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Synthesis and Creative Thinking 233 4. Identify resources (if any) for each of the play’s roles, and decide how the activity will end. For example, will you set a time limit, or will you let the scenario end naturally? 5. Ask students to form groups with enough members in each group to assume each stakeholder role. 6. Present the scenario and allow time for discussion of the problem situ- ation. It is important to allow sufficient time for students to ask ques- tions on any aspects of the scenario that are unclear. 7. Assign or ask students to assume a stakeholder role. If you have decided to assign group-process roles such as Moderator and Observers, make sure students are clear on their tasks. 8. Inform students of the time limit or other parameters that will signify the end of the activity. The role play should run only until the proposed behavior is clear, the targeted characteristic has been developed, or the skill has been practiced. 9. Follow the role play with a discussion within the small groups or with the whole class, or both. Discussion should focus on the students’ inter- pretations of the roles and the motivations for and consequences of their actions. ONLINE Chat sessions or Virtual Reality Environments (VREs) offer frameworks for IMPLEMENTATION implementing role-playing online. Chat sessions occur in real time, whereas VREs offer the option of either synchronous or asynchronous interaction. Because teachers can provide students with the option of assuming roles anonymously, the self-consciousness that sometimes accompanies face-to- face role play is eliminated. If this SET fits well with your teaching goals, investigate the considerable number of software products that have been developed for designing and delivering online role plays. To find them, con- duct a search online starting with simple keywords such as “role play” + “teaching.” Or consult the technology advisors for teaching on your campus. EXAMPLES Psychology of Prejudice The purpose of this course is to help students understand the complex psycho- logical patterns that develop among different majority and nonmajority groups as a result of the effects of overt and covert discrimination. In order to increase his students’ awareness of the nature of prejudiced interactions as well as to help them identify appropriate ways to respond, this professor uses “Role-Play” fre- quently in his class. He typically organizes his students into groups of three and

234 Student Engagement Techniques assigns group members one of three roles: Prejudiced Speaker, Responder, or Social Observer.Throughout the academic term, he crafts a variety of simulated situations and creates characters representing different perspectives (for exam- ple, ethnic, racial, gender, socioeconomic background, physical disability). One situation is a business-meeting scenario in which the Prejudiced Speaker is a manager who makes an offending racist remark, the Responder is a subordinate representing the targeted race and must determine an appropriate response, and the Social Observer describes his or her feelings when watching the scene. At the end of the activity, the students share their reactions first with their group and then with the whole class, critiquing the response and the reaction.The class then participates in a post-exercise discussion that focuses on a range of topics that emerged from the exchange (Plous, 2000). ••• Oral Communication Skills I Professor Ann Glishlerner knew that many of the students in her beginning ESL class were extremely self-conscious about speaking up. As nonnative speakers, they came from many countries around the world and feared that they would make mistakes and that other students would not understand them. Yet it was essential that they practice extensively in order to develop vocabulary, gram- matical accuracy, and clear pronunciation. Professor Glishlerner discovered that if she asked students to pretend they were someone else, it reduced some of their anxiety. Furthermore, if the scenario was based on an everyday situation, it motivated them because they immediately saw the usefulness of the exercise. She created scenarios such as ordering dinner at a restaurant or asking for direc- tions to the main campus library that emphasized everyday English. She then formed small groups so that students had more opportunities to practice speak- ing and so that the context would be less threatening than speaking before the whole class. ••• History of the Vietnam War In this hybrid class on the Vietnam War, the professor believed it was important to use classroom time for lecture, but he also wanted his students to understand the war’s complexity and to be able to empathize with the viewpoints of the war’s various stakeholders.This goal was particularly important to him since he knew that his class attracted many students who had had personal experience with the war. His students included Vietnam vets, immigrant students from Viet- nam, returning adult students who had actively protested the war, and parents whose children had died or been injured in the war. Thus many of his students

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 235 came into the course with strong feelings and beliefs about the war’s issues. He worked with his institution’s technology department to establish a Virtual Real- ity Environment for his class and then created scenarios that correlated with his lecture topics. Rather than establishing individual roles, he developed generic role categories, such as American Soldier and South Vietnamese Villager. Each student selected a role and then adopted an appropriate name. He retained for himself the role of Moderator so that he could intervene if exchanges become too emotional or inappropriate. He provided students with the option of enter- ing the VRE anonymously, but if they wished to earn participation credit, they messaged him privately with the moniker they had assumed in the role play. At regular, scheduled intervals throughout the term, he devoted class time to dis- cussion of the themes that emerged (Swensen, personal communication, 2003). ••• Management Practices A professor teaching an online course decided to use a role play to teach con- cepts and content. He formed six groups with four students each, with each group representing a company and with each student assuming one of the fol- lowing roles: CEO, Financial Officer, Operations Chief, or Marketing Executive.The companies competed against each other for three phases of the companies’ life cycles (start-up, growth, and independence).The game simulated nine years dur- ing nine weeks of the course. For each year the students in each company estab- lished crucial input data, such as prices, advertising, purchase, production, and size of sales force.The instructor collected data and compiled them for the game, creating output data for each company that consisted of units sold, back orders, market share, operating income, income tax, net income, and so forth. The pro- fessor evaluated the companies based on results after nine years. Each company met in regular conference, during which the employees discussed data. In another conference called “Managers’ Corner,” the students participated in man- agement-related discussions (adapted from Hsu, 1989.) VARIATIONS • Allow students to help determine the scenario, identify the major AND EXTENSIONS stakeholders, and create the roles. • Give students time to practice and then have student groups perform the role play in front of the class. Or instead of having multiple groups participating in multiple role plays, have one group role-play in front of the rest of the class. Assign Observers specific tasks for interpreting the action and dialogue of the role play. • After the initial performance is finished, re-enact the role play, chang- ing characters or redefining the scenario.

236 Student Engagement Techniques • Combine this activity with a “Fish Bowl,” by having one group perform the role play while another group watches, and then have the groups trade places. • Especially in VREs, consider creating roles for students to manipulate the environment. For example, a Manipulative Devil sets up obstacles and creates challenges for the characters, or an Improvising Storyteller creates extensions to the scenario adapting to unforeseen twists in the action. The Australian University Teaching Committee’s “Learning Designs” Web site describes these and other roles as well as aspects of effective online role play design (www.learningdesigns.uow.edu.au/ guides/info/G1/more/ModeratorsGuide.html#roles). OBSERVATIONS Spend sufficient time before the activity to ensure that students understand AND ADVICE the purpose of the role play. If they don’t understand your learning goals, students may get off track or the role play may fall flat and seem artificial. Students must also understand the nature and character of the roles they are assuming. If they know who they are, then they will be more effective in the role. If the role is a complicated one, then they may need time to reflect or conduct research prior to enacting their role. Although many students will be drawn to this SET with enthusiasm, oth- ers will feel self-conscious and uncomfortable about assuming a role. They may resist this activity, protesting that it seems silly. To reduce their dis- comfort, take care to create a nonthreatening environment and consider preparing students earlier in the term with icebreaker activities (see T/S 30, “Use icebreakers to warm up the class,” in Chapter 9). Also, reassure stu- dents that although acting is important in this SET, you are not trying to develop acting ability but rather to achieve specific learning goals. Finally, consider allowing these students to assume Observer roles. The closure stage of this activity is very important. Take time to debrief on the lessons learned through the experience. Don’t expect students to develop deep understanding of human situations after a limited exposure in a single role play. Help students relate the role play to their own lives. The real value of “Role Play” occurs when students form general opinions about course concepts that they developed and internalized as a conse- quence of assuming a new identity or acting in a new situation.

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 237 This SET can be effective, but as with any teaching strategy, be careful not to use it excessively. If it is overused, it can become tedious and feel artifi- cial or silly. To assess or grade “Role Play,” consider videotaping the role plays or hav- ing students create their own videotape. Groups can view the videotape and discuss the specific problems or general principles revealed in the tapes, perhaps summarizing and synthesizing their observations into an essay. KEY RESOURCES Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 150–155. Naidu, S., Ip, A., & Linser, R. (2000). Dynamic goal-based role-play simulation the web: A case study. Educational Technology and Society 3(3), pp. 190–202. Plous, S. (2000). Responding to overt displays of prejudice: A role-playing exer- cise. Teaching of Psychology 27(3), pp. 198–200.

