Global Conversations Spring 2018 Issue

GLOBALCONVERSATIONSSPRING 2018



EXECUTIVE PRODUCERS in this issue Siobhan Bradley & Cadhla Gray 6 URBAN RENAISSANCE VS. SMART DECLINE: IS THERE ASSOCIATE PRODUCER Marko Klijajic A MODEL OF “PALLIATIVE CARE” FOR THE WORLD’S DYING CITIES? DIRECTOR OF DIGITAL DESIGN I. Anowa Quarcoo Bruce Cinnamon examines the emerging trend of “smart decline” where cities embrace their population shrinkage and opt to “right-size” theirDIRECTOR OF WRITTEN CONTENT urban space Kyle Jacques 8 CAMEROON’S SEPARATIST MOVEMENTS AND THE DIRECTOR OF BREAKING NEWS Graeme Stewart-Wilson LINGERING IMPLICATIONS OF COLONIAL RULE ASSOCIATE EDITORS Anushree Warrier Vanessa Hayford explores the origins and implications of Cameroon’s Samantha Kolb Separatist movement and the tensions that have arisen between the Sara D’Ambrogio anglophone and francophone communities Tracy Luong BREAKING NEWS TEAM 10 THE ROLE OF SELF-DETERMINATION IN ADVANCING Aaishah Karim Allison Cohen INDIGENOUS HEALTHCARE Alexandre Parrott-Mautner Emma Amaral highlights the need for healthcare delivery by and for Bronwyn McCarter Indigenous people to address the drastic 17 year difference in life Geneva Calder expectancy faced by Indigenous people in Canada Genevieve Segard Sukmeet Singh 12 THE DIFFUSION OF DAESH Zara Bukhari PODCAST TEAM Timothy Robinson examines how Da’esh is losing presence in Syria and Allison Wallis Iraq but entering conflicts in Turkey, Iran, and Israel Cydney Link-Melnyk 14 A GLOBAL ECONOMY, BUT ON CHINA’S TERMS WRITTEN CONTRIBUTORSAaron Wilson, Alexandre Levesque, Tanvi Shetty assesses the effects of Chinese investment on infrastructureBriana MacLeod, Bruce Cinnamon, in countries along the Silk Route Emma Amaral, Geordie Jeakins, GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS IS A STUDENT-LED PUBLICATION AT THE MUNK SCHOOL Gita Goolsaran, Hannah Rosen, OF GLOBAL AFFAIRS, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. Hannah Rundle, Mia Fortino, Mary-Anne Laguna Meersabeer, Natasha Comeau, Sarah Cooper, Tanvi Shetty, Tim Robinson, Vanessa Hayford

page 18 16 A BUMP IN THE ROAD: MEASLES OUTBREAKS QUADRUPLEpage 20 ACROSS EUROPE Natasha Comeau explores the recent 400 per cent spike in measles outbreaks across Europe due to decreasing vaccination rates 18 WOMENOMICS: A RIPPLE EFFECT OF CHANGE WITHIN JAPAN Hannah Rosen explores Japan’s economic future with an eye to the low birth rate and low representation of women in the workforce 20 MILITANT BUDDHISTS OF SRI LANKA: A STATE OF EMERGENCY Vanessa Hayford analyzes the potential for peaceful pluralism in African countries with authoritarian leaders. 22 THE STRATEGIC AND ETHICAL DILEMMA OF MERCENARIES IN MODERN WARFARE Geordie Jeakins examines the strategic and ethical impacts of the increasing use of mercenaries in modern combat

Letter from theExecutives As the academic year comes to a close, we are excited to share the Spring 2018 Issue of Global Conversations. The articles within this issue explore a wide variety of topical events and issues, including the role of self-determination in advancing Indigenous healthcare in Canada, the implications of China’s Belt and Road infrastructure initiative, and the overshadowed secessionist movement taking place in Cameroon. The Global Conversations publication has experienced a number of new and exciting additions this year. We launched our first podcast on “Emerging Technologies: Bitcoin and Blockchain,” featuring an MGA alumni working in the industry. Additionally, we partnered with various existing and new initiatives, including the Intersectional Feminist Collective and the International Mining Conference, on pieces that add diverse and underreported perspectives on important issues. We are grateful to our written contributors, editors, and directors for their talents and dedication to the student-driven publication throughout the year. We continue to encourage readers to regularly check and participate on the active digital platform, munkgc. com, for weekly NewsWatch articles that analyze underreported news events and critically interrogate mainstream media commentary. As the publication and online platform continue to grow, we are excited to expand the reach of these perspectives, and encourage people to read, respond to, and engage in conversations on the selected topics. Executive Producers, Siobhan Bradley & Cadhla Gray Winter 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 5

d“dUpyerbaicnllaliginnaectrii:etvinieseastcih?saseraeren”cafeomrvtosh.desemwl aoorfrtld’sBY BRUCE CINNAMONTHE 21st century has been dubbed “the urban Accordingly, one of the most pressing questions of our SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, AMBER SIMS century” because of the unprecedented growth time is how to address the variety of challenges posed of the world’s cities. The numbers are clear, and by the massive influx of urban residents—from growingthey tell a compelling story: on 23 May 2007, for the urban wealth inequality to the difficulties associatedfirst time in human history, more people lived in cities with integrating migrants.than in rural areas around the world. By 2050, two out Yet amidst all this breathless excitement overof every three people will call a city home, and in 2100, demographic trends—and hidden behind the nightmarea full 85 per cent of our species will be urban dwellers. image of the polluted, overcrowded metropolis—Everywhere around the world, cities are on the rise. another question often goes overlooked: what about the6 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

