192 Grey Edward, 80August Wilhelm, Princess of Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 191 Grierson, John, 124,165,188 Calvalcanti, Alberto, 123,148 Färber, Helmut, 70 Griffiths, D. W., 77 Prussia, 138 C61an, Paul, 173 Fanck, Arnold, 128ff., 155 Griffiths, Richard, 187Aurel, Jean, 191 Chamberlain, Neville, 179,186 Fangauf, Eberhard, 194 Grimm, Hans, 92Axmann, Artur, 239 Chaplin, Charles, 77 Fest, Joachim C , 24, 64, 70,191 Guderian, Heinz, 49 Charlemagne, 2, 29 Flaherty, Robert, 124,133 Guitry Sascha, 136Baläsz, Böla, 70,123f. Chiang Kai-shek, 185 Ford, Henry 77 Gutscher, Leopold, 16Barthes, Roland, 19 Churchill, Winston, 186f. Ford, John, 171 Gutterer, Leopold, 121Baumann, Hans, 107 Claire, Rena, 148 Forst, Willi, 109Bauriedel, Andreas, 22 Clemenceau, Georges, 77, 80 Habe, Hans, 189Becker, Jacques, 189 Corinth, Lovis, 136 Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, 137 Habermas, Jürgen, 61,102Beethoven, Ludwig van, 119,127,168 Courtade, Francis, xi, 217 Franco, Francisco, 159,204 Hächa, Emil, 206Belling, Curt, 110 Cranz, Carl, 177 Frederick II (the Great), 9, 23, 34, Hadamovsky, Eugen, 188Benjamin, Walter, 153 Creel, George, 78 Hagemarm, Walter, 154Berg, Bengt, 121 Crul, George, 166 44ff., 198 Harder, M., 125Bernhardt, Guy 168 Cürlis, Hans, 122,136,154 Freihgrath, Ferdinand, 6f. Harian, Veit, ix, 4 3 , 4 6 , 58f., 69,Bernhardt, Kurt, 55 Freud, Sigmund, x, 12,84f., 122Bertram, Hans, 154,176ff., 217ff. Dade, Peter, 11 Freund, Karl, 123 97, 230Bethge, Friedrich, 201 Dagover, Lil, 136 Freytag, Gustav, 7,10 Harold II, King of England, 2Beumelburg, Werner, 139 Dahrendorf, Ralf, 6 4 , 6 6 Frick, Wilhebn, vii, 198 Hart, Wolf, 155Bharatis, Agehananda, 14 Daladier, Edouard, 186 Friedeil, Egon, 139 Hartmann, Paul, viiiBismarck, Otto von, 8f., 18,44,125, Daquin, Louis, 189 Friedländer, Saul, 25, 64, 89 Hatheyer, Heidemarie, vüi Darwin, Charles, 140 Fröhlich, Gustav, 48 Häußler, Johannes, 162 186,199, 201, 223 Dassin, Jules, 189 Froehlich, Karl, 138 Hebbel, Friedrich, 20Blackton, James Stuart, 77 David, Eduard, 10 Fromm, Erich, 239 Heer, Friedrich von, 64Bloch, Ernst, 28 Delacroix, Eugene, 3 Heine, Heinrich, 7Bock, Fedor von, 227 Dieboro, Hans, 173 Gallehr, Theo, 34 Heller, Hermarm, 64Bonseis, Waldemar, 121 Dimitroff, Georgi, 64 Garnett, Tay 189 Hermes, Gottlieb, 81Borsody Eduard von, 58,154,180 Dostoyevsky Fedor, 75 Gaulle, Charles de, 188f. Heyde, Ludwig, 210Bossak, Jerzy 180,191 Dovshenko, Alexander, 146,191 Gebühr, Otto, ix, 45 Heydrich, Reinhard, 240Bourdieu, Pierre, 151 Drewniak, Boguslaw, xi Geiger, Theodor, 64 Hillgruber, Andreas, 61,141Bratianu, Jon, 80 Drews, Berta, 50,100 George, Heinrich, 50,58,100 Himmler, Heinrich, 34,154, 204, 