238 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 20 Poster Sessions Individual Multiple Essential Characteristics Multiple Sessions High PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Students create posters or exhibits that illustrate their understanding of key AND PURPOSE course topics, issues, or ideas. On presentation day, the class divides and half the students walk around and view displays while others stay with their display to explain and answer questions. This SET engages students on multiple levels. Students must (1) do an ini- tial activity (such as constructing a model, researching a topic, or analyzing an issue) well enough to produce something to exhibit; (2) be creative as they gen- erate possible ways to represent and display their idea or product; (3) evalu- ate possibilities and choose their best display design; (4) devise a workable implementation plan; (5) carry out their plan and construct the poster or exhibit; and (6) reflect upon what they learned so that they are able to sum- marize, synthesize, and share their learning with others on presentation day. In addition, “Poster Sessions” provides teachers and students with an alter- native to conventional written reports, thus meeting the needs of a wider range of learners. Finally, this activity can help students deepen their knowl- edge and understanding as they view and discuss the exhibits of their peers. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Determine topic, content and design parameters, and how exhibits will DIRECTIONS be displayed. 2. Choose the exhibit day (or days). If projects are complex, consider work- ing backward to schedule check points and creating a rubric to guide students in their thinking and to use to submit a plan to you.

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 239 3. Create a handout that includes directions as well as evaluation criteria. 4. Have students brainstorm potential topics that fit within your parame- ters and generate a prioritized list of two or three ideas that they sub- mit to you. (Having students present multiple ideas allows you to review all topics, ensure that topics support class learning goals, and prevent duplication.) 5. Review the lists and work with students to select the topics. 6. Discuss design parameters and exhibit day logistics with students. 7. Give students time to organize their efforts and (if appropriate) prepare a prospectus in which they will formulate their core idea, identify goals and the resources they will need, and create a schedule for completion of the tasks. 8. Prepare for exhibit day by organizing a display schedule that allows at least half of the students to view the exhibits while the other half remains with the display to explain and answer questions. Allow for sufficient time for students to then switch roles. EXAMPLES Advanced Ceramics This class enrolled students with a wide range of skills. Professor Sarah McGlaise wanted students to practice articulating their artistic visions verbally and to learn creative ideas and technical solutions from each other regarding glazing and hand-built, wheel-thrown, and combination forms. At regular intervals through- out the term, she used the “Poster Session” strategy and had students select two or three works that they felt represented both their successful and unsuccessful attempts to grapple with artistic or technical challenges and share these with their peers. ••• Introduction to Physics To help students gain a deeper understanding of the principles of gravitation, Professor Moe Shunenforse formed students into teams of five to design and build a “hot-air balloon” out of flat pieces of tissue paper. To share results, stu- dents were asked to create an exhibit that included the following components: Design: All equations and data used for calculating balloon size, including the formulas used for volume and surface area, the data students collected about different types of materials, estimates about size and mass,“slop” fac- tors, additional load parameters, and so forth

240 Student Engagement Techniques Construction: The steps used to construct the sphere, including an initial prototype model Test and analysis: Atmospheric data measured on launch day, predictions of flight from the buoyancy equation and gas laws, final temperatures (inside and outside the balloon), and a report of what happened at the launch, including why it worked if it worked, and what might have happened if it did not work Students were encouraged to include photographs, graphs, preliminary models, video clips, and any other information they believed would best communicate what they had learned to their fellow students. On exhibit day, each team was given space for their exhibit and asked to determine a schedule that would allow them to take turns walking among exhibits or remaining with the exhibit to serve as spokesperson. Spokespeople were instructed to be prepared to reflect on whether the team felt the design was a good one and why or why not, what things would they do differently to improve the design, and so forth (D. Parker, personal communication, 2008). ••• Music of Multicultural America In this online class, the professor wanted her students to be able to recognize the influence of historical genres such as blues, jazz, Cajun, and gospel on the popular music to which they listened. She also wanted students to understand how their favorite musician’s individual style had been shaped by the social, his- torical, racial, and ethnic context in which the musician had grown up. Students were asked to choose a musician and then design and construct a Web page “portrait” that would be part of the course’s online “Portrait Gallery.”The Web page was to contain the following components: Visual representation: A visual identity such as a copyright-free photo or a student drawing Personal significance: A serious, fresh, substantive but concise explanation of why the student chose this musician and why this musician is (or will be) important for others to know about Biography: A narrative section that addresses the social/historical context in which the musician grew up, musician-specific information including eth- nic/racial roots, the styles and artists that had influenced the musician, and the musician’s influence on subsequent artists Discography: An annotated list of recordings

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 241 Music examples: Three representative listening excerpts converted for deliv- ery on the Internet Critical commentary: An analysis of listening examples for structural com- ponents (rhythm, melody, harmony, and so forth), genre and/or genre influ- ences (blues, jazz, gospel, folk, and so forth), and ethnic influences (Latin clave rhythms, African melodic ornamentation, and so forth). If the selection is a song with lyrics, inclusion of the lyrics and the student’s interpretation of the lyrics. For more information: 3–5 Web sites that provide additional information either on the artist, genre, or historical and social context Bibliography: A list of books, articles, and Web sites consulted She found that the project motivated students, provided a framework for bring- ing together several aspects of the course, and made a significant contribution to the learning repository for the class because the “Portrait Gallery” was cumula- tive, with new artists added each term. ONLINE Have students create a Web page as their presentation medium. The Web IMPLEMENTATION page can contain text, images, or video and links to other sites. How you display the multiple Web pages will depend upon your course-delivery software and may range from students’ posting the URL for their page along with an explanation on a threaded discussion to sophisticated pro- grams that allow for multimedia streaming with mechanisms for viewers to submit comments. VARIATIONS • Make this a collaborative activity by forming teams to create exhibits. AND EXTENSIONS Give teams time to organize their efforts such as preparing a prospectus in which they formulate their research questions, identify goals and the resources they will need to carry out their investigation, choose their methods of investigation, and divide up and assign the tasks. On exhibit day, at least one student can stand by the exhibit and answer questions as other students walk around and view the exhibits of their peers (CoLT 18, “Group Investigation” in Barkley, Cross, and Major, 2005, pp. 199–204). OBSERVATIONS “Poster Session” is a presentation strategy, with two characteristics distin- AND ADVICE guishing it from the typical manner in which students present to the class. First, students display their work simultaneously (which is more efficient than a series of presentations), and second, during the viewing and exhibit- ing, students interact informally in small groups to discuss the exhibits. This

242 Student Engagement Techniques can be less intimidating and may result in more candid, individually rele- vant discussion than would be generated in a formal presentation with Q & A involving the whole class along with the teacher. Although elaborate science fair exhibits with the attendant organizational issues may come to mind, “Poster Sessions” can be implemented very sim- ply, with 3-D material displayed on a designated subset of desks and 2-D material tacked or taped to the walls at locations around the room. Dis- played items vary based on course content and instructional goals, but they might include written documents (such as letters, content summaries, quotes), visual documents (charts, photographs, art reproductions), objects (models, cultural artifacts, biological specimens), and media (audio and film recordings). KEY RESOURCE Colorado State University. Writing Guides: Poster Sessions. Retrieved from http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/speaking/poster/pop2a.cfm

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 243 STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 21 Class Book Individual Writing Essential Characteristics Variable High PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Toward the end of a course, individual students submit an essay assignment AND PURPOSE that they believe represents their highest quality work. Submissions are collected and bound together as a “Class Book” that will be available to future students in the same course. This SET offers an opportunity for stu- dents to create a record of their cumulative course experience, motivates students to strive for personal excellence, and provides students in subse- quent classes with models of quality work done by their peers. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Choose what kinds of assignments will be used in the class book and DIRECTIONS develop guidelines or rules for submission that specify content, format, and quality expectations. 2. Decide on the scope and quality of the final product (for example, sim- ple stapled copies or a more elaborate, bound document using desktop publishing software) and whether you will produce it yourself or assign production to students. 3. Determine a production schedule that is late enough in the term so that students have a reasonable number of assignments from which to choose their best work, yet also allows sufficient time to produce the class book.

244 Student Engagement Techniques EXAMPLE Composition, Critical Reading, and Thinking This course provides students with techniques and practice in expository and argumentative writing based on critical reading and thinking about nonfiction texts. Professor S. A. Rider incorporates collaborative activities extensively in order to help students at this commuter college feel part of a community and because he believes it is the best pedagogical approach for his learning goals. To moti- vate and challenge students to do their personal best, Professor Rider informs students on the first day of the term that two weeks before the semester ends, they will select what they consider to be their best essay for publication in a class compilation called Showcase. He explains that Showcase will provide them with a keepsake to remind them of their course experience, and it will give future stu- dents models of exemplary work. He asks for volunteers to serve on the pro- duction committee who, for extra credit, will be responsible for organizing, editing, and printing the compilation. Although the first time he implemented the assignment the students pro- duced a simple, spiral-bound document, subsequent classes were motivated to outshine the previous classes and used desktop publishing software to produce high-quality, hard-covered editions that included a preface and photographs with short bios of the students.The cumulative Showcase editions are displayed in the English department office. ONLINE There are many ways to implement this SET in an online course. One of the IMPLEMENTATION simplest ways is to have students submit their assignments as portable document files (PDFs) and create a list of links on a Web page or forum. A more sophisticated approach would be to create an online magazine, some- times referred to as a zine, ezine, webzine, or cyberzine. There are several software packages that streamline the production process for online maga- zines, and they can be located by using a simple search with words such as “ezine publishing.” VARIATIONS • Ask students to volunteer or vote on a group of in-class peers to serve AND EXTENSIONS as an editorial board responsible for vetting what goes into the class book. • Have students develop a class memoir that is included as the preface or introduction to the book. This memoir can encourage students to reflect on their learning experiences, build class community, and offer advice to subsequent students on how to learn the most and be successful in the course.