cities that are rapidly losing their people, their major deserted properties. Demolishing abandoned buildingsemployers, and their hope for the future? and “rewilding” blighted areas could be a way to reduceFrom Cuba to Italy, South Korea to Russia, dozens of infrastructure costs and to make the city more healthylarge cities across the world are experiencing shrinking and liveable for its remaining residents.populations and declining per-capita GDP. The simple But Detroit’s smart-decline strategies face significantversion of this narrative is that cities in the Global South hurdles. Detroit has a long and racialized history ofare booming while former manufacturing hubs in the forcibly relocating its less-privileged citizens. Thedeveloped world are busting. But urban decline is a Detroit Future City framework seeks to offer incentivestruly global phenomenon—some of the greatest rates to expropriate properties rather than using “eminentof decline are in countries like China, Bangladesh, and domain,” in which a state invokes its right to seizeMorocco. private property for public use.Local leaders in dwindling cities face an entirely But what of the residents who refuse to leave blighteddifferent set of challenges. What should one do—what neighbourhoods that have been scheduled forcan one do—if businesses are closing up shop, incomes demolition? The director of the Detroit Future Cityare falling, and people are fleeing en masse? Implementation Office, Anika Goss-Foster, a BlackThere are two broad schools of thought on how best woman herself, maintains that racial equality andto tackle urban decline: “Urban renaissance,” where community engagement are guiding principles for thecities are saved through some combination of economic plan. A recent study, however, found that 70 per cent ofdevelopment initiatives, creative urban planning, Detroit’s women of colour (who make up more than 90revitalization megaprojects, and incentives to attract per cent of the city’s female population) feel left out ofsmart people, and “smart decline,” where cities embrace the city’s revitalization plans.their shrinkage and opt to “right-size” their urban space It might be hard for their residents to hear, but somefor their reduced population rather than trying to entice cities might just be doomed. Perhaps every city has aresidents back. natural life cycle of birth, growth, decline, and death,Urban renaissance is a familiar concept and, in many but that doesn’t mean that declining cities can’t provideways, the default mindset of urban policymakers and a high quality of life for their remaining residents. Forthe general public. But smart decline deserves greater that to happen, these cities need to take bold actionsattention. Is it a good idea? Could it be a model for that reshape their urban environments—rather thanmaking urban life more environmentally and socially praying for a renaissance miracle or “bribing people tosustainable? stay.” Ultimately, the emerging trend of smart decline inDetroit is the example par excellence of a declining shrinking cities can be a brilliant new policy paradigm.global city. From a peak population of just under 1.85 If it is to succeed, however, it must include the voicesmillion in 1950 to just over 670,000 in 2016, Detroit and interests of traditionally marginalized citizens.has faced its share of misery and garnered more than itsfair share of headlines proclaiming its death. Bruce Cinnamon is a second-yearIn 2013, the City of Detroit unveiled the Detroit Future MGA student. His academic interestsCity framework—a plan to adapt the urban landscape include economic development,for its reduced population over the next 50 years. The innovation policy, internationallong-term plan is still in its early stages, but the city trade, and relations betweenand its citizens have already implemented some smart- subnational jurisdictions. In Falldecline ideas, such as establishing urban farms where 2017 he was on exchange to thederelict factories once stood, and tearing down 10,000 Sciences Po Urban School in Paris, studying comparative policy in large metropolises around the world and how local governments are addressing global challenges. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 7

caConaldmontehiraeololrinun’lgseesreipngariamtipstlimcaotivoenms eonf tsBY VANESSA HAYFORDIN the past year, secessionist movements have taken linguistic inequalities affecting all aspects of political, SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, GLOBAL PANORAMA up a lot of space in global mainstream media. economic, and social life, Cameroon’s Anglophones have From the political crisis in Catalonia to the push taken to the streets to protest the broken constitutionalfor independence in Kurdistan, stories of separatist promise of bilingualism.movements have been well reported. Despite this in- Anglophone Cameroonians involved in the separatistdepth coverage of secessionist movements around the movement have been calling for the creation of anworld, the self-determination struggle that is taking independent state they wish to be called Ambazonia. Inplace within Cameroon has been neglected. response, the Cameroonian government cracked downTensions in Cameroon mounted this past fall as on the protests and has shut down internet access to theadministrative and civil service staff in the Anglophone northwestern regions. As demonstrations turned deadlyregions of the country expressed deep-seated frustrations in recent months, more than 30,000 refugees fled towith the predominantly Francophone government. With southern Nigeria.8 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