210Brauchitsch, Walter von, 216 Dudow, Slatan, 3 1 , 5 6 , 1 2 5 George, Stefan, 99 Hindenburg, Paul von, 12,16f., 80,Braune, Heinrich, 132 Dupr6,J. A., 212 Giese, Hans-Joachim, 195, 202,Brecht, Bertolt, 20, 31,88,126,135, 90,125, 199f., 240 211f., 222 Hinkel, Hans, 134 137,240 Glaser, Hermann, 94 Hippler, Fritz, vi, 78,127,134,155f.,Breker, Arno, 223 Gneisenau, August WilhelmBriand, Aristide, 77,167 173,176f., 194f., 211, 213, 215ff., Count, 46 230, 235f. Godard, Jean-Luc, 4,164,169,191

252! Index of Names Index of Names 2531Hitler, Adolf, passim Krieger, Ernst, 119 Möller, Wolf gang Eberhard, 11 Reed, Carol, 191Hölderlin, Friedrich, 93,156 Krosigk, J. L. von, 198 Mondi, Bruno, 48 Reich, Wilhelm, 15,64, 67Hoffmann, Franz, 32 Kuleshov, Lev, 139,164f. Monet, Claude, 168 Reinert, R., 117Hoffmann, Kurt, 109 Kurowski, Ulrich, 144,163 Mochuchin, Ivan, 165 Reinhardt, Max, 122Hofman, Jerzy, 191 Kurosawa, Akiro, 36f. Müller, Hermann, 125 Remarque, Erich Maria, 96Horkheimer, Max, 64, 70 Musil, Robert, 229 Renoir, Auguste, 136Hubert, Kurt, 211 Lallier, Etienne, 189 Mussolini, Benito, 84, 203, 237 Renoir, Jean, 168Hübner, Wilhelm, 237 Lammers, Hans-Heinrich, 103 Renoir, Pierre, 189Hugenberg, Alfred, 82,197ff. Lang, Fritz, 43, 96,123,175 Nakamura, Robert A., 35 Resnais, Alain, 168,191Huizinga, Johan, 181 Leberecht, Frank, 130 Napoleon I, 46 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 207, 214Huston, John, 186f., 191 Le Bon, Gustave, 13,83f., 144 Nechayev, Sergei, 75 Richter, Hans, 9 4 , 1 3 3 , 1 9 0Huxley, Aldous, 78 Le Chanois, Jean-Paul, 190 Neumann, Robert, 235 Richter, Horst-Eberhard, 62f. Legg, Stuart, 188 Neurath, Konstantin von, 207 Riefenstahl, Leni, ixf., 18f., 24, 3 1 , 3 6 ,Ince, Thomas, 77 Leiser, Erwin, 191, 231 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 46, 61,109,Ivens, Joris, 133,147,167,191 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 76,145 55,78,94f., 101,128f., 144,146, Leo III, Pope, 2 151,166 148ff., 154,157ff., 1 8 0 , 1 8 6 , 1 9 8Jäckel, Eberhard, 141 Noldan, Svend, 119,126f., 155,161f., Rikli, Martin, 117Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 15 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 155 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 99Jannings, Emil, 136,139, 201 Ley, Robert, 201 176, 221 Ritter, Karl, 4 3 , 1 5 5Jünger, Ernst, 67f., 148, 235 Leyda, Jay, 167 Nolte, Ernst, 61ff., 173 Röck, Marika, 181Junghans, Carl, 126,155,166,191 Lichtwark, E. W. M., 117 Norkus, Herbert, viii, 34, 50f. Röhm, Emst, 154Junghans, Wolfram, 121 Liebeneiner, Wolfgang, viii, 34, 4 3 , 5 8 Northcliffe, Alfred, 77 Roellenbleg, Heinrich, 211Jutzi, Fiel, 56f., 155 Liebermann, Max, 136 Rogosin, Lionel, 191 Liliencron, Detlev von, 20 Oertel, Rudolf, 115,155,160, 213 •! Romm, Michail, 163,181ff., 191Käutner, Helmut, 109 List, Guido von, 15 Ophüls, Marcel, 191 ' Roosevelt, Franklin D., 170,183f.,Kaibus, Oskar, 119 Litvak, Anatole, 185,191 Opitz, Reinhard, 64 ! 