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 245 • Instead of a hard-copy class book, create a Web-based magazine, with each class creating the next edition of the online publication. • This SET is well-suited to courses in the visual and performing arts, with students submitting film clips, images, or music compositions that are compiled on a class CD or DVD. • In addition to selecting and submitting the assignment, ask students to write a few paragraphs that comment or explain the submission (for example, why they feel it was their best work, the challenges they faced and overcame as they created the work, or analysis and interpretation of the work). • Have students create individual portfolios out of which they select their best work for the course portfolio. OBSERVATIONS Emphasize that intellectual quality is the criterion for inclusion in the book AND ADVICE and that the goal is to produce a book of high-quality work, not just a pretty book. Students may get too focused on the production of the class book, losing sight of the basic goal of doing excellent work on all their assignments and using evaluation skills to choose their best individual assignment. KEY RESOURCE Watkins, R. (2005). 75 e-Learning activities: Making online learning interactive. San Francisco: Pfeiffer, pp. 198–200.

246 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 22 WebQuests Collaborative Reading, Writing, Presenting Essential Characteristics Multiple Sessions Moderate PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Student teams participate in an inquiry-oriented activity in which most or AND PURPOSE all of the information is drawn from the Internet. Using primarily instructor- specified Web sites, team members investigate an open-ended question and participate in a highly structured group process that aims to help them syn- thesize and apply their understanding to a task that replicates real-world challenges. “WebQuests” helps students learn to use the Web for research in ways that encourage analysis and judgment rather than simply copying or sum- marizing information. Because the task is authentic—a scaled-down ver- sion of things adults do as citizens or workers—“WebQuests” creates a bridge between what is learned in the classroom and the world outside of the classroom, demonstrating how and why classroom-based knowledge is important. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Decide on a topic that connects course material to current events or DIRECTIONS select an area that is inadequately covered in available texts. 2. Design a task that utilizes Web information to achieve a specified goal. Dodge and March’s WebQuest Design Patterns page (http://webquest .sdsu.edu/designpatterns/all.htm) describes dozens of categories of tasks. For example, in the category “Analyzing for Bias,” students analyze sources of information for bias and use their analysis to articulate a

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 247 point of view and demonstrate its impact. An example of a topic is “Botox: Effects, Risks, and Truths.” In the category “Time Capsule,” students investigate, evaluate, and select a number of artifacts that capture the essence of a particular period of history. An example of a topic is “The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s: The Contradiction Between American Idealism and Racism.” 3. Identify the roles students will assume and the steps they’ll follow to complete the activity. 4. Identify the online resources available on the topic by brainstorming a list of related words and using the list to search for relevant sites. As you search, create a list of current, accurate, engaging, and task-appropriate sites that can be used to guide students in their inquiry. San Diego State University’s WebQuest page Four Nets for Better Searching provides strategies for searching for such sites (http://webquest.sdsu.edu/ searching/fournets.htm). 5. Develop a comprehensive grading rubric that specifies how each com- ponent of the WebQuest will be evaluated. San Diego State University’s WebQuest portal provides rubrics that can be used to assess the peda- gogical soundness of the assignment as well as student performance (http://webquest.sdsu.edu/webquestrubric.html). 6. Create a Web page or hard-copy document that provides assignment details. EXAMPLES Organic Chemistry One of the aims of the chemistry program at this university is to provide oppor- tunities for scientific study and creativity within global contexts that will stimu- late and challenge students. To help achieve this goal in an organic chemistry course, Fiona Clark, a chemistry professor at International Baccalaureate World School, created a WebQuest titled “Organic Chemistry in the News.” She gives students a memo (supposedly) written by the editor-in-chief of the local newspaper, in which he tells students that he is being bombarded with ques- tions regarding four topics that have recently been in the news: a proposed pipeline for carrying natural gas, trihalomethanes (THMs) in the local water sup- ply, chemical warfare, and the use of various man-made organic chemicals. He informs students that the paper’s science editor is out of town on another proj- ect and the newspaper needs credible local experts to investigate the topics. He asks students to research the topics and write an editorial that he can publish by

248 Student Engagement Techniques a specified date. He also explains that in order to satisfy the local scientific com- munity, he needs students to prepare a laboratory experiment that could be used to test their findings. The professor assigns students to groups that will focus on one of the four topics. First, they are asked as individuals to divide a piece of paper into two columns and write everything they already know about the topic in Column A, and what they think they still need to learn in Column B.They then discuss what they wrote with their group and select a role such as Reporter/ Editor, Lab Tech- nician, and Graphic Designer. Each group is given a list of 6–8 Web sites to begin their investigation.The results of their investigation are summarized in an essay written as a newspaper editorial (Clark, 2008). ••• Advanced Spanish This is an adaptation of a WebQuest titled “Cuba en Crisis” developed by Chris- ten Savage and Daniel Woolsey (n.d.) for advanced Spanish students. Students are organized into teams of five and presented with the following fictional sce- nario based on the death of Fidel Castro and the assassination of Raúl Castro: With the recent deaths of both Fidel and Raúl Castro, Cuba is in crisis. A prominent news magazine wants to run a special edition on Cuba and take an in-depth look at the current situation. This will involve researching not only the present, but also the history of Cuba and why the nation is in this predicament.Your team of reporters is assigned to the story and requested to make a prediction about Cuba’s future based on your findings. Students are given one week to gather information and one week to organize their findings. They then give a final group presentation that includes data as well as a prediction as to what will happen next in Cuba. Following is a step-by-step process: 1. Class discussion: As a whole class, students read and discuss articles in Spanish that provide contrasting views on the two Castro regimes. 2. Individual expert: Students are organized into teams of five. Each team member is responsible for one of the following five areas: history, politics, economy, human rights, and public opinion. 3. Research: Team members choose from a list of Web sites provided by the instructor for each expertise area as well as general Web sites and addi- tional video/audio resources (such as tapes of Castro’s speeches). Students are required to read a minimum of three articles, with only one in English.

Synthesis and Creative Thinking 249 4. Individual paper: Each student writes a summary of his or her research and provides this to other group members and to the instructor. 5. Group discussion: Groups reconvene and use their summary papers as the basis for discussing and coming to a conclusion regarding the future of Cuba. 6. Group presentation: Each group presents their findings to the whole class. Presentations are oral and in Spanish, but may take the form of com- puter presentation slides, a creative skit, a news report, a Web magazine, a documentary, and so forth. Each student takes on a specific role for the presentation. Roles include Group Summarizer, Issues Reporter (Pros), Issues Reporter (Cons), Artistic Director, and Materials Expert. Groups must prepare and provide a handout for the rest of the students. 7. Reflection paper: Students individually write a paper reflecting on the way in which their opinion has or has not changed since the beginning of the activity.The paper also includes a self-assessment on their personal contribution to the information-gathering process, group discussion, and class presentation. Students are provided with a comprehensive grading rubric that specifies how each component of the WebQuest will be evaluated. ONLINE To be successful with online students, WebQuests must be highly structured. IMPLEMENTATION Form groups and assign each group its own threaded discussion area so that members can communicate aspects of the investigation privately. Break the process into its various parts and outline tasks so that students are clear on their responsibilities. Establish a time frame with clear deadlines. Have final text reports or Web pages posted in a public forum for all members of the class to view. For closure, consider creating an assignment that requires all students to view the various reports and, for example, to answer specific content questions or compare and evaluate the investigation results. VARIATIONS • WebQuests are complex, highly scaffolded activities. Teachers can AND EXTENSIONS simplify any of the components to make them less elaborate. For example, rather than making the WebQuest a group project in which group members adopt different roles, Deanya Lattimore, a professor at Syracuse University, has individual students look at information through different “frames.” The WebQuest she designed is called “Literacy and the Person,” and students look at what it means to be “a person” from the perspectives of metaphysics, anthropology, psychol- ogy, sociology, and philosophy as preparation for an essay.