Cameroon’s Anglophone community represents African states have largely agreed to keep to the colonialroughly 20 per cent of the country’s total population. borders in order to avoid conflict, but this decision hasTheir minority status in the state has made it easy itself paradoxically been a source of conflict. The carelessfor the Francophone majority to enforce spoken and and selfish method of partitioning the continent haswritten French within central institutions. While the resulted in countless incidences of violence and politicalinequalities between both linguistic groups in the strife across Africa, and Cameroon is no exception. Thecountry are a current systemic problem, Cameroon’s choice to unify Cameroon was a choice to merge twohistory as a victim of colonialism is largely to blame for histories, cultures, and various diverse communities withthis long-standing animosity. differences that are difficult to address.A COLONIAL HISTORY Britain’s insistence on maintaining control – even in the wake of independence – was also a contributingCameroon is a central African state that was under factor to the present conflict. The former colonial rulerGerman colonial rule until the early 20th century. In the created the 1961 referendum believing that its colonyaftermath of World War I Germany ceded the colony, could not govern itself. Consequently, independence forwhich became a League of Nations mandate through Anglophone Cameroon was never an option.Britain and France. The new colonial powers partitioned The role of language is important. With the partitioningthe state, with Britain assuming responsibility of a small of the territory by Britain and France came theportion of the northwestern territory and France taking imposition of English and French on their respectiveover the rest. subjects. The decision to unite the two colonies withBritain and France maintained control over the such linguistic differences inevitably created institutionalterritory until 1960, when France granted its colony difficulties. These difficulties were further exacerbated byindependence. In the following year Britain gave the the fact that one language had stronger representationpeople of the northwestern territory a referendum, than the other.which indicated the options to either join the former Issues of secession and independence in Africa todayFrench colony or to join Nigeria. The option to become are difficult to navigate. Time will tell what the fate ofa separate, independent state was not included on the Cameroon’s fragmented society will be, but ultimatelyreferendum. this state will have to reconcile with the symptoms of itsAs the ultimate decision was made to unite as one colonial history and arrive at an innovative and peacefulcountry, economic disparities and legal differences solution.between the two countries were never addressed,resulting in the linguistic divisions that exist to this day. Vanessa is a first year student in the Master of Global Affairs programTHE SYMPTOMS OF COLONIAL RULE with the Munk School of Global Affairs. Prior to pursuing herThe crisis in Cameroon is an example of the political Master’s degree, Vanessa worked asand sociocultural damages that persist as a result of a constituency assistant for Membercolonial rule. Africa’s national borders were arbitrarily of Parliament Julie Dzerowicz,drawn during the so-called “Scramble for Africa” in thelatter part of the 19th century. These borders were not with a focus on immigration casework,drawn out of respect for the actual tribes and cultures and as an equity assistant for Scotiabank Global Bankingthat existed on the continent. As a result, communities and Markets. As an avid writer, Vanessa served as a Juniorthat once coexisted have been separated, and others that Research Fellow for the NATO Council of Canada, andhad no history of living peacefully were forced to exist is currently a casual writer for a local Afro-Caribbeantogether. food blog. Her key topics of interest are immigration, humanitarian intervention, and international development. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 9

Tahdevarnocleinogf Isnedlfi-gdeentoeurms hineaatlitohncainreBY EMMA AMARALDESPITE regional disparities, Indigenous people In a recent Series on Canada published by the Lancet SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION around the world experience poorer health medical journal, various reports describe the vast health outcomes on average than non-Indigenous inequities experienced by Indigenous communitiespeople. Indigenous people are disproportionately across the country, including children who have diedaffected by poverty, among other social determinants in hospitals while levels of government debated whoof health, and are thus more likely to experience was responsible for providing care. Executive editortuberculosis or malaria, maternal and infant mortality, Jocalyn Clark noted, “It looks to us as though there is acardiovascular illnesses, and HIV/AIDS. Environmental developing country within Canada’s borders.” She asked,degradation and the loss of traditional territories and “If you can’t be a leader at home on Indigenous healthfood sources are contributing to malnutrition. In turn, and equity, how can Canada be the leader we need it toover half of Indigenous people over the age of 35 are be internationally?”diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, and the United Nations The UN notes that these health disparities, including(UN) expects these figures to rise. These inequities are mental health issues and substance abuse, are rootedreflected in the stark gap in life expectancy between in the “historical colonization and dispossessionIndigenous and non-Indigenous people. In Canada, this of Indigenous peoples, which has resulted in thediscrepancy is 17 years. fragmentation of Indigenous social, cultural, economic and political institutions.” According to a report by10 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

the World Health Organization “one requirement for Other steps include $6 million in funding within thereversing colonization is self-determination, to help 2017 budget for “culturally-safe” midwifery in Firstrestore to Indigenous Peoples control over their lives Nations and Inuit communities. The governmentand destinies.” The UN has found a strong correlation has explicitly endorsed the importance of Indigenousbetween the health outcomes of individuals and women giving birth within their own communitiescommunities and their ability to exercise their right to instead of remote hospitals. Canada has also funded aself-determination. knowledge-exchange project with Guatemala, taskedThe UN has provided a best practices guide in with reducing maternal and infant deaths by traininghealthcare delivery by and for Indigenous people. The Indigenous midwives.United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous The FNHA appears to be a step in the right directionPeople (UNDRIP) locates health within the right to for Canada to join other countries centering healthself-determination by asserting Indigenous peoples’ care within self-determination. Australia, for its part,right to be actively involved in developing health has embedded the right to self-determination withinprograms and whenever possible, administering them the Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Sectorthrough their own institutions. UNDRIP also affirms (ACCHS) in response to discriminatory barriers withinIndigenous peoples’ right to traditional medicines mainstream health services. It has also launched theand health practices, and to access health services free Leaders in Indigenous Medical Education (LIME)from discrimination. It also places responsibility on Network, which promotes Indigenous health withingovernments to ensure that Indigenous people reach medical education and supports Indigenous medicalthe “highest attainable standard of physical and mental students. Chile, on the other hand, incorporatedhealth.” In the Canadian context, this is reflected in Indigenous Mapuche medicine within their Makewethe Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)’s hospital and launched Makelaen, the first chain ofCalls to Action. Several of the TRC’s recommendations Mapuche pharmacies.target health inequities, and call for the incorporation For Canada to be a leader in global health it must doof Indigenous healing practices and the training of more to improve Indigenous health equity domestically.Indigenous health care practitioners. As the UN Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousA Canadian program that seems to heed these People states, this must be accomplished through self-recommendations is the First Nations Health Authority determination initiatives. The international community(FNHA) in British Columbia, the first province- has taken notice of the state of Indigenous healthwide health authority of its kind. In line with a self- outcomes within Canada, including the nearly two-governance and community-driven model, the FNHA decade gap in life expectancy. If it fails to act, Canada ishas taken responsibility for the programs and services at risk of losing any moral authority on the matter.previously run by Health Canada’s First NationsInuit Health Branch – Pacific Region. The FNHA Emma Amaral is a first year student atworks in partnership with First Nations communities the Munk School of Global Affairs.from planning to the health service delivery stage, Emma graduated with an Honourssuch as their response to the opioid epidemic, which Bachelor of Science degree from theincludes harm reduction, accessible social and cultural University of Toronto, where shetreatment options, and supporting people on theirhealing journeys. Their operating principles follow a majored in psychology and minored in“wellness philosophy based on First Nations teachings” biology and Portuguese. After graduating,and define excellence as “implementing initiatives, Emma did social work for a non-profit organization in theprograms, and services that brings the best in western field of mental health and housing, where she continuesmedicine together with that of First Nations traditional to volunteer. She also conducted psychological research onknowledge and medicine.” racial bias, fraud, and mental illness. Emma looks forward to expanding her perspective from the local (having lived in downtown Toronto all her life) to the global. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 11