189,199, 237Kant, Immanuel, 158 Lloyd George, David, 77, 80 Ortega y Gasset, ]os6,84 Rosenberg, Alfred, 91,104,172,223Karmen, Roland, 183 Loiperdinger, Martin, 150 Ossietzky Carl von, 96 Rossif, md6nc, 169,191Kataev, Vladimir, 5 Lorre, Peter, 175 Ozep, Fedoiv 175 Rötha, Paul, 149,191Kaufmann, Boris, 148 Rühmann, Heinz, 109Kaufmann, Nicholas, 116, llSf., Ludendorff, Erich, 76, 78f., 82, 96,231 Pabst, Georg Wilhelm, 56,96, < Rundstedt, Gerd von, 106, 226 Ludwig II, King of Bavaria, 9 Rust, Bernhard, 90,110 156,164 Lukäcs, Georg, 127 122ff., 155 Ruttmann, Walter, 123,147f., 155,191Kaweczynski, Hugo von, 161 Luther, Martin, 75Kazmierczak, Vaclav, 180 Rapen, Franz von, 197f. Sachsze, Hans Joachim, 109Keitel, Wilhelm, 204, 227 Mann, Golo, 8 Saint-Exup^ry, Antoine de, 178Kellogg, Frank, 167 Mann, Heinrich, 56,124,137,199 Path6, Charles, 196 Sandrock, Adele, 136Kerr, Alfred, 131 Mann, Thomas, 84f., 129,148, 199 Schamoni, Peter, 191Killinger, Manfred von, 16 Maraun, Frank, 218f. Paulsen, Harald, viii Schenckendorff, Leopold von, 33Klimsch, Fritz, 223 Marker, Chris, 191 Schenzinger, Alois, 50Klitzsch, Ludwig, 78f. Marshall, George C , 185 Potain, Phillipe, 227 Schinkel, Friedrich, 9Kluge, Alexander, 43,163,191 Marx, Karl, 75 Schirach, Baidur von, 25,49,52f.,Koch, Heinrich, 132 Mayakovski, V, 145 Pfeiffer, M., 120Koch, Erich, 172,239 Memmi, Albert, 176 98, 201Koenig, Otto, 30 Messter, Oskar, 46,135ff. Piscator, Erwin, 56f., 124 Schlageter, Leo, 163Kollwitz, Käthe, 126 Metzner, Ernö, 125 Schübel, Rolf, 34Kopalin, Ilya, 183 Meyer, Johannes, 59 Pius XI, Pope, 200 Schultzte, Norbert, 179, 218Kopp, Martin, 138 Michelangelo Buonarotti, 115 Schulz, Ulrich K. T , 117Kortner, Fritz, 175 Michels, Robert, 28 Planck, Max, 119 Schumann, Gerhard, 33Kracauer, Siegfried, 66,123,142f., Milestone, Lewis, 96 Schumann, Robert, 7 Mitscherlich, Alexander, 87,172 Poincar^, Raymond, 80 Seeber, Guido, 123 150,196,217 Mitscherlich, Margarete, 87,129,172 Seghers, Anna, 57Krausiück, Helmut, 172 Polianskij, Valerian, 56 Porten, Jenny, 136 Porter, Edwin S., 191 Prager, Wilhelm, 116 Prävert, Jacques, 191 Proust, Marcel, 151 Pudovkin, Vsevolod, 139,146,151, 165,190 Rabenalt, Arthur Maria, 43,109 Raddatz, Carl, 180 Ray Sayajit, 191