250 Student Engagement Techniques OBSERVATIONS WebQuests are based on the research of Bernie Dodge and Tom March at AND ADVICE San Diego State University. Just as they are complex and challenging for students to do, they are complex and challenging for teachers to create. Dodge and March’s comprehensive site (http://webquest.org), hosted by the Educational Technology Department at San Diego State University, pro- vides a wealth of information and advice, including a discussion blog, design templates, and WebQuest examples with a search tool that sorts WebQuests by discipline and educational level. Because WebQuests were originally designed for K–12 students, there is limited information on how to apply this technique within a college environment. KEY RESOURCES Clark, F. Organic Chemistry in the News. Retrieved from http://www3.ns .sympatico.ca/chemfifi/Organic%20WebQuest/index.htm. Dodge, B., & March, T. WebQuests. Retrieved from http://webquest.sdsu.edu/. Savage, C., & Woolsey, D. Cuba en Crisis. Retrieved from http://mypage.iu.edu/ ~dwoolsey/cuba_en_crisis/.

Chapter 15 Problem Solving DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ ability to solve problems efficiently and effectively is a goal almost all teachers share. Problems can be generally described as puzzles that exercise the mind, but what constitutes a problem varies widely across the disciplines. For example, when we think about a math problem, we are thinking about a statement or proposition that is amenable to being analyzed and solved with the methods of mathematics. When we think about a social problem, we are thinking about a particularly difficult situation in society such as poverty, violence, injustice, or discrimination. Problems can be well defined and have correct answers, or they can be loosely defined “confusing messes incapable of technical solution” (Schön, 1983, p. 42). Whether the problems we want students to grapple with are straightforward tasks designed to produce a specified result or complex quandaries that seem incapable of resolution, problem solving is funda- mental to most disciplines. The student engagement techniques (SETs) in this chapter are designed to engage students in learning and practicing problem-solving strategies. 251

252 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 23 What’s the Problem? Individual Reading, Writing Essential Characteristics Single Session High PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION One of the first steps in good problem solving is being able to correctly AND PURPOSE identify what kind of problem one is dealing with in order to determine the appropriate principles and techniques needed to solve the problem. To do this, students must be able to look beyond surface differences among prob- lems and perceive underlying similarities. In this activity, students work in pairs, looking at examples of common problem types in order to identify the particular type of problem each example represents. In this way, stu- dents support each other as they try to increase their efficiency and effec- tiveness in problem solving by learning to generalize problem types instead of seeing problems as isolated exemplars. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Identify two or more types of problems that students find difficult to DIRECTIONS distinguish. 2. Choose or craft several examples of each type. 3. Depending upon your teaching goals and the skill level of your stu- dents, decide on the complexity of the task. Will you provide them with information about the types of problems and ask them simply to match type with example? Will you provide them only with the examples and ask them to name the problem type? 4. Consider trying out your examples on a colleague or an advanced stu- dent to see whether he or she agrees that your examples are clear rep-

Problem Solving 253 resentatives of a particular problem type. This can help you assess how difficult the task is and how long it will take students to complete. (As a general rule, allow students two to three times as long as it took your colleague to do the task.) 5. Make a handout, or a presentation slide, or an overhead-projector trans- parency containing the problem examples. 6. Form students into pairs and explain the directions, allowing time for questions. 7. Students work through the examples, identifying the type of problem each example represents. EXAMPLES Critical Reading and Thinking To help her students learn to read more critically, Professor Ima Nerer wanted them to develop skills in identifying fallacies in arguments. She decided that by the end of the course, she wanted them to be able to recognize quickly a min- imum of twenty fallacy types. She started with five common types (confusing cause and effect, red herring, straw man, ad hominem, and post hoc) and cre- ated an overhead transparency with a series of short paragraphs such as the following: Presidential candidate X claims that the federal government should not fund the acquisition and construction of the Seawolf class of Attack Sub- marines. Presidential candidate Y says he deeply opposes this position, claiming it will leave the country defenseless. After explaining the fallacies to students in a presentation, she posted the transparency and asked students to turn to a neighbor to discuss and identify the type of fallacy each paragraph represented. As a follow-up, she offered bonus points to students who found examples of any of the five fallacies in the media. A few weeks later, she added five more common fallacies, and so on, building up students’ knowledge of the types of fallacies as well as improving their ability to recognize them in day-to-day contexts. She found that students enjoyed working together to practice identifying fallacy types and discovering how this skill helped them look more critically at information they encountered in everyday life. •••

254 Student Engagement Techniques Music Theory and Composition The fundamental goal of this course was for students to learn, understand, and apply the voice-leading rules known as Eighteenth-Century Common Practice Technique (for example, avoid parallel fifths and octaves, leading tones must resolve to the tonic, and never make a melodic movement of an augmented interval). Professor Paul Ifanick was frustrated that although students appeared to know the rules, they often did not recognize when they violated them in their harmonization assignments. To help students become better at recognizing errors, he created worksheets of four-measure harmonic progressions, with each progression containing two or three errors. On a separate sheet, he created a numbered list of the basic rules. He then asked student pairs to go through the examples, find and circle the errors and write in the number of the rule the har- monization had violated. ONLINE Synchronous tools such as teleconferencing or chat sessions that also IMPLEMENTATION have chalkboard tools offer one possibility for using this SET in an online environment. Alternatively, invite students to contact a classmate and talk through the problem set on the telephone or through instant messaging. Or consider giving student pairs the assignment with problem-type examples and have each student first identify the problems independently and then compare with their teammate and reach consensus, and then submit that as a joint assignment. VARIATIONS • Ask students to create or locate their own examples of the problem AND EXTENSIONS types. • Ask students to provide a detailed explanation of the critical attributes of each problem type, and identify the clues an expert would seek to distinguish the types. • Once students know how to recognize a problem type, pair this SET with SET 25, “Think-Aloud-Pair-Problem Solving,” to help them prac- tice how to solve the problems. OBSERVATIONS This SET naturally lends itself to disciplines that contain well-defined AND ADVICE problems with correct answers. But there are also disciplines (or types of problems within disciplines) that are messier and more complex, that include a huge array of relevant variables both known and unknown, and that may not have a single correct solution. If you are using these kinds of problems, inform students that there may be multiple solutions and ask them to choose one, justifying their response with reference to the evidence provided in the example.

Problem Solving 255 Real-world problems are often complex and multifaceted and do not fit into a single category. To keep students focused on identification skills, simplify the examples to highlight the distinctions between problem types, but explain the need for and the limitations of these streamlined example prob- lems to students. KEY RESOURCE Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 214–217.

256 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 24 Think Again! Individual, Collaborative Problem Solving Essential Characteristics Single Session High PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION In this SET, the teacher presents a common misconception in the discipline AND PURPOSE and then takes a quick, informal poll asking students to agree or disagree with the statement. The teacher then tells students that the statement is untrue and assigns students a task that requires them to prove why it is untrue. This activity challenges students by creating cognitive dissonance, requiring them to subject their belief to critical analysis and use the knowl- edge and understanding they are acquiring in the course to gather the appropriate evidence to demonstrate why a commonly held belief is untrue. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Identify and write a common misconception in your discipline on a DIRECTIONS presentation slide or overhead transparency. 2. Decide on the task that students will do to prove the statement is untrue. 3. Tell students you are going to share with them a statement and that you would like them to agree or disagree, assuring them that their choice will not affect their grade. 4. Display and read the statement and ask students who agree with it to raise their hands. 5. Assuming the majority agree, tell students that the statement is untrue and then ask them to turn to a partner and complete a task that requires

Problem Solving 257 them to prove why it is untrue. (If a considerable number of students disagree, pair them with those who agree so that together they can com- plete the task proving why the statement is untrue.) EXAMPLES Algebra Professor Polly Nomeal presented students with the following statement:“The maximum speed of a sailboat occurs when the boat is sailing in the same direc- tion as the wind.” She took a quick poll, and 80 percent of the students agreed. She then explained that their intuitive answer was wrong. She formed groups of three and told students,“Sailboats can actually go much faster when they sail across the wind. How so? Using what you have been learning in vector algebra, explain why sailboats can sail faster when the wind blows sideways to their direc- tion of travel rather than from directly behind them. Make your explanation clear enough for the general public to understand.You can use diagrams if that helps” (adapted from Bean, 1996, p. 27). ••• Introduction to Physics To keep students actively engaged throughout the lecture portion of a large introductory physics class, this professor sometimes presents a scenario with two or three possible outcomes. For example, to introduce the topic of conser- vation of energy, he projects an image of three identical skateboarders prepared to race down three differently shaped ramps at precisely the same time. He asks students to decide which skateboarder would win the race—the skateboarder on the (a) straight ramp, (b) the cycloid ramp, or (c) the parabola ramp? Since the lecture hall is equipped with an automatic response system (clickers), he has stu- dents first vote individually on a, b, or c.Without revealing the result, he asks stu- dents to turn to someone sitting next to them and explain their reasoning.Then he asks them to come to consensus on a choice and vote again. He displays the results of the individual and paired responses and uses them as the basis for an explanation on the principles involved in the example. He often performs a live experiment in front of the class to demonstrate which response was correct. ONLINE Save time by skipping the step of asking students to indicate whether they IMPLEMENTATION agree or disagree with the statement. Simply present the task as an assignment, asking students to prove why this commonly held belief is untrue. It will be easiest if you have students complete the assignment individually, but if you wish to garner the benefits of collaborative learning, form student pairs who can communicate through private messaging and e-mail, or form

258 Student Engagement Techniques groups and set up a closed-access threaded discussion forum for each group to work out their solution. VARIATIONS • This basic technique can also be used to engage students in solving AND EXTENSIONS problems related to course content rather than common misconceptions in the field, as indicated in the physics example above. • As a follow-up activity to proving why the misconception is untrue, ask students to figure out how to explain it in clear, simple language to the general public. OBSERVATIONS Consider posing the question as “Raise your hand if you think most people AND ADVICE on the street would agree with this statement.” If students are savvier than you had thought and the majority of them dis- agree with the statement, tell them they are right and ask them to explain why. KEY RESOURCE Bean, J. C. (1996). Engaging ideas: The professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, p. 27.