The diffusion of DaeshBY TIMOTHY ROBINSONFROM 2015 onwards, Daesh has been losing North Africa, and the Middle East has put the group on SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, THIERRY EHRMANN territory in both Iraq and Syria at a steady pace. countless terrorist organization lists The recapture of Raqqa and Mosul in 2017marked victories that have left the group without Daesh emerged from the powercontrol of any major settlement. Many are claiming vacuum created by the toppling ofvictory over Daesh, yet this is a dangerous stance totake. Daesh, like its predecessor al-Qaeda, has been Saddam Hussein.remarkably successful at spreading its extremist ideologyto other conflict areas in the Islamic world. In the wake of the Iraq War, Daesh emerged from theDaesh, or the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, has power vacuum created by the toppling of Saddambecome the most notorious Islamic extremist group in Hussein. They garnered support from both the Iraqithe world, eclipsing al-Qaeda as the principle threatin both the Middle East and the West. A long list ofterrorist attacks during the past decade in Europe,12 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

Sunni population and former members of the Iraqi terrorist attacks against the country’s Coptic Christianarmy, which was disbanded following the US invasion. minority.Daesh was able to dramatically expand its operations The last region with a significant Daesh presence iswith the outbreak of the Syrian Civil war in 2011. The Yemen. The civil war between the Houthi rebels in thecapture of Fallujah and then Mosul, Iraq’s second-largest North and Saudi-backed Hadi government has createdcity, signaled to the world that Daesh was poised to room for Daesh to operate in large areas of desert in thefundamentally challenge existing borders in the region. East of the country. With many of the same featuresIn 2014, Daesh claimed itself to be a modern Caliphate, present in the Syrian Civil War, Yemen is likely to be aattempting to reinstate the long extinct institution that destination for fighters coming from the Levant.asserts authority over the entirety of Sunni Islam.It seems Daesh is trying to find the path of least Yemen is likely to be a destinationresistance and has determined that Iraq and Syria are for fighters coming from the Levant.too difficult to maintain a permanent presence. Despiteleader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi’s dream of an entrenched In all these contexts, we can see similarities in geographyIslamic political entity in the Levant, Daesh has been and politics. Daesh can establish its presence in locationsmuch more successful in its decentralized initiatives and with large territories that are hard to govern, as well asdiffusing into new regions of the Islamic World. among political systems with weak capacities that areThe first successful expansion of Daesh beyond Iraq often engaged in broader civil conflicts. There are manyand Syria was in Libya. The country, essentially a failed parts of North Africa and the Middle East which are astate since the NATO mission to topple Gadhafi left host to these attributes.a tumultuous power vacuum, saw the group vie for Finally, it also important to note that Daesh doeslarge areas of territory with other Islamist groups and not require territory to launch the kinds of lone-wolfgovernment forces. This reached its peak in 2016, terrorist attacks as seen in France, Belgium and the UK.with Daesh controlling key cities and towns along the As Daesh loses its presence in the Levant, it may seekMediterranean coast. Since then it has been beaten to remind the world that it is still a legitimate threatback into the interior by a combination of strengthened by organizing more of these fear-inducing attacks ongovernment forces and NATO-led airstrikes. Despite civilians in both the Islamic world and the West. Inthese reversals, Daesh remains dangerous so long as the short, defeating Daesh completely will be more difficultLibyan government struggles to assert a monopoly of then simply pushing them out of Syria and Iraq.force within its own borders.Daesh has established another strong presence in Tim Robinson is a first-year studentAfghanistan. Its branch in Khorasan, a historical region in the Master of Global Affairscovering a large area of central Asia, has carried out program. He completed his BAnumerous terrorist attacks in Kabul and in Pakistan. degree from Queen’s University inA fractured society, coupled with a rugged geography, 2016, majoring in African andAfghanistan has become a bastion for Islamic extremist Middle Eastern History. His areas ofgroups in the past four decades, and remains a havenfor Daesh. It has also created a branch in the Sinai interest include the intersectionality ofPeninsula in Egypt, where it has been carrying out security, policy, and development in Northan insurgency against Egyptian defence forces and Africa and the Middle East. He is also passionate aboutinfrastructure since 2011. Most famously, the branch facilitating cultural dialogue understanding betweenclaimed responsibility for the downing of Russian Western and Islamic societiesMetro-jet Flight 9268, which killed all 224 passengersin 2015. It has launched major attacks against theEgyptian military in the peninsula, as well as major Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 13