j254 Index of Names INDEX OF FILM TITLESSeitz, Franz, 53 Ucicky Gustav, 25, 46,155,174 A Thousand Shall Fall, 189 Bismarck, 9,34,104,109Shaw, George Bernard, 48 Utshitel, Yefim, 183 Die Abenteuer eines Zehn­ Das blaue Licht, 128Shklovsky, Victor, 147,166 Blutendes Deutschland, 162Shub, Esther, 164f., 212 Varlamov, Leonid, 183 markscheins, 123 Die Brücke, 107Shushinskij, Vladimir, 212 V^drte, Nicole, 168 80,000 Bilder in einer Sekunde, 132 Brüder, 27Simmel, Georg, 30,86 Vertov, Dziga, 133,146ff., 165f. Aerograd, 166 Brutalität in Stein, 191Skorzeny, Otto, 237 Viertel, Berthold, 123 All Quiet on the Western Front, 96 Bunte Kriechwelt, 118,134Slavinskaya, Maria, 212 Vigo,Jean, 148 Alpenkorps im Angriff, 130 Bunte Tierwelt, 124Slevogt, Max, 136 Virilio, Paul, 4,166,177f., Der alte und der junge König, ixSöderbaum, Kristina, 47 Visconti, Luchino, 191 Altgermanische Bauemkultur, The Camera Eye, 146Sormino, Sidney, 80 Camera sous la botte, 189Sontag, Susan, 133,150 Wagner, Richard, 2, 25,150, 206 148,155 Les Carabiniers, 4,169,191Sorel, Georges, 84 Wahl, Karl, 239 Der Ameisenstaat, 117 Civilization, 77Speelmans, Hermann, 50,100 Waschnek, E., 121 America's Ansv^rer to the Hun, 166 The Cross of Lorraine, 189Speer, Albert, 207,230, 324 Weber, Max, 131 Amerika sieht sich selbst, 170Spoerl, Heinrich, 109 Wegener, Alfred, 104 Andreas Schlüter, 104,109 Dämmerung über dem Teufelsmoor,Stalin, Josef, 7 6 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 7 3 , 2 1 5 Weidemann, Alfred, III, 155,192 Apropos de Nice, 148 134Stapel, Wilhelm, 95 Weigel, Helene, 126 Arbeitsdienst, 154Stark, Georg, 192 Weiß, Helmut, 109 Arbeitslos, 159 Daily Fascism, 163,181,191Stauß, Emil Georg von, 81 Weizmarm, Chaim, 62 Armer Hansi, 134 Danzig, 155Steinhoff, Hans, ix, 50f., 100,155 Weizsäcker, Cari Friedrich von, 238 Arno Breker, 154 Days of Glory, 191Sternberger, Dolf, 63 Wendel, Friedrich, 29 Atlantikv^all, 155 Dead End, 170Stoeppler, Wilhelm, 134,179, 218 Wendt, Emst, 9 Au Coeur de l'orage, 190 Description d'un combat, 191Storck, Henri, 167 Wentzcke, Paul, 9 Auf dem Felde der Ehre, 137 Deulig-Ton-Woche, 137,197ff.Streicher, Julius, 159,175 Wenzler, Franz, 53 Der Aufstand der Fischer von St. Deutsche Arbeitsstätten, 155Stresemann, Gustav, 82 Werder, Peter von, 133 Deutsche Panzer, 148,155Strienz, Wilhelm, 181 Werner, Ilse, 180 Barbara, 57 Deutsche Wochenschau, 210ff.Stürmer, Michael, 61 Wernicke, Otto, 48 Der Aufstieg aus der Tiefe empor, 131 Das deutsche Wort, 134Stuhlfelt, Willy 121 Wessel, Horst, viii, 20,24,53f., 9 4 , 9 7 , Aus der Geschichte des Florian Dem deutschen Volke, 125Syberberg, Hans-Jürgen, 234 Deutschland—mein Deutschland, 161Szczypiorsky, Andrzej, 189 102,240 Geyer, 130 Diesel, 104,109 Wessel, Josef, 215 Divide and Conquer, 184Taviani, Paolo, 4 Wiemann, Matthias, viii Balkanfeldzug, 156 Dom über der Stadt, 122Taviani, Vittorio, 4 Wilhelm I, German Kaiser, 9 La Bataille de France, 191 Die Dreigroschenoper, 