Problem Solving 259 STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 25 Think-Aloud-Pair-Problem Solving (TAPPS) Essential Characteristics Collaborative Problem Solving PRIMARY MODE Single Session ACTIVITY FOCUS High DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION In “Think-Aloud-Pair-Problem Solving” student pairs receive a series of AND PURPOSE problems as well as specific roles––problem solver and listener––that switch with each problem. The problem solver thinks aloud, talking through the steps of solving a problem, while the partner listens, following the steps, attempting to understand the reasoning behind the steps, and offering sug- gestions if there are missteps. TAPPS places the emphasis on the problem-solving process rather than the product. Articulating one’s own process and listening carefully to another’s process helps students practice problem-solving skills and learn to diagnose errors in logic. Depending upon the problems used, it can also help increase student awareness of the range of successful (and unsuccess- ful) approaches to problem solving. TAPPS improves analytical skills by helping students to formalize ideas, rehearse concepts, understand the sequence of steps underlying their thinking, and identify errors in someone else’s reasoning. Since it requires students to relate information to existing conceptual frameworks and to apply existing information to new situations, it can also promote deeper understanding. Finally, it can help foster metacognitive awareness, as it provides a structure for students to observe both their own and another’s process of learning.

260 Student Engagement Techniques STEP-BY-STEP 1. Spend sufficient time developing an appropriate set of field-related DIRECTIONS problems that students can solve within a limited time frame. The prob- lems should engage students in basic problem-solving skills such as identifying the nature of the problem, analyzing the knowledge and skills required to reach a solution, identifying potential solutions, choosing the best solution, and evaluating potential outcomes. To be most effective, the problems should challenge students, requiring them to concentrate and focus their attention, whether they are solvers or listeners. 2. Create a worksheet with a series of problems. 3. Ask students to form pairs and explain to students the roles of problem solver and listener. The role of the problem solver is to read the prob- lem aloud and talk through the reasoning process in attempting to solve the problem. The role of the listener is to encourage the problem solver to think aloud, describing the steps to solve the problem. The listener may also ask clarification questions and offer suggestions, but should refrain from actually solving the problem. 4. Ask students to solve a set of problems, alternating roles with each new problem. 5. Call completion when students have solved all problems. ONLINE The need for synchronous communication between pairs makes this SET IMPLEMENTATION cumbersome online. However, if you believe that modeling and receiving feedback on problem solving is important to your course, consider asking students to teleconference. An alternative would be to organize students into pairs, have them individually work through a problem (or problem set), explain their thinking at each step, and then send their assignment for feedback either as an e-mail attachment or a post on a discussion board. EXAMPLES English as a Second Language An English professor was teaching a course in grammar to ESL students. He decided to use sentence diagramming to help students understand the rela- tionship of the various parts of speech. First he explained diagramming to the students, demonstrating the process by parsing and graphing several sample sentences on the board. When students indicated that they understood the steps, he formed pairs and gave each pair a set of several sentences. He asked students to take turns diagramming the sentences, talking out loud to explain why they were making their choices while their partner listened and offered sug-

Problem Solving 261 gestions when necessary. The professor closed the activity by asking each pair to select the most challenging sentence from the set and go to the board, shar- ing both their diagramming and the reasoning behind the diagramming with the whole class. ••• Elementary Statistics Professor Marge N. O’Vera decided to use TAPPS in an introductory statistics class to have students practice regression analysis. She prepared a handout that included a scenario with an attached printout of data. She then asked students to use this data to solve ten problems. Professor O’Vera asked students to pair with the student sitting next to them. She explained the roles of problem-solver and listener. The students worked on the problems, alternating between prob- lem-solver and listener until all of the problems were completed. She then held a full class discussion to review the answers and to clarify questions regarding the problem-solving process. ••• Programming in BIOPERL The purpose of this course was to teach students to create utility software pro- grams using a specific scientific programming language. To achieve this goal, students needed to become competent in a complex problem-solving process of retrieving, manipulating, and analyzing sequences from a variety of databases. The instructor noticed that some of his students caught on and were able to go through the steps relatively easily. Others tended to make process mistakes that resulted in programming errors that were time-consuming and frustrating to find later. Historically, these struggling students simply dropped the course at this point, so the instructor was searching for ways to reduce attrition and alle- viate student anxiety. He decided to use TAPPS to structure practicing the prob- lem-solving process with a peer, and to use recent quiz scores to partner a student who was having difficulties problem solving with a student who was doing well. The result was that students not only gained competence sooner than in the previous semester when they had worked independently, but it also significantly reduced student attrition. VARIATIONS • This SET is typically used for a series of close-ended problems, but it AND EXTENSIONS can also be used for more open-ended problem solving. The activity may take more time, so plan for fewer problems. • If all pairs have worked on the same problem set, select pairs at random to report out their solution, or take a vote on the most challenging

262 Student Engagement Techniques problems and share and examine solutions along with tips for improve- ment as a class. OBSERVATIONS Many students, especially new students, will not have highly developed AND ADVICE problem-solving skills. Consider preparing students by having students practice problem solving as a class prior to this activity. Student problem-solvers may not be comfortable having their logic exposed to other students. Student listeners may not be trained in logic so they may not be able to note difficulties. Because of the level of risk students may feel, it is important to have established a high level of trust in your class prior to using this activity. Thus, it may also be a good idea to use this technique with pairs who work together throughout the term or at least over several sessions. Students will solve problems at different speeds. In this SET, it is particu- larly important to have an additional problem (an “extension”) on hand for students who complete the problems quickly so that they do not sit around bored waiting for the other students to finish. Consider crafting a particu- larly challenging bonus question for extra credit. Monitor students to ensure they are reinforcing correct information and problem-solving processes. Either to get a rough measure of students’ problem-solving ability prior to implementing TAPPS, or as a follow-up activity to assess how much they have learned, provide students with a few examples of common problem types and ask them to recognize and identify the particular type of prob- lem each example represents. This activity can help you assess how well your students can recognize various problem types, which is the first step in matching problem type to solution method (Angelo and Cross, pp. 214–217). If you are most interested in assessing how students solve problems and how well they understand and can describe problem-solving methods, have them individually track the steps that they took in solving the problem in TAPPS and submit this to you for review. Angelo and Cross also suggest ideas for adapting and extending the assessment (pp. 224–225):

Problem Solving 263 • Give students two problems: one of low and the other of medium diffi- culty. The results of their efforts to solve the problems can help you to gauge the best level at which to begin whole-class or small-group instruction. • Ask students with elegant, well-documented responses to explain their solutions to a partner, a small group of students, or even to the whole class. • Since most students have little or no experience reflecting on their own problem-solving processes, you may have to help them learn how to do this. Also, to ensure that peers give each other thoughtful and thorough responses, you may need to give students credit for this activity. To grade this SET, students can submit a record of the solutions with the solver for each problem identified (for example, by initials). You may also wish to have the listener identified and to have the listener include his or her suggestions for problem-solving improvement. KEY RESOURCES Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 172–176. Lochhead, J., & Whimby, A. (1987). Teaching analytical reasoning through think- ing-aloud pair problem solving. In J. E. Stice (Ed.), Developing critical thinking and problem solving abilities: New directions for teaching and learning, 30. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 72–93. MacGregor, J. (1990). Collaborative learning: Shared inquiry as a process of reform. In M. D. Svinicki (Ed.), The changing face of college teaching: New direc- tions for teaching and learning, 42. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 19–30. Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P. G., Jr. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education facul- ty. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, p. 114.