Ategrmlosbal economy, but on China’sBY TANVI SHETTYON New Year’s day, a Chinese flag was hoisted tury Maritime Silk Road, a sea-based network linking CREATIVE COMMONS, BILL DICKINSON on Sri Lankan soil to commemorate yet an- China’s southern coast to Africa and the Mediterranean. other Chinese acquisition of a national asset. Mr. Xi’s bold policy stands in stark contrast to the strat-China has acquired control of Sri Lanka’s strategically egies adopted by China’s former leader Deng Xiaopin,located Hambantota port through a 99-year lease as whose philosophy of “hide your strength and bide yourpart of a debt-reduction deal, in an agreement that some time” led China to adopt more inward-looking policies.believe marks the beginning of a new era of creditor Momentum began to change in 2000, as Beijing beganimperialism. to realise the importance of establishing foreign allianc-The lease takeover is part of China’s ambitious Belt and es, particularly as it sought to establish itself as a globalRoad initiative, a scheme which involves substantial power. With almost $1 trillion dollars in investment,Chinese infrastructure investments across countries in set to span across 60 countries, the “one belt, one road”Africa, Europe, and Asia. In exchange for financing and initiative boasts a scope and scale that is incomparablebuilding infrastructure in developing countries, Chi- in modern day history.na receives uncontested access to their national assets,including mineral resources and ports. CHINA’S WIN-WIN STRATEGYLaunched in 2013, the ambitious policy consists of twodistinct parts: the Silk Road Economic Belt, a physical While Chinese officials claim that much of the policyroad linking China to markets in Europe, and the Cen- is an exercise in altruism, these investments are clear- ly more strategic than philanthropic. The economic motivations are clear: Mr. Xi intends to create new14 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

markets for Chinese companies. Faced with a slowing tions of state led human right abuses. China stepped ineconomy, and an excess supply of steel, cement, and and extended millions of dollars in aid to help Sri Lankamachinery, he hopes to create new economic opportu- rebuild its damaged infrastructure. Nevertheless, as Chi-nities for domestic producers. Not only will this deepen na continues to delve deeper into Sri Lanka’s territoryChina’s economic ties in continents such as Africa and for the sake of “mutual benefits” , many believe that SriLatin America, where US engagement is receding, but it Lanka’s dependency on China will reach a point of nocould also help bridge the rural-urban divide that China return.currently faces, by linking less developed border regionswith neighbouring markets. Beijing also hopes that the TROUBLE AT HOMEscheme will prove to be a more profitable avenue for itsvast foreign exchange reserves, most of which currently While China continues to pour money into its am-sit in low interest-bearing US government securities. bitious policy across the world, it has faced severeChina’s fixation on a profitable bottom line is contra- backlash, both at home and abroad. Chinese banks aredictory with its apparent willingness to invest in finan- extending loans that run counter to common practic-cially dubious projects as part of the scheme. Many es – loaning to states with weak economies, politicalbelieve that it is a gamble that China is willing to take, instability, and widespread corruption. There is growingin the hopes that short term monetary losses will be concern that such a risky gamble could end up hurtingoutweighed by long term military and diplomatic gains. China’s financial institutions.China has deployed this strategy in Pakistan, where it Meanwhile, on foreign turf, governments have begunhas invested heavily in power plant upgrades and port to realise the long-term consequences of Chinese loans,expansions. By promoting development in Pakistan, and are seeking to renegotiate their agreements. In Ne-Beijing hopes to curb the flow of Pakistani terrorists into pal for instance, a newly elected government vetoed itsChina’s Xinjiang region, where a large population of predecessor’s decision to award China a $2.5 billion dealChina’s Muslim minority resides. to build an hydropower plant, in light of certain “irregu- larities” in the award process.TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THINGAccording to a recent study conducted by the Center for While the initiative has been described by some as aGlobal Development, the Belt and Road initiative could “symphony of all relevant parties,” many remain warydramatically increase the debt risk for several countries. of China’s growing dominance. Yet, Mr. Xi’s grandioseAmongst these countries is Sri Lanka, which currently initiative has ushered in a new global economic order;owes $8 billion in debt to state-owned Chinese firms. one which unabashedly challenges the age-old WesternSeeking to mitigate some of the financial burden it faces, dogma. While it is undeniable that Chinese money hasSri Lanka has leased the Hambantota port to China in helped spur progress in developing countries, the ques-a deal that is worth $1.1 billion. The acquisition serves tion of the hour is: at what cost?several strategic goals for China, including greater prox-imity to India’s booming market, and an advantageous Tanvi is a first year Master of Globalposition to deploy its naval forces. Critics have raised Affairs candidate at the Munk School.concerns that the agreement is lopsided, as it threatens She moved to Canada from MalaysiaSri Lanka’s sovereignty, and creates a worrying precedent in 2009 to pursue a Bachelor’s degreefor future debt relief deals. Some have gone so far as to at Rotman. She completed her studiescall it a form of modern day colonialism. with a specialist in Finance andSri Lanka’s growing ties with China are not particular-ly surprising given that the two states have conducted Economics, and proceeded to work withinbusiness for decades. Following a brutal 26 year civil the capital markets division of RBC. She is aiming to pivotwar with the Tamil Tigers, the Sri Lankan government into policy analysis to pursue her research interests in devel-received little help from Western states amidst accusa- opmental economics, focusing particularly in the region of South Asia. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 15

AEouubrtobupmreepakins qthueadroruapdl:emaecaroslsessBY NATASHA COMEAUEUROPE first pioneered vaccination in 1796 with populations remains limited to those who are not vac- SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, STEVEPB the smallpox vaccine, and subsequently remained cinated. Nevertheless, it presents a major risk to older a leader in the field in both research and develop- populations, pregnant women, young children, andment. Yet Europe has recently experienced widespread people with chronic illness. Low uptake of vaccinationsoutbreaks of measles across the continent. The number could jeopardize the health of these vulnerable popula-of reported cases of the virus quadrupled to more than tions and disrupt the public good of eliminating measles21,000 cases and 35 deaths last year. These outbreaks globally.have been linked to declining vaccination rates in cer- Anti-vaccination campaigns are growing worldwidetain regions, largely the result of a growing anti-vaccina- with politicians and celebrities alike spearheading thetion campaign sweeping across Europe. movement. The MMR vaccine was linked to autismMeasles is among the world’s most contagious diseases. in a study published in 1998 by British researcher Dr.However, a vaccination which treats measles, mumps, Andrew Wakefield. The paper claimed that 12 childrenand rubella (MMR) with 99 per cent effectiveness has experienced brain damage due to the vaccine alteringbeen in use since the 1960s. Like many vaccinations their immune systems. Dozens of researchers have sincewhich require a certain level of “herd immunity” to pro- attempted to replicate these results and have failed. Thetect a population, MMR requires a 95 per cent vaccina- British Medical Journal, as well as ten of the paper’stion rate. Declining immunization uptake across Europe co-authors, have since denounced the study as “fraudu-has resulted in certain pockets operating at a rate closer lent.” Ultimately, this resulted in the paper being retract-to 85 per cent, including areas in Italy, Ukraine, and ed, and Wakefield losing his license to practice, havingRomania, where the largest epidemics are occurring. been found guilty of “serious professional misconduct.”Measles is a highly treatable disease and the threat to Nonetheless, two decades later, anti-vaccination follow-16 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