56Tejessy, Fritz, 120 Wilhelm II, German Kaiser, 7 7 , 7 9 , 82, The Battie Cry of Peace, 77 Drifters, 124Thalheimer, August, 64 The Battle of Britain, 184Theweleit, Klaus, 64,67, 70,129 116,120,135f. The Battle of China, 185 Earth, 166Thomalla, Curt, 119 William the Conqueror, 2 The Battle of Russia, 184 Eclair r^vue, 137Tiomkin, Dimitri, 186 Wilson, Woodrow, 77 The Battle of San Pietro, 186f., 191 Eger—eine alte deutsche Stadt, 16Tiso, Josef, 206f. Windt, Herbert, 217, 227 Battleship Potemkin, 32f., 123,145ff. Eiko-Woche, 136f.Todt, Fritz, 226 Witte, Karsten, 52 Bau am Staat, 125 Einer für alle, 126Toepler, A., 117 Wyler, William, 170 Berg des Schicksals, 128 Der eiserne Hindenburg in Krieg undToland, John, 64 Berge in Flammen, 128Tolstoy, Leo, 95 Yorck, Eugen, 155 Bergbauem, 130 Frieden, 162 Yutkevich, Sergei, 191 Bergsommer, 130 Emelka-Tonwoche, 199Traub, Hans, 121,144,192f., 223 Berlin—Die Symphonie einer Groß­ Endkampf um Berlin, 156Trenker, Luis, 55,128f. Zdanov, Andrei, 146 Die Entlassung, 104,109Tucholsky Kurt, 57,122 Zglinicki, Friedrich von, 136 stadt, 123,148 Der ewige Jude, 105,134,173ff., 215TyreU, Albrecht, 152 Zielke, 159f. Besatzung Dora, 155 Zirmemann, Fred, xi Die Biene Maja und ihre Abenteuer, Zille, Heinrich, 57, 136 121 Der Bienenstaat, 118

256 i Index of Film Titles Index of Film Titles 257Fäuste an dem Fahnenschaft, 160 Herr Roosevelt plaudert, 170 Können Tiere denken?, 118 The Nazi Strike, 186The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty, 164 Heuzug im Allgäu, 130 Kolberg, 58f., 69, 97,105 Netz aus Seide, 134Fatherland and Death, 191 Der Hirschkäfer, 117 Kopemikus, 134 Die Nibelungen, 96,123Feinde, 108 Histoire du Soldat Inconnu, 167 Kopf hoch, Johannes, 108 Night and Fog, 191Feldzug in Polen, 104,176f., 214ff. History of the Civil War, 165 Krafrteistung der Pflanzen, 118 Nuit et brouillard, 191Fest der Jugend, 104 Hitler—ein Film aus Deutschland, Kraniche ziehen gen Süden, 134Fest der Schönheit, 104 Kriegsspiele um HJ-Banner (Deulig Obyknovermij fasizm, 163,181,191Fest der Völker, 104 234 Ohm Krüger, 109Feuertaufe, 154ff., 176f., 183,216ff. Ton-Woche No. 275), 99f. Olympia, 78,154,157ff., 180Die Feuerzangenbowle, 109 Hitler—eine Karriere, 70,191 Krüppelnot und Krüppelhilfe, 119 Opfergang, 58f.Das Flötenkonzert von Sanssoucis, 46 Hitler über Deutschland, 125 Künstier bei der Arbeit, 134Flüchtlinge, 46 Hitlerjugend in den Bergen, 130 Kuhle Wampe oder: Wem gehört die Padre Padrone, 4Freiwillige vor, 126 Hitlerjunge Quex, vii, 50ff., 58, 67, Paracelsus, 155Die freudlose Gasse, 160 Welt, 31, 56,125f. Paris la belle, 191Fridericus Rex, 104 100,155 Paris 1900,168f.Fridericus Rex beim Flötenspiel, 46 Hitlers 50. Geburtstag, 104 Das