264 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 26 Proclamations Collaborative Reading, Writing Essential Characteristics Single Session High PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Student teams identify and analyze a problematic situation in the local AND PURPOSE community. They then write a speech for a government official that persuades others of the urgency of the problem and offers strategies for solving the problem. Researching and proposing solutions to problems helps students develop critical and creative thinking skills. Working on a real problem in the community can deepen understanding of theoretical concepts, demon- strate the relevance and importance of academic work, and help foster a greater sense of social and civic responsibility. Since students present their analysis and solution strategies in a persuasive speech, this SET can also help students develop communication skills. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Spend time thinking through the parameters of this assignment. What DIRECTIONS kinds of community problems do you want students to identify? For example, can the problems be general (graffiti, reckless driving, noise, ethnic conflict, and so forth) or should they be discipline specific (art- related community problems might include insufficient amateur artist exhibit opportunities, lack of information on how and where to dis- pose of art-related hazardous waste materials, and artists’ sense of social isolation). Will you determine, or will you allow students to determine, the type of government official and audience for which the

Problem Solving 265 speech will be written (such as the mayor, Chamber of Commerce, school district Board of Trustees, city planning department)? 2. Determine how students will report out (will you ask the team to sub- mit the speech as a written document or require a team representative to actually give the speech to the class?). 3. If the skill level of your students is such that they require more scaf- folding, consider identifying sample problems and writing a model speech yourself to help clarify your expectations. 4. Ask students to use newspapers, media, the Internet, personal experi- ence, and other sources to identify two or three local community prob- lems that they would like to investigate. 5. Select the problems yourself by choosing from the lists submitted by students, or have students participate in the process. One method is to type out or write on the board all of the potential choices and then ask individuals to vote for their top three choices. The class’s most popular topics can then be designated as the available choices. 6. Form teams based on topic interest. 7. Give teams time to organize their efforts such as preparing a prospec- tus in which they state the problem, give specific examples of the prob- lem, and identify possible reasons for the problem. 8. Allow time for students to analyze the problem, identify solutions, and decide on the central idea they are trying to convey. Consider provid- ing them with guidance on writing speeches, such as suggesting that they create an outline, number points so audience members can follow, and after each point return to the main theme. EXAMPLE Race and Ethnic Relations This course focuses on the evolving meaning of race and ethnicity as it relates to intergroup relations in the United States.The professor decided to use“Procla- mations” to help students better bridge theory and practice and to help them recognize their potential power as change agents for improving relations in their community. He asked students to write on a piece of paper a list of five problems that they observed in their community that seem to have some basis in the area’s changed racial and ethnic demographics. He collected the papers, made a syn- thesized, composite list, and distributed the list to the class, asking students to number their top five choices. Based on the students’ votes, he formed groups and assigned each group to focus on one of the five problems.Their assignment

266 Student Engagement Techniques included discussing the problem, coming to agreement on strategies to solve the problem, and then writing their choice of a speech or a letter to an appro- priate government or civic leader. OBSERVATIONS Since there is no official definition of community problem, consider estab- AND ADVICE lishing parameters such as “the problem should have two or more of the following criteria: it occurs frequently, has lasted for a while, affects many people, is disturbing and possibly intense, deprives people of legal or moral rights, or is perceived as a problem by a significant number of people” (Berkowitz, 2007). Encouraging students to work on problems that are authentic and relevant to them is refreshingly different from just reading about problems and issues in a textbook, thus engaging students in working for solutions that they find important and interesting. Real community problems are often complex, resisting clear analysis and solution and persisting despite concerted efforts. Encourage students to take the time and make the effort to think hard about the problem and untangle its varied components; the many dimensions may involve multiple reasons for the problem, the costs of solutions, multiple solutions with different types of actions, the stakeholders, opposition to proposed solutions, and so forth. It is also possible that problems are too complex and involve factors that are beyond a community’s control (general economic decline, for exam- ple, that prevents the community from having the necessary resources; Watts, 2007). Recognizing what is within one’s control and what is not is an important life lesson. KEY RESOURCES Berkowitz, B. (2007). The community tool box: Bringing solutions to light. Work Group for Community Health and Development, University of Kansas. Retrieved from http://ctb1.ku.edu/en/tablecontents/. Watts, M. M. (2007). Service learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Problem Solving 267 STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 27 Send-a-Problem Collaborative Discussing Essential Characteristics Single Session Moderate PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION In “Send-a-Problem,” groups of students each receive a problem, try to AND PURPOSE solve it, and then pass the problem and solution to a nearby group. Without looking at the previous group’s solution, the next group works to solve the problem. After as many passes as seem useful, groups analyze, evaluate, and synthesize the responses to the problem they received in the final pass and report the best solution to the class. “Send-a-Problem” thus involves two activity stages: solving problems and evaluating solutions. The purpose of the first stage is to provide stu- dents with an opportunity to practice together and learn from each other the thinking skills required for effective problem solving. The purpose of the second stage is to help students learn to compare and discriminate among multiple solutions. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Determine the number of problems you will need in order to have all DIRECTIONS groups working simultaneously. 2. Decide how you will present the problem. Consider attaching each problem to the outside of a file folder or an envelope into which groups can then insert their solutions. 3. Think carefully about the instructions you will give to students regard- ing time limits and the order in which they should pass the problem (such as clockwise). Being clear with students can help to reduce any confusion.

268 Student Engagement Techniques 4. Form groups of 4–6 students, describe the activity, give instructions, and answer questions. 5. Distribute a different problem to each group, asking each group to dis- cuss the problem, generate possible solutions, choose the best solution, and record and place their response in the folder or envelope. 6. Call “Time,” and instruct teams to pass to the next group; each group receives a new folder or envelope. Upon receiving new problems, stu- dents again brainstorm responses and record results until time is called and they again pass the problem to a new group. 7. Repeat the process for as many times as seems useful and appropriate for the problem. 8. Students in the final group review and evaluate the responses to the problem, adding any additional information they wish. 9. The activity concludes as teams report on the responses contained in the envelope or folder they evaluated. As groups report out, add any points that groups missed and reinforce correct processes and solutions. EXAMPLES Urban Planning This professor decided to use “Send-a-Problem” so that students could evaluate different groups’ solutions to a residential rezoning problem. She gave each group a manila envelope that included the data required to solve the problem and two 5 × 7 index cards. She asked students to discuss and agree upon a solu- tion, write the solution on one of the cards and place it in the envelope, and pass the envelope to the next group. The next group also discussed a solution, recorded their responses on the second index card and placed it in the enve- lope. This group sent their solution to a third group, who reviewed the responses from the first two groups and selected what they believed was the best solution. The instructor asked these third, final groups to report on which solution they felt was best and to describe why. ••• Advanced Pathophysiology and Patient Management To review assessment and treatment of patients with respiratory disease, Pro- fessor Xavier Breath divided the class of twenty students into three groups. He then gave each group an envelop with a patient’s specific symptoms written on the outside. Professor Breath asked groups to review the symptoms, diagnose the disease, and recommend and write down appropriate treatment and ther- apy. After each group had discussed the first problem for fifteen minutes, the

Problem Solving 269 instructor asked students to put their responses in the envelope and pass it to a group sitting nearby who repeated the process. After another fifteen-minute discussion, students sent the envelopes to a final group. When the final group received the envelope, they synthesized the responses from the two previous groups and added additional responses.They then selected the most likely dis- ease causing the patient’s symptoms and selected the best treatment.The pro- fessor called on each group and wrote the best responses on the chalkboard, incorporating a review of diagnosis protocol, symptoms, diseases, and treatment. ••• English Literature In this online class, Professor Fitz William wanted students to think deeply about cultural and social conditions surrounding the development of the novel Pride and Prejudice. He decided to have students participate in an online adaptation of “Send-a-Problem.” He organized students into three groups and created a forum for each group. He then developed three questions relating the text to the historical context of the nineteenth century and posted one of the questions on each of the group forums. He gave students in each group one week to respond to their first question and a second week to respond to their second question. During the third week, he gave students access to all forums, and asked groups to evaluate the responses to their final question. ONLINE An adaptation of this SET can be effective in the online environment. Deter- IMPLEMENTATION mine problems and organize students into as many groups as you have problems. Create a protected-access forum for each group. Post problem prompts and ask students to solve the appropriate problem as listed in Table 15.1 for Stage 1. During Stage 2, permit forum access to all students to respond to the solutions that were posted in the preceding two weeks. TABLE 15.1. Stages of Problem Solving Group A Time frame 1 Stage 1: Stage 2: Group B Problem Solving Solution Evaluation Group C Solve problem 1 Solve problem 2 Time frame 2 Time frame 3 Solve problem 3 Solve problem 2 Evaluate solutions for problem 3 Solve problem 3 Evaluate solutions for problem 1 Solve problem 1 Evaluate solutions for problem 2