ers continue to champion this study. President Donald or a school suspension of up to 20 days. In 2013, 900Trump relentlessly promoted the link between vaccines high-school students in Ottawa were suspended for notand autism in his election campaign through speeches, having the proper vaccinations.tweets, and during Republican debates. However, one Regardless of these outbreaks, the threat of measles toyear into Trump’s presidency he appears to have eased developed nations remains relatively limited due tooff the issue and abandoned any policies linking immu- largely effective containment and disease surveillancenizations to autism, a celebrated move by experts in the mechanisms currently in place. The major threat tofield. In Europe, anti-vaccination positions have been global health exists in developing regions, particularlystrongly advocated for by populist anti-establishment in parts of Africa and Asia, especially for malnourishedpoliticians and even became a major platform issue in children and those living with chronic illnesses likeItaly’s recent election. tuberculosis or HIV/AIDS.Wakefield’s study appears to continue to hold weight in Strides are being made globally on combating measles,certain circles, even after being retracted, because the with vaccination rates up to 85 per cent globally incause of autism remains largely a mystery. Therefore, 2016, and an 84 per cent drop in measles deaths be-frustrated parents and politicians are looking to place tween 2000 and 2016, preventing 20.4 million deaths.blame, making vaccines an appealing culprit, especially With such a cost-effective and safe vaccine on the mar-to those who discredit the medical and pharmaceutical ket, this is a major victory for global public health. Theindustry for its profit-driven operations. last remaining obstacles, availability and access, must beWith a strong and mounting campaign against vaccines, overcome to ensure all populations are protected fromthe World Health Organization, regional health advoca- this disease, especially vulnerable groups.cy agencies, as well as certain national governments, are Europe’s current measles epidemic should be a lessonpushing to counter harmful anti-vaccination rhetoric. to populations everywhere, that no matter a country’sEfforts to increase vaccination rates include making wealth, healthcare access, and education, vaccines re-immunization mandatory, which is most effectively main an essential aspect of public health. Furthermore,achieved through school-entry checks and national anti-vaccination campaigns need to be widely discredit-awareness campaigns. Italy and Romania have recently ed, as they pose significant threats to “herd immunity,”introduced school-entry laws in an effort to combat putting vulnerable populations at risk and ultimatelygrowing epidemics. Exceptions are permitted for med- doing more harm for healthcare than good.ical, philosophical, or religious reasons, such as amongChristian Scientists who do not believe in vaccination. Natasha is a first year Master of GlobalAdditionally, “catch-up campaigns” are being imple- Affairs student and holds a BA Jointmented across the continent for children under 10 years Honours degree in International De-of age. Countries like Ukraine have created a national velopment and Political Science with atask force and response plan to increase immunization minor in Gender, Sexuality, Feministcoverage, secure long-term supplies of vaccines, and and Social Justice Studies from McGilltrain health workers in identifying, reporting, and treat-ing measles. University. She is passionate about globalWhile Europe’s measles outbreaks are shocking, Can- health and gender equity, in particular reproductive health-ada also saw a 400 per cent increase in the number of care, combating gender-based violence, and human traf-measles cases in 2017, jumping to 45 cases. Only two ficking legislation. Recently Natasha wrote for the MontrealCanadian provinces, Ontario and New Brunswick, World Health Organization contributing four chapterscurrently employ school-entry vaccination laws, man- for a reference guide, the chapters were on sexual violence,dating children’s vaccinations in order to attend school. human trafficking, abortion, and compulsory sterilization.Violations of this policy include fines of up to $1000, She hopes to pursue a career in the non-profit sector special- izing in global health or the promotion of gender equity. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 17

Wchoamngeenowmitihcisn: JAarpipanple effect ofBY HANNAH ROSENJAPAN is currently dealing with a low birth-rate, down to 127 million. According to the United Nations, CREATIVE COMMONS, CSIS | CENTER FOR STRATEGIC AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES aging population, and low female economic this population will shrink an additional 15 per cent by participation rate. Together, these factors point 2050.towards a social and economic crisis within the nation.As the third largest economy in the world, economists In Japan, the population aged 60worry that Japan cannot sustain its population decline and over is more than twice themuch longer. number of children.Although one of the most highly populated countries inthe world, Japan’s low birth rate coupled with an aging In Japan, the population aged 60 and over is more thanpopulation means that the Japanese population is likely twice the number of children. This aging populationto shrink dramatically over the coming years. Betweenthe 2010 and 2015 national censuses in Japan, thepopulation had already shrunk by one million people,18 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