Leben Adolf Hitlers, 191 Pathä-Joumal, 137Friedrich Schiller, 104,109 Hito Hata—Raise the Banner, 35 Leinen aus Irland, 105 Die Pocken, ihre Gefahren und derenFrom Here to Eternity, xi Hochland HJ, 130 Der letzte Einbaum, 134Front am Himmel, 156 Hochzeit im Korallenmeer, 134 Liberated France, 191 Bekämpfung, 119Frontovoi Kinooperator, 212 Hochzeiten im Tierreich, 118 La Liberation de Paris, 190 Prelude to War, 184ff.Früh übt sich, 154 100,000 unter roten Fahnen, 27 Licht, Luft, Leben, 122 The Purim Player, 175Die Funker mit dem Edelweiss, 130 Das Liebesglück einer Blinden, 136 Ich klage an, viii, 58 The Life of an American Fireman, 191 Quax, der Bruchpilot, 109Gaumont actuality, 137 Im Anfang war das Wort, 125 Lights of New York, 124Geheimnis der Seele, 122,160 Im Kampf gegen den Weltfeind, 155 Lohnbuchhalter Kremke, 125 Rabindranat Tagore, 191Der geheimnisvolle Spiegel, 117 Im Reich der Wichtelmänner, 134 Radium, 118Der Geisbub, 118 Im Tal der hundert Mühlen, 134 Madrid '36,168,191 Ran, 36Geist der Gotik, 122 Im Wald von Katyn, 171f. Das Mädchen Johanna, 46 Der Rebell, 55,128Germanen gegen Pharaonen, 119 In der Obedska Bara, 118 Männerwirtschaft, 59 Reitet für Deutschland, 109Die Geschlechtskrankheiten und ihre In Fels und Firn, 130 M, 175 Requiem for 500,000,191 Ins Dritte Reich, 125 Majestät der Berge, 130 Reseau X, 189 Folgen, 119 Insel der Seligen, 122 The Man with the Camera, 146 Le Retour, 191Gestern und heute, 155 Intolerance, 77 The March of Time, 201 Reunion de France, 189Gewehr über, 155 Meerestiere in der Adria, 118 Rien que les heures, 123,148Gläserne Wundertiere, 124 Jagd unter Wasser, 118 Mein Kampf, 191 Robert Koch, 104Good Times, Wonderful Times, 191 Jahre der Entscheidung, 155 Die Melodie der Welt, 191 Röntgenstrahlen, 118GPU, 155 Josef Thorak, 155 The Memory of Justice, 191 Romantisches Burgenland, 134Grabmal des unbekannten Soldaten, Jud Süss, 105,109,173 Messter-Woche, 137ff. Die rote Fahne, 126 Jugend der Welt, 126,155 Metall des Himmels, 148 Rote Fahnen sieht man besser, 34 155 Jugend im Tanz, 118 Michelangelo, 160 Die Rothschilds, 105,173The Grapes of Wrath, 171 Junges Europa II, III Mit den Zugvögeln nach Afrika, 121 Rüstungsarbeiter, 155Die Grazilen, 122 Junker der Waffen-SS, 156 Moana, 124 Die Russen kommen, 69The Great Patriotic War, 183 Der Mörder Dimitri Karamasoff, 175 The Russia of Nicolas II and LeoThe Great Road, 164 Kadetten, 109 Morgenrot, 25, 46Das grosse Eis, 104 Kagamusha—der Schatten des Moscow Strikes Back, 183 Tolstoy 164Der grosse König, ix, 46f., 104,109 Mourir ä Madrid, 169 Krieges, 37 Movietone News, 137 Säuglingspflege, 119Hände hoch, 155 The Kaiser—The Beast of Berlin, 77 Mutter Krausens Fahrt ins Glück, 27, SA-Maim