270 Student Engagement Techniques VARIATIONS • Allow students to generate their own list of problems that they would AND EXTENSIONS like to see the class solve. For example, individuals may wish to have additional coverage of a certain type of problem that they find consis- tently confusing. Or perhaps there are issues in a reading assignment that they found particularly intriguing and would like to hear what other students think. While you may have specific topics that you must cover, giving students some control over the problems/topics can gen- erate more engagement and investment in this SET. • Consider using this SET as a review before an examination. Bring in copies of old tests for students to take and compare their answers. • For closure, have groups write the numbers of the problems on the board, and ask the evaluating teams to report which group’s solution they determined was best, recording the team’s name under the prob- lem’s number. Then ask the evaluating team to summarize the winning team’s solution and state why they felt that solution was best. Offer the winning team the opportunity to add any additional comments. OBSERVATIONS Interpret problem to include a variety of complex questions and issues (such AND ADVICE as text, diagnosis, and identification of a physical element). “Send-a-Problem” is most effective for developing several thoughtful solu- tions for more complex problems that do not have a single right answer. In some situations, it may be effective for close-ended problems that students just learned in a lecture or reading assignment. In this way, it can replace traditional drill-and-practice exercises by adding in higher-order thinking skills during the second solution-evaluation stage. Prepare the problems and work through the solutions yourself so that you can determine the amount of time it will take groups to solve the problems. Depending on the complexity of the problem, you will need to estimate how long each stage of this activity will take to allow enough time for think- ing and reflection. Try to select problems that are roughly equal in com- plexity and that take approximately the same amount of time to solve. If you are teaching a large class, you may want to have several groups work on the same problem, but you will find that this works better if groups with the same problems are not seated next to each other. Be fairly specific about time limitations and be thorough in the instructions introducing the activity. This will give students an idea of how much

Problem Solving 271 thought they can give to their responses and it will help ensure that the activity proceeds smoothly. Be prepared to extend the time limit if the majority of the groups seem to still be on task or to call time sooner than you anticipated if the majority of the groups seem to be wrapping up. Despite your best efforts at developing comparable problems and setting time limits, groups may well work at different rates, and they need suffi- cient flexibility to do that. In order to prevent any group from having to sit idle or from having to pass the problem before they are ready, have several extensions (additional problems) ready to fill in. Final groups can report on more than one problem, or you can pick up the additional problems and respond. Having participated in “Send-a-Problem,” students should be relatively skilled at solving specific problem types and evaluating problem-solving processes. If students have been working on different types of problems, provide them with a few problems and ask them to state the principle that best applies to each problem. This will help you to evaluate their ability to associate specific problems with the general principles used to solve them and to determine their skill at transferring what they have learned to new problem situations. KEY RESOURCES Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 177–181. Kagen, S. (1992). Cooperative learning (2nd ed.). San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers, pp. 10–11. Millis, B. J., & Cottell, P.G., Jr. (1998). Cooperative learning for higher education facul- ty. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, pp. 103–105.

272 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 28 Case Studies Collaborative Reading, Writing Essential Characteristics Single Session High PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Case studies involve an in-depth analysis of a single situation or set of AND PURPOSE circumstances over time. Among the most popular and enduring methods for getting students involved in problem solving and teamwork, their use has spread beyond the professional fields such as medicine, law, and busi- ness in which they originated to include the humanities. A well-designed case requires analysis, problem solving, decision- making, and justification. The case study approach engages students because of its emphasis on active learning, its real-world application, the drama and excitement that may characterize a particular case, and its opportunities for students to identify personally with the decision makers and the problems they confront. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Using the Internet, newspapers, journal or magazine articles, your own DIRECTIONS experiences, or the experiences of professionals and practitioners in your field, find a situation or set of circumstances that poses a chal- lenging problem. 2. Write up the case along with a series of questions to guide students in their analysis. McKeachie, Hofer, Svinicki, Chism, Van Note, and Chu (2002) suggest the following prompts to guide students in their approach to the case: What is the problem? What might have caused the problem?

Problem Solving 273 What evidence can be gathered to support or discount any of the hypotheses? What conclusions can be drawn? What recommendations? 3. Decide how you will have groups report out (written or oral statement?). 4. Form groups of 4–6 students and distribute the handout to each team, allowing time for students to ask questions and clarify the task. 5. Students study the case, sorting out factual data, identifying the prob- lems and the issues, and reflecting on their relevant experience as they move toward recommending actions that resolve the dilemma in the case. (The amount of time depends upon the complexity of the case, but may extend over several class sessions.) 6. Facilitate a whole-class discussion of the case, posing questions and guiding the discussion toward points of major importance, but avoid- ing telling students the “right” answers (Davis, 1993, p. 164). EXAMPLE Physical Geology This course was designed for students who were not science majors and were enrolled in the class to fulfill general education requirements. The professor wanted to engage students by helping them to relate mineral properties to real-life uses and hazards. Minerals are the first topic covered in the semester, and the professor used a real case that had been tried in their county’s legal system as the last component of the class discussion of minerals. The title of the activity was “A Question of Responsibility: Whose Asbestos Caused Her Lung Disease?” The professor knew that most students were aware that asbestos is a health hazard, but don’t know that asbestos refers to a variety of minerals with both useful and harmful properties. Students were presented with a case study describing the an asbestos-related personal injury lawsuit and asked to apply what they had learned to the lawsuit presented in the case. They then participated in a follow-up activity in which they weighed the risks of leaving asbestos in public buildings against the risks of removing it (Bran- lund, 2008). VARIATIONS • Instead of a written case study, use a film excerpt or a role play to present AND EXTENSIONS the problem situation (McKeachie, 1999, p. 178). • Partner with community members or professionals in your field to craft real cases and then invite these people to share their decisions and the consequences of their choices after students have analyzed the case.

274 Student Engagement Techniques • Create a “Cross Case Comparison” in which you select two different cases and ask students to examine the cases to discover similarities and differences between them. • After students have studied a case, change one or more variables and ask them to speculate on how this would have affected the outcome. OBSERVATIONS Be concise. Although providing many details can make the case seem more AND ADVICE real, and one of the goals of the case study method is to teach students to select the most important factors from a complex mesh of facts and data, too much information overwhelms and frustrates students. Good case studies have the following features (Davis, 1993, p. 162; Davis, 2009, p. 223): Tells a “real” story Applicable to all students in your class Rich in characterizations, to allow for competing interpretations of motives Promotes empathy with the central characters Complex enough to raise interesting questions and alternatives Simple enough to prevent students from becoming lost in extraneous details Lacks an obvious or clear-cut right answer Encourages students to think and take a position Demands a decision KEY RESOURCES Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 182–187. Barnes, L., Christensen, C. R., & Hansen, A. (1994). Teaching and the case method: Text, cases, and readings. Boston: Harvard Business School.

Chapter 16 Application and Performance IN MANY WAYS, the knowledge and skills students learn in our classes gain relevance and value when students can apply them. The student engage- ment techniques (SETs) in this chapter provide activities for students to con- nect what they are learning to their personal lives or the real world, to carry out an action or accomplish a task that they otherwise know only theoreti- cally, or to demonstrate what they know and how well they can transfer and apply what they know in a new or different context. 275

276 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 29 Contemporary Issues Journal Essential Characteristics Individual Writing PRIMARY MODE Multiple Sessions ACTIVITY FOCUS High DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Students are more motivated to learn things that they believe are worth AND PURPOSE learning. In this SET, students look for connections between course material and recent events or developments that they find via online news sites, printed news sources, or broadcast media. They then write in a journal or post on a blog how course material applies to these current affairs. This technique deepens student understanding of course-related ideas and concepts and helps them to appreciate the value of what they are learn- ing in the classroom by making it easier for them to see its relevance to the real world. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Decide the journal parameters ahead of time. For example, DIRECTIONS • What will be the journal medium (a lined tablet, a word-processing file, a bound booklet, an online blog)? • How frequently should students make entries, and will the jour- nal be for a course segment or the whole term? • What should a typical entry look like? Consider a three-part entry: (1) date of journal entry and news source, (2) summary (who, what, where, when, why, how), and (3) the principles, ideas, and concepts from the course that the event reflects. 2. Determine how you will assess the journal.