creates a system with an unsustainable number of these top tier positions, they are still subject to Japan’sretirees in comparison to workers, as measured by the large wage gap.Potential Support Ratio (PSR), or the number of people Moving forward, Japan might look to Norwayaged 15–64 per one person aged 65 or older. When a and Iceland as two countries that have seeminglynation’s PSR drops below two, it impacts health care experienced greater success in their gender policy.and social protection systems, and Japan’s PSR is the Iceland was the first country in the world to eliminatelowest in the world. These social services are already the gender wage gap, in large part by simply makingstrained in Japan, and will likely only worsen under it illegal. Norway, on the other hand, has one of thethese conditions. best parental leave policies in the world, making it theIn addition, women’s participation in high-level number one place in the world to be a mother (Japanpositions in the workforce is extremely low considering ranked 32nd). In Norway, parents are entitled to 49the advanced nature of the economic sector. In the weeks of earning the full salary of the job they held sixgovernment, only 9.5 per cent of parliamentary seats to ten months prior to the parental leave, or 59 weeks atare held by women. Out of all the OECD countries, 80 per cent pay. The first six weeks of parental leave areJapan falls third to last in terms of the gender wage reserved for the mother, but the maternal and paternalgap. Although Japan has a higher female participation quotas are ten weeks each, encouraging the father to alsorate in the labour force than the United States, Japan take time off work. Indeed, paternity leave is expectedneeds greater and longer-term female participation at of Norwegian fathers. In Japan, men are entitled to 12high-levels in order to sustain their economy as the weeks of paternity leave (but not at the same salary aspopulation ages. Norway), yet only 2 to 3 percent take it due to culturalCultural norms have proven to be one of the biggest stigma.causes of slowed economic growth in Japan. The If Japan were to mimic Norway’s parental leaveJapanese business culture consists of 12-hour days, policy, the birth rate could increase as women feelwhich makes having two working parents difficult. more confident leaving work. There would be moreBecause women are often not in high level positions, opportunities for women to return to the workforcethey are the partner that chooses to stay home. There after having children, as they would have sufficient andis also a subsidy given to families who only have one equal parental leave and an equal wage to their partner.working partner, meaning that women can often earn With a comprehensive parental leave policy, womenmore through a stay-at-home subsidy than by joining will not lose time or advancement in their position.the workforce. If Japan is going see drastic improvements throughAlthough some argue that Japan has waited too long to Womenomics, it will have to show that this is no longeraddress these issues, Womenomics is pushing ahead as just a ‘women’s issue,’ and that to remain economicallythe solution to these issues. Prime Minister Abe founded competitive, collective change must occur.Womenomics under Abenomics in 2012 with ambitiousgoals to put more women in high-level private sector Hannah is a first year Master of Globaland government positions, and to expand child care Affairs student at the Munk Schoolbenefits. of Global Affairs. She recentlyJapan’s Womenomics is novel for the nation. However, obtained her Bachelor of Artsthe country is still lagging in comparison to other (Honours) in Political Studies withdeveloped nations globally. Japan has encouraged a minor in Global Developmentcompanies of 301 employees or more to put more Studies. Her focus is predominantlywomen in executive positions. However, there areneither clear incentives to do so, nor repercussions if concerned with the correlation betweenthey do not cooperate. Even if women do make it to gender and the field of military and defense. Her goals are to conduct her own research in the field while obtaining her PhD. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 19

AMisltiatatentoBfuedmdehrigsetsnocyf Sri Lanka:BY GITA GOOLSARRANETHNO-RELIGIOUS tensions in the Kandy wealth, repopulating overly-quickly, and converting and SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, JONYBRAKER district of Sri Lanka devolved into intense desecrating Buddhist sites. violence and anti-Muslim riots recently,prompting the government to issue a state of emergency Sri Lanka is one of several South-on March 6, 2018, including a curfew and restrictions East Asian countries that haveon social media. attracted attention for theirThe violence was triggered nearly two weeks prior, militant Buddhists.after the death of a Sinhalese Buddhist truck driverfollowing an altercation with a number of Muslims, While the minority Muslims–a portion of thewho were reportedly drunk and attacked him because country’s Tamil population, and 10 per cent of thehe did not give way to the rickshaws in which they were total population–and the majority Sinhalese Buddhiststravelling. During the funeral procession, people from have no ‘traditional’ grievances per se, the conflict canthe Sinhalese community damaged shops and properties be connected to its historical roots in the anti- andin Muslim-dominated areas of Kandy. post-colonial Buddhist revival. The “Great Chronicle,”Sadly, Sri Lanka is one of several South-East Asian or Mahāvamsa, is the story of Sinhalese nationhoodcountries that have attracted attention for their militant crafted in defense of the Buddhist religion, and isBuddhists. In Sri Lanka they are credited with fueling often referenced as a justification for violence againstrising tensions and anti-Muslim sentiments in the pastseveral years, propagating the perception that Buddhismand the Buddhist majority are under threat. Sri LankanMuslims are accused of amassing an excessive amount of20 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