Brand, vii, 24, 53, 55, 58,Hangmen also Die, 240 Kameradschaft, 56Hans Weshnar, vii, 5 3 , 5 5 , 6 7 , 1 0 0 Der Kampf um den Himalaja, 130f. 56f. 67,100Der heilige Berg, 128,130 Kampf imi die Scholle, 121 Mysterium des Lebens, 118 Schaffende Hände, 136Heimkehr, 46, 109,174 Der Kampf ums Matterhom, 128 Die Schuldigen des Weltkrieges, 79f. Kampfgeschwader Lützow, 105, Nanga Parbat, 104 September 1939,180 Natur und Techiük, 118 Shoulder Arms, 77 108f., 155 Kleider machen Leute, 109

258 Index of Film TitlesSieg des Glaubens, ix, 18, 24,149, Unter der Fahne der Jugend, 156 153,198 Unter der Kriegsflagge, 156 Unter der schwarzen Sturmfahne, 160Sieg im Osten, 148 Untemhmen Michael, 155Sieg im Westen, 78,104,155f., 176f., Velikaya ochesvenaya voina, 183 219ff., 235 Vendetta, 136Siegfrieds Tod, 123 Die verborgenen Wunder unsererDas Siimesleben der Pflar^en, 118So ist das Leben, 126 Gewässer, 121Der Sohn der weissen Berge, 128 Verräter, 155Soldaten von morgen, 155 Verwitterte Melodie, 134Song of the Streams, 191 Victory against the German ArmiesSophienlund, 109S.O.S. Eisberg, 128 before Moscow, 183Das Sowjet-Paradies, 171 Victory on the Right Bank of theSprung in den Feind, 134Der Stahlhelm marschiert, 126 Dnieper, 191Das Stahlgetier, 160Stalingrad, 183 Der Wagenlenker, 120 War Comes to America, 185Die Steinemen Wunder von Naum­ Was ist die Welt?, 119,126 burg, 155,160 Was wählst Du?, 125 Was wollen die Kommunisten?, 126Strike, 163 Wege zu Kraft und Schönheit,The Struggle for Leningrad, 183Stukas, 105,108f., 155 116,122Sud Naradov, 183 Die weisse Hölle von Piz Palu, 128Der Tag im Fihn, 136 Die weisse Seuche, 119Takovy ye zivot, 126 Weisser Flieder, 109Les Temps du Ghetto, 191 Welt im Kleinsten, 134Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse, 96 Der Weltkrieg, 157Thüringen, 134 Weltwende, 126,166,191Tiergarten des Meeres, 118 Westfront, 56, 96Tiergarten Südamerikas, 118 What Price Glory, 124The Titan: The Story of Michelangelo, Why We Fight, 168,184f., 191 Wie Max das Eiseme Kreuz 160Tobis, 210 erwarb, 137Triumph des Willens, 18, 24, 95,104, Wiener Blut, 109 Wir machen Musik, 109 148f., 153,185 Wir tragen die Fahne gen Süden, 157The True Glory, 191 Wohin wir treiben, 12520th Century Fox, 210 World in Action, 188 The World's Greatest Story 166f.U-Boote westwärts, 105,108 Wort und Tat, 155Ufa-Tonwoche, 139, 201ff. Wunder des Schneeschuhs, 128Under Four Flags, 166 Wunschkonzert, 58,108f., 180f.Unendlicher Weltrairai, 118The Unforgiven, 187 Yidl Mitn Fidl, 175Uns zieht es zu höherem hinauf, 131 York, 46Unser Hindenburg, 125Unsere Fahne ist die Treue, 38 Zeitprobleme: Wie der ArbeiterUnsere Infanterie, 156 wohnt, 125Unsichtbare Wolken, 117f. Der Zirkus kommt, 118