Application and Performance 277 3. Consider creating a handout that includes directions, clarifies your expectations, and provides examples. 4. Students look for and record or post journal entries that connect course material to news events. EXAMPLES Applied Ethics Professor Howie Aktud wanted students to examine ethics by observing actual choices made by people in real situations. He asked students to monitor the news for stories of conflict related to controversial issues such as abortion, rationing of health care, animal rights, environmental concerns, gun control, homosexuality, and capital punishment; record at least one item per week in a journal; and write a single-paragraph analysis using the terms and principles they were learning in class. He collected the journals twice during the term, assign- ing grades based on the number of entries and the quality of the analyses. For the final exam, students selected an event in their journal and used the con- ceptual tools of metaethics and normative ethics they had learned during the term to write an extensive essay analyzing the main issue from multiple per- spectives, and closing with the steps they believed could be taken to resolve the conflict in the specific news incident. ••• Music Business In this course, students study the legal and business aspects of the music indus- try with an emphasis on publishing, licensing, and promotion.To keep the course up-do-date, this instructor requires students to monitor the online site Music Industry News Network throughout the term, looking for current news stories that relate to course topics such as the rapidly changing copyright law in the multi- media industry and the Internet. Students write the date, source, and a synopsis of the news story, and identify the relevant laws or principles in a journal in preparation for the first class session of the week. During the first five minutes of class, students share their findings with partners as the instructor walks around the room, making a plus, check, or minus next to student names in the grade book based on a quick assessment of that week’s entry. He then invites students to share their findings and interpretations with the whole class, using these reports as a basis for discussion and drawing connections to what will be studied during the upcoming week.

278 Student Engagement Techniques ONLINE This SET can be easily adapted to an online course through use of a blog for IMPLEMENTATION students to write their entries. In this way, students can incorporate text, images, and links to Web pages, media, and other blogs that enrich their journal. Set up preferences so that each student’s blog is kept private from other students but allows you access as the instructor. Tell students you will be spot-checking blogs randomly throughout the term, or set up a formal evaluation schedule. Consider creating a single-threaded discussion forum for students to share insights from their blogs, or set up multiple forums dedicated to separate topics. VARIATIONS • Ask students to expand their entries by including questions they have AND EXTENSIONS about the event, especially aspects that appear to be course-related but which have not yet been covered in class. • Use the journal for reflective purposes, asking students to think about the event and relate it to their personal lives, answering questions such as “Have you experienced anything similar in your own life?” and “Given what you have learned about X in this course, what might you advise the participants to do now that would help them to move for- ward most productively?” • Consider having students follow up this activity with a formal essay in which they analyze, synthesize, or evaluate the information in their journal entries. • If appropriate to course goals, ask students to monitor online news sites from other English-speaking countries and, for example, compare and contrast coverage of a single event from different international per- spectives. Or ask students in foreign language courses to look for events or articles in the media of that country and translate and interpret their findings. News and Newspapers Online from the libraries of the Univer- sity of North Carolina at Greensboro (http://library.uncg.edu/news/) provides links to news sites from all over the world. • Make this a collaborative learning activity by using “Dialogue Journals” in which students exchange journals with a peer who reads and responds to the entry with comments and questions. To create a Dia- logue Journal, students draw a vertical line about one-third of the page from the right margin (or use word-processing software to create a two- column table). The writer writes in the left, the responder writes in the right. Journal writing can be particularly effective when writers know that someone who is interested in the topic will read and respond to their entries. Since reading and responding to students can be a time- consuming task, peer exchange helps ensure students receive immediate

Application and Performance 279 and critical feedback without adding to instructor workload (Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2005, pp. 236–240). • Consider creating a communal journal. Keep the journal on a desk or table in the classroom or your office or maintain an online forum or blog that is available for entries and responses by any class member. OBSERVATIONS Students will come to class with preconceptions about journal writing; AND ADVICE therefore, be clear on your parameters for their entries. It is important for the instructor (or a peer, as described in Variations and Extensions) to review the journal and respond to the entries or students may feel that the assignment is busy work. Check journals regularly or tell students you will be evaluating them on a random basis to discourage them from waiting until the last minute to do all the entries. KEY RESOURCE Bean, J. C. (1996). Engaging ideas: The professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 109.

280 Student Engagement Techniques STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUE 30 Hearing the Subject Individual, then Collaborative Discussing Essential Characteristics Single Session Low PRIMARY MODE ACTIVITY FOCUS DURATION OF ACTIVITY ONLINE TRANSFERABILITY DESCRIPTION Students “listen” to a text passage, film clip, or image, paying close attention AND PURPOSE to its forms of expression but refraining from evaluating or interpreting the work. Then in small groups, they paraphrase as much of what they wit- nessed as possible to their team members as a warm-up to a large-group or whole-class discussion in which they make meaning of what they perceived. In a culture characterized by high speed and multitasking, some faculty have expressed concerns that students have difficulty being still and taking the time needed to really focus and concentrate. This SET provides a pro- cedure for students to practice this kind of mental activity, a skill that is par- ticularly important as they approach tasks that are difficult and require sustained effort to accomplish. STEP-BY-STEP 1. Select a work that is rich with meaning that is best understood through PROCEDURES careful, sustained reflection. 2. Take the time to really “listen” to it yourself, jotting down words, shapes, colors, textures, or whatever kinds of characteristics best cap- ture your experience. Note how much time this takes you. You can use your work to model the process to students who must then apply the process to a new subject or to help you facilitate student discussion on the same subject.

Application and Performance 281 3. Explain the purpose and model the process to students. Tell them the amount of time they will be asked to sit quietly studying the subject, then answer any questions. 4. Instruct students to quietly and independently study the subject for a designated amount of time, jotting down the types of descriptive char- acteristics that are appropriate for the subject. 5. Ask students to form groups of 2–3 and share their observations, but refrain from commenting on how they feel about the subject or inter- preting its meaning. 6. Combine small groups to form groups of 4–6 or move to a whole-class discussion, first addressing the experience of intensely “listening” to the subject and sharing how the process helped or hindered students’ enjoy- ment of the subject before moving to discussion about the subject’s meaning. EXAMPLES Art Appreciation In this introductory survey course, Professor Ike O’Nogrephy found that many students looked at images quickly and superficially, paying attention only to sur- face details such as the image’s topic. Students felt satisfied with their approach when they were dealing with art that was representational and realistic, but he knew that this method would leave them bewildered and resistant as the course moved toward more abstract art. He decided to use“Hearing the Subject”to chal- lenge them to take the time to look at images more closely. First, he reviewed a number of general concepts such as form, space, area, plane, axis, proportion, scale, value, and so forth.Then he asked students to have these concepts in mind as they spent five minutes quietly and independently studying Hans Hofmann’s expressionist painting Effervescence. He encouraged students to jot down words, shapes, colors, textures, and so forth as they“listened”to what Hofmann was“say- ing.” When the five minutes were up, he turned the projector off and asked stu- dents to form groups of three and share their observations, recalling as much detail as possible from the painting but refraining from evaluating or interpret- ing it. He then facilitated a whole-class discussion in which students talked about the patience and stillness required to look closely at an image and how the process in which they had just participated could help them approach particu- larly difficult works of art. •••

282 Student Engagement Techniques Introduction to American Literature This professor knew that students had a difficult time with e. e. cummings’s poetry because of the way cummings breaks from the conventions of syntax, punctuation, and typography.To challenge students to make the effort required to move beyond their initial resistance, he distributed a handout with two of cummings’s poems—“look at this)” and “he does not have to feel because he thinks.” He asked students to look intently at the poems for five minutes, con- centrating on the way the words looked on the page (the use of capitals, punc- tuation marks, the physical layout of the words, and so forth). He then asked students to share observations with the whole class, such as “He mixes every- thing up in ”‘a ) s w (e loo) k’” or “The title of ‘look at this)’ ends with a closed parenthesis while the last phrase of the poem begins with an open parenthe- sis.” After students shared all their observations about the poems’ visual display of the words, he formed them into small groups and asked them to now read the poems, choose one, and then brainstorm creatively looking for connections between the meaning of the words and cummings’s use of punctuation and text layout. ONLINE The effectiveness of this SET is largely dependent upon a group of students IMPLEMENTATION first sitting quietly for a designated amount of time as they focus on the sub- ject, followed by small-group and then large-group discussion. Although using synchronous tools such as teleconferencing or chat sessions offer one possibility for implementing this in the online environment, the “silence” time would be awkward. A possible adaptation would be to ask students to study the subject individually and on their own, then post in a threaded forum the subject’s characteristics by a deadline. Follow this with another threaded discussion in which students offer interpretations of the subject. VARIATIONS • This technique can also be used on a literal level to help students listen AND EXTENSIONS better. For example, students could be asked to listen to a person speak, but concentrate on body language, speech inflections, speed of deliv- ery, and so forth, rather than the words themselves. Or as students lis- ten to an example of music, they could concentrate on embedded attributes (such as individual lines within the texture, the micro orga- nization of the rhythm, repetition and variation of motifs, and so forth) rather than attending only to the dominant elements such as melody, words, and beat. This achieves the SET’s purpose of moving students beyond superficial observations to deeper examination and under- standing, using an auditory task as the medium.