non-Buddhists. One notable tale equates the life of numerous Hindu Tamils taken in battle to “two and a half ” Buddhists. This story, and stories like it, serve as the foundation of a kind of Buddhism perpetuated by extremists, which constantly seek unity in the persecution of perceived threats.SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, SJONYBRAKER Though there have been demonstrations of protest and In 2015, the government of Maithripala Sirisena solidarity among the ranks of moderate Buddhist monks committed to an investigation of war crimes committed in wake of the attacks, the structural and pervasive during the civil war with the Tamil Tigers. However, conditions for violence remain. Among these lie the delays in the process and a general reluctance to pervasive impunity and institutional dominance of the enforce repercussions for perpetrators of pro-nationalist 75 per cent majority Sinhalese Buddhists. Beneath the violence, have left the country unable to move forward. nationalist sentiments of entitlement and ownership Not quite a decade after the end of Sri Lanka’s civil war, of the small island nation, there are laws enshrining this spate of violence raises concerns among human the pre-eminence of Buddhism within the Sri Lankan rights advocates that Sri Lanka risks repeating past constitution. Issues of impunity are further complicated crimes and abuses of communal violence. At the time by the reluctance of law enforcement to persecute of their election in 2015, the current government was religious leaders for comments condoning or inciting perceived to be the minority-friendly choice. Despite unrest. these intentions, however, their actions have seemed In order to strengthen its transitional justice agenda in performative at best to the outside world. Skeptics the wake of the Sri Lankan Civil War, the government remain wary of the country’s most recent state-of- of Sri Lanka faces the unenviable task of deconstructing emergency, and the Sri Lankan government’s ability to institutionalised and socialised privileges of the majority affect meaningful structural changes. ethno-religious group, as well as producing inclusive economic growth that might tame economic jealousies. Gita is a first year MGA student, and The riots and attacks are not an isolated incident, but recent graduate of the University of form part of the current ‘wave’ of anti-Muslim violence Toronto. She obtained her Honours that began in February. Bachelor of Arts degree specializing in Political Science, with a minor The riots and attacks are not an in History. She has strong interests in isolated incident, but form part of the current ‘wave’ of anti-Muslim issues of the Global South, including the violence that began in February. politics of religion and indigeneity, innovation policy, and the regional dynamics of economic The attacks on homes, mosques, businesses, and development. Her long-term goals are to pursue these other property in Kandy have occurred in spite intellectual interests through a career in global policy. She is of longstanding government commitments to an avid reader and her passions include learning about the reconciliation and strengthening of the rule of law. world through books and travel. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 21

oThf emsetrrcaetengaircieasnidn emthoidcearlndwileamrfmaraeBY GEORDIE JEAKINSIN a shocking display, Cold War rivalries appeared modern combat. SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, ALAN GOUDY to reignite when a regiment of suspected Russian Mercenaries are hardly new to military history. For mercenaries crossed the Euphrates River in Syria thousands of years, states, cities, and even individualsand entered a military base operated by the US-backed have employed mercenaries as armies-for-hire. TheirSyrian Defense Force. The attack, which occurred in unscrupulous reputation for deserting their employersearly February near Deir ez-Zor, saw the advancing and looting friend and foe alike made them aforces decimated by American artillery and air power. particularly hated institution. Nevertheless, the benefitsThis event has drawn attention to important strategic of a ready-order, highly trained army made their usageand ethical questions on the use of mercenaries in22 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018

widespread, from the Condottieri and Landsknecht otherwise cause in the Kremlin. This was evident inin Renaissance Italy and Germany, to the British both the recent attack in Deir ez-Zor and the shootingemployment of Prussian soldiers in the American down of Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17. In both cases,Revolutionary War. In modern combat, mercenaries Moscow escaped punishments that would be expectedhave been replaced by Private Military Contractors were these acts committed by a country’s own armed(PMCs). However, the distinction is purely semantic. forces, and in which case would amount to a declarationPMCs continue to play the same role as their historical of war .antecedents, maintaining many of the same benefits and Despite the benefits, military contractors carryliabilities. significant liabilities. Their secrecy, in many cases,PMCs play an integral role in 21st century warfare. is a double-edged sword. Without transparency andTraditional explanations for the rise of military oversight, PMCs are notorious for human rightscontractors focus on the end of the Cold War, and the abuses, in keeping with the infamy of their mercenarysubsequent push to downsize the armed forces. The forbearers. Blackwater, renamed as Academi in 2011,invasions of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003 committed numerous such abuses in Iraq, includingfundamentally changed the military needs of the United the killing of 14 unarmed Iraqi civilians in 2007.States and its allies in the War on Terror. In these Additionally, contractors do not have the sameconditions, where large-scale battles were replaced with protections and access to due process that regularlocalized counter-insurgency operations, mercenaries soldiers enjoy. Russian mercenaries in Ukraine, ifprovided compelling advantages. The long and arduous captured, can be tried for suspected war crimes. Russia,processes of pacification and ‘nation-building’ which unlikely to set aside its deniability, would almostoccurred in Afghanistan and Iraq are not conducive to a certainly abandon these men and women.regular army force. Soldier morale is easier to maintain In modern warfare, mercenaries will likely continue towhen the motivation for fighting is simply about money. be an integral element of a major country’s warfightingSimilarly, casualties among regular troops are far more strategy. The benefits of ready-order, professionaldamaging to public support for the war effort than soldiers who are not grounded by the same politicalwhen the deaths are among military contractors. The impediments of regular troops are too attractive forsecrecy with which mercenaries operate compounds this military leaders to ignore. Additionally, the strategicbenefit. By deploying contractors, military leaders are possibilities of mercenaries—either in maintaining anable to shield their operations from the transparency occupying force or in maintaining plausible deniabilityand oversight requirements that constrain regular troop in combat—only adds to their case. However, thedeployments. ethical implications of soldiers acting outside of normalThe strategic and political benefits of PMCs have channels of oversight, transparency, and law is amade them attractive tools for other nations, namely worrying trend, and one that will need to be addressedRussia. In its interventions in both Ukraine and Syria, to curb the cancerous effect of mercenaries upon armedRussia has employed mercenaries to bolster its allies, forces.all while maintaining plausible deniability that actualRussian soldiers are involved. In Ukraine, thousands Geordie is a first year Master of Globalof ‘little green men,’ armed with tanks and other Affairs student at the Munk School ofheavy equipment, have flowed across the border to Global Affairs. He holds an Honoursbolster rebels in the Eastern Donbass region. Russia BA degree from the University ofhas also deployed mercenaries to Syria to fight against Toronto, where he specialized inthe Islamic State, but with the underlying agenda of History and International Relations.supporting the Assad regime as it attempts to reclaimthe country. Russia’s deployment of mercenaries has Although topics of security are a primaryallowed a level of separation between military actions interest of his, Geordie also enjoys writing about issues ofon the ground and the political ramifications it might development, diplomacy, and trade. Spring 2018 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS 23

24 GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS Spring 2018 SOURCE: CREATIVE COMMONS, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO