Technology & Innovation: Volume 18, Number 4

THOUGHTS ON IMPROVING INNOVATION 321 it often requires multiple individuals who provide to successful motivation provided that goals are set novel incremental insights, adding bits and pieces at a manageable level. By dividing major goals into to improve the original idea (3). Each individual smaller goals, it is easier to motivate oneself when it involved must possess the skill and the will in order appears that the goal is more feasible and attainable. to sustain the processes of innovation and maximize Persistence is a trait that improves motivation, as it the likelihood of success. Alternately, inspiration can forces individuals to finish what they have started. be evoked spontaneously or appear after a period of Finally, individuals need to train themselves to read time in response to an unsolved problem or condition. about subjects in which they have an interest to main- Inspiration can be characterized as the process tain their enthusiasm and ambition as they set and of being mentally stimulated to do something cre- accomplish goals (11). ative. According to Thrash and Elliot, inspiration Contrary to the view that inspiration is purely involves being inspired by something and acting on mystical or divine, inspiration is best viewed as an that inspiration, and it has three main motivational interaction between one’s current knowledge and the qualities: evocation, transcendence, and approach information one receives from the world, which can motivation (8). In regards to evocation, Kaufman, increase the likelihood of experiencing inspiration. building on Thrash and Elliot, posits that “inspira- For example, individuals who prepare for an inspi- tion is evoked spontaneously and without intention rational experience by having a positive attitude, an by something—whether it’s an idea that comes from open mind, and an approach-oriented attitude will within, an inspiring person such as a role model, or be more likely to experience and be mindful of inspi- a divine revelation” (9). He also noted that inspira- ration (9). tion requires transcendence, or the ability to rise Finally, innovation requires public acceptance, above mundane and often-selfish concerns, in order which can be and often is achieved through the to achieve “a moment of clarity and awareness of process of entrepreneurship. The entrepreneur is an new possibilities” (9). Finally, “inspiration involves individual who is willing to take risks to achieve a approach motivation, in which the individual strives goal, to take an innovation to the public. They are to transmit, express, or actualize a new idea or vision” pioneers, leaders, inventors, and business profes- (9). sionals who are motivated and driven to make an In addition to being more open to new experi- innovation successful. ences and more absorbed and engaged in their tasks, inspired people are more intrinsically motivated and Characteristics of Innovation less extrinsically motivated (9). They are often driven by the inner satisfaction of doing good, accomplish- Noted author Steven Johnson listed six key char- ing something to benefit society (10). This type of acteristics of innovation (7) that resonate with the motivated inspiration is a critical energizing force authors’ experiences. The first is the importance of behind successful innovation. In contrast, extrinsi- timing, which is crucial in the process of translating cally motivated individuals are often driven by their inspiration to innovation. The history of cultural egos to receive public praise and to benefit themselves progress, including technological and scientific (10). Intrinsic motivation, then, is one of the most advances, is a story of one door leading to another important keys to success and is present whenever door, as we explore one room at a time. Unfortu- there is a clear vision, realizable goals, and a strong nately, breakout ideas that are 50 years ahead of their belief in one’s ability (11). time almost always end up being short-term failures Since motivation emanates from within the indi- because they are ahead of their time. The idea was vidual, it is important to bolster that inner power by right, but the environment was not ready to receive immersing oneself in an environment with similarly and support it. motivated individuals, as motivation and positive Johnson’s second point addresses the key ques- attitude are contagious (11). Motivation can also be tion: Where do good ideas come from? Ideas are strengthened in individuals through the process of not created as a single event; they are more like a education (11). Goal setting is an important aspect swarm. Ideas are akin to a specific constellation of

322 POIRIER ET AL. thousands of neurons, firing in sync for the first time The fourth feature he describes involves idea gen- in the brain, resulting in the creation of an idea that eration. Thoughts, ideas, hunches, or inspirations that pops into consciousness. He proposes that a new idea occur in the brain may be generated by the random is a network of cells exploring the adjacent possible firing of neurons via small synaptic gaps. These ran- connections that they can make in the mind. What dom firings can connect to adjacent sites and can matters in the mind is not just the number of neurons form more complete ideas and thought processes. but the myriad connections that have formed among These new ideas and thought processes can then them. The question here is how can a person push further combine with other partial thoughts after their brain to those more creative networks? being immersed in a network of others whose brains Johnson also points out that to make the mind have been shaped by different disciplines. Partial more innovative, it needs to be placed inside envi- thoughts can then cross boundaries to other compat- ronments that share that same network signature: ible thoughts to fill missing gaps in key ideas, leading networks of ideas or people that mimic the neural net- to innovation. work of a mind exploring the boundaries. Although Inspirations obtained from dreams have solved ideas occur inside minds, these minds are connected many significant problems, as pointed out by Johnson. to external networks that shape the flow of infor- The authors also attest to personal experience of this mation and inspiration out of which great ideas are phenomenon. Robert Thatcher, a neuroscientist from fashioned. Just as we have neural networks in our the University of South Florida, suggests the counter- heads that push us to new levels of innovative think- intuitive notion that the more disorganized your brain ing, we have social networks that help us to push the is, the smarter you are (12). But how does one get a current boundaries of innovative thinking. What is particular set of clusters of neurons to fire at the right clear is that great ideas and improvements can occur time? Johnson points out that history has shown that when individuals with varying backgrounds discuss one must separate oneself from everyday interactions. their thoughts and ideas freely, allowing them to for- One way is to go for a long walk in solitude and let mulate different ways of looking at a complex problem the brain freely open up the subconscious; another and establishing connections to the boundaries of is to experience the power of vacation, immersed other technologies and other environments. in an environment that allows one to think freely, Johnson goes on to discuss a third characteristic unencumbered by everyday activities. of innovation: Ideas or inspirations rarely produce Clearly, there is significant benefit to allowing the immediate innovative thoughts and require time to free cross-fertilization of ideas and inspirations. Ryan, develop. These ideas and inspirations lack key com- Deci, and Edward pointed out in their Self-Determi- ponents, which may be supplied by other individuals. nation Theory that people can be motivated because The idea or inspiration requires that it be immersed they value an activity or because there is strong exter- in a network or environment conducive to developing nal coercion and challenges. No single phenomenon innovative thoughts. Partial ideas can connect with reflects the positive potential of human nature as other ideas to establish a complete thought. Timing much as intrinsic motivation, the inherent tendency is key, as ideas need to be stored in the subconscious to seek out novelty and challenges. They suggest that until connections are made to fill in the gaps. To social environments can facilitate or forestall intrinsic think of something that other individuals have not motivation by supporting versus thwarting people’s thought of or make a connection not made by others innate psychological needs (13). Unfortunately, this requires patience and insight. Incubation in either concept has risks, as new ideas and concepts can network (neural or social) is necessary to overcome be stolen by competitors. Johnson suggests that the initial limitations of innovative thinking. How what is needed is an organizational program that do individuals continually remain open to multiple allows cross-fertilization to permit partial thoughts, perspectives and persist beyond the obvious initial hunches, etc. to disperse and recombine—a contin- answers or assumptions? It’s a combination of timing, uous brainstorming session that is active throughout patience, and persistence. the day and yet is protected from outside sources.

THOUGHTS ON IMPROVING INNOVATION 323 Johnson’s fifth point was that of error or the series THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INNOVATIVE of missteps in the development of an innovative pro- INDIVIDUALS cess. Error is an important aspect, as it forces you Now that we have reviewed what innovation is, to explore the “why” and the “how,” to get out of how the innovative process works, and the key char- one’s comfort zone and look for alternative paths. acteristics of innovation, we turn to the individual. If Psychology professor Charlan Nemeth conducted we are to understand what innovation is and how it research that led her to suggest a paradoxical truth can be improved, we must look at the characteristics about innovation: “Good ideas are more likely to that innovative minds possess and how these can be emerge from environments that contain a certain developed and enriched. That is, we must consider amount of noise and error” (14). We should not forget how we can “nudge” individuals to use and improve that error is what made humans possible in the first their innovative powers (15). place. She pointed out that, without noise or error, It is not clear that we can create an innovative evolution would stagnate, an endless series of per- mind in an individual who does not possess at least fect copies that are incapable of change. Indeed, it is some basic characteristics of innovation. It is not possible to say that human progress is simply a huge our intention, therefore, to try to create it; rather, chain of innovations, i.e., making things better, going it is our intention to try to improve what already back all the way to the basics, such as fire, farming, exists. Can we—by removing blinders, by waking up and animal husbandry. dormant characteristics, by eliminating the fear of Johnson’s sixth and final point was that of exap- failure and other barriers, and by exposing individ- tation, or the development of an idea or tool in one field that can be adapted to flourish in another. For uals to the power of innovation—expand the number example, he points out that a match you lit to illu- of individuals in our society who fully utilize these minate a dark room turns out to have a completely characteristics and contribute to the innovative pro- different use when you now open a doorway and cess? If, for example, individuals can be taught to discover a room with a pile of logs and a fireplace in view failure as a learning tool to improve, that would it. A tool that helps you see in one context ends up facilitate looking at alternative avenues to accomplish helping you keep warm in another. That’s the essence the desired outcome. Failure would then be just one of exaptation. The importance of this concept is that more barrier to reflect upon and to learn from, just creativity can flourish when collisions occur from one segment of the innovative process. different fields sharing the same space. Employees When we think about the entire adult population who primarily shared information with people in in the United States, we can assume a broad variation their own divisions were less productive from an of experience in cultural background and educational innovation point of view compared to employees level as well as significant differences in environmen- who maintained active links to a more diverse group. tal exposure. In this large adult population, we can Johnson also pointed out the importance of facilitat- expect to observe that some people do not have the ing the environment where people can be exposed ability to inspire or innovate while others do. If we to a variety of new ideas and encouraged to piece evaluate this group of individuals to determine their them together in new ways. This can greatly assist the innovative ability, we would expect a large variation, likelihood of innovation. An iconic example would which would lead us to create a fictitious curve to be Johannes Gutenberg, who took bits and pieces illustrate a distribution of individuals that utilize from different fields and merged them together to innovative traits. Individuals with a low utilization, form an innovative device that changed society: the indicated by a low level of innovative thinking, would Gutenberg printing press. He did not conceive an be on the left of the curve, while individuals with a entirely new technology; he took the technology of high utilization rate would be on the right. The ver- moveable type, ink, and paper from the Chinese and tical axis would simply indicate the total number of the press itself from wine makers, modifying and individuals in each segment. The shape of the curve improving this borrowed technology and creating a between the two extremes is of little importance at new innovation to solve an unrelated problem. this point, as we do not intend to radically change

324 POIRIER ET AL. the shape of the curve but are simply trying to move Cognitive factors individuals that are on the left of the curve to the middle or the right of the curve, shifting the existing Abstract Thinking and Problem Solving curve to the right. By utilizing an educational process, One of the key characteristics that many (but not can we shift the curve to the right? Can we educate all) innovative individuals possess is the ability to individuals to more fully utilize the traits they do think abstractly. This involves seeing patterns beyond possess and to awaken those that are dormant? If so, the obvious and using patterns or a variety of ideas or with improved utilization, individuals could enhance clues to solve larger problems. In contrast, concrete their innovative thinking and increase the number reasoning involves looking at things on the surface of innovations they contribute to society. and using this information to solve problems in their The first step in this process would be to identify most literal sense (17). Concrete thinkers reason in the characteristics, traits, and thought processes inno- terms of facts, events, and specific examples, whereas vative individuals possess that set them apart. What abstract thinkers move away from these specific distinguishes these individuals from others? How do things and reason in terms of generalizations, ideas, these individuals interact in groups to cross-fertil- and deeper meanings. ize concepts and thoughts, to add bits and pieces to If abstract thinking can lead to improvements partial ideas in order to create the complete innova- in innovative thoughts, we should be able to use tion? Common themes and characteristics have been educational techniques to improve the process of identified in creative individuals by several authors, abstract thinking in individuals who rarely use these including Harvard professor Howard Gardner in his innate traits. By increasing the utilization of abstract book Creating Minds (16). He pointed out that the thinking in individuals, we can increase the driving creative individuals he has studied—Sigmund Freud, force to improvements in innovation and the innova- Albert Einstein, Pablo Picasso, Igor Stravinsky, T.S. tive thinking process. As abstract thinkers can think Eliot, Martha Graham, and Mahatma Gandhi—came “outside of the box,” this thinking process will be from locales removed from centers of excellence. very beneficial in problem solving by asking pointed The creative minds of his subjects emerged at differ- questions that no one else has, questions that can lead ent times, depending on the domains in which they to solutions (18). resided, and took an average of ten years before they This ability to question is key because, when we reached dominance in their domains. At that point in try to innovate, we need to establish what we want their lives, these “creators” (as he deems them) tended to accomplish; that is, we need to clearly identify the to migrate towards centers of excellence where they problem that we wish to solve or the condition that could associate with peers of similar backgrounds to we wish to improve. The abstract thinker has the take advantage of cross-fertilization. ability to dissect a problem to establish the underlying Gardner’s creators also recognized the impor- condition producing the symptoms of the problem. tance of bringing their accomplishments to others Identifying the underlying condition is of paramount and of rebelling against control. They had sufficient importance to solving the problem and requires that strength and skill to allow differences of opinion the proper questions be asked—often others don’t as well as differences from past thinking. During ask or can’t ask questions that can only be developed their lifetimes, the creators experienced periods of through the process of abstract thinking, where the comfort that quickly changed to periods of severe abstract thinker can play a significant role. isolation, especially during a period of a major discov- In addition to abstract thinking skills, innova- ery. During these times of isolation, creators needed tors often have superior problem-solving skills. For special relationships with one or more supportive example, being able to break down a problem into individuals. multiple, smaller, actionable problems is beneficial to In addition to this general profile, there are 14 the innovator in several ways. Smaller problems that characteristics that innovative individuals often pos- are practical and have solutions that can be executed sess; it is our position that these characteristics can be aids considerably in the task of solving the overall fostered and developed through innovative education. problem. Concentrating on smaller problems and

THOUGHTS ON IMPROVING INNOVATION 325 solving one problem at a time also increases confi- Bringing innovation to our society is facilitated by dence and can present a clearer view of the overall motivated individuals. If individuals understand the problem. differences between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards Incubation is another key problem-solving strategy and are encouraged to act on their inner desires, of innovators. They are often awake and quietly lying innovation should follow. in bed, thinking about a problem while searching for Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation do not have a solution, when, all of a sudden, a solution appears in a dichotomous relationship; rather, they exist on a a clear and precise manner, a subconscious solution continuum. According to Ryan and Deci, there are that may have been forming for some time travels to multiple types of motivations, such as external, intro- the conscious level. Among the authors, several keep jected, internalized, and identified, depending on how pencil and paper by the bed to take notes before the their basic needs are satisfied relative to competence, solutions disappear. autonomy, and relatedness (13). Understanding differ- ent types of motivation is key to promoting innovative Knowledge: Depth and Breadth efforts. The concept of knowledge is a complex one, as Additionally, no matter the source of the moti- both depth and breadth are connected to innovation vation, individuals can improve motivation by (16). Innovation often comes more easily to individu- employing various strategies. For example, individ- als who are very knowledgeable in their chosen fields, uals who break down goals into smaller tasks may those with a deep understanding of the basic princi- experience more frequent accomplishments, which ples of one or more disciplines. However, innovators can boost inspiration, setting off a productive and can also be characterized by a breadth of knowledge, creative cycle. and those individuals can often work well outside their original fields of study. These individuals are Creativity often innovation leaders who create change by sur- Being creative is fundamental to invention, inno- rounding themselves with competent experts who vation, and entrepreneurship. Creativity is the ability can provide depth of expertise in a given area. to think about the world in new ways, to think from a clear, open perspective, and to be unencumbered by The Desire to Fill Gaps existing knowledge. Howard Gardner described var- Innovative individuals seem always to be searching ious characteristics of creative individuals. He noted for information to fill gaps in the development of that creative individuals tend to spend a large amount innovative thoughts, continuously looking for and of time thinking about what it was that they wanted saving bits and pieces of seemingly random informa- to accomplish; tend to leverage whatever strengths tion to see if, when joined with other bits and pieces, they have and not worry about what they don’t do they can complete prior, partially developed thoughts well, as they can always get help from others; and are (7). ambitious even though they don’t always succeed. In fact, when creative people fail, they use that failure as Motivational factors a learning experience and build on failure to get better Motivation: Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic and better (16). He also defined a creative individual Motivation could be described as a combination as someone who solves problems, fashions products, of internal and external factors that stimulate desire and/or defines new questions that might be initially and energy in people to be continually interested novel but, ultimately, are accepted in a setting. Beyond and committed to a job, role, or effort to attain a the individual, Gardner argues that creativity is an goal (11). It is the driving force to get things done. interactive process in which three elements partici- Research has shown that innovative individuals are pate: individual talent, field, and domain/discipline more intrinsically motivated since they are driven by (16). the inner satisfaction of doing something good for Individuals can and do demonstrate innate creativ- society or the desire to solve a difficult problem (13). ity and imagination even at very young ages. This can

326 POIRIER ET AL. be seen by observing pre-school children who develop be naysayers who insist that a proposed innovation imaginary friends. These individuals create in their may be unnecessary or impossible. In the face of minds a complete life-like friend with whom they opposition, innovators maintain a positive attitude, can play, eat, interact, and talk. They use their innate knowing that their ideas have merit even when oth- traits of creativity and imagination to create a world ers don’t agree. Their positivity not only keeps them that they are comfortable with. Children who create moving forward but frequently serves to motivate these companions have very strong imaginations and the entire innovation team. very high levels of creativity, both of which they can further develop as they enter adulthood (19). Grit: Persistence and Passion Grit, that combination of persistence and pas- Curiosity sion identified by Angela Duckworth (20), is a key Innovators recognize that desirable discoveries characteristic among innovators. The discipline to sometimes happen by accident and understand the complete what they have started is often a mark of role that good fortune and luck can play in the inno- an innovative individual. Persistence is of the upmost importance, as the innovator must not give up or be vation process (3). They have an intense curiosity to devastated by failure. Choosing what not to follow see how machines work, how objects are created, how or being convinced to stop a particular task, project, concepts are created, and why processes are what they or strategy is also important. When at a crossroads, are. The “how” is usually the driving force rather than the authors have found that clear and concise analysis the “what.” People who are curious take advantage to re-establish new directions should be undertaken, of spontaneous moments, which helps the innovator with sufficient flexibility to look at alternative paths overcome the fear of asking a “bad” question. They to achieve the goal. Innovative individuals generally are motivated to ask: “How did this happen?” Ser- possess intense passion (10), compelling desire, and endipitous moments are important in developing enthusiasm to make a change or to create something innovation because they force the innovator to pay new. It is a strong driving force. These individuals attention to what the data are telling them and train believe strongly in examining existing structures, them to refrain from reading into it something that it concepts, or knowledge to improve what already is not. Innovators keep an open mind and look at the exists. Their passion drives a desire for excellence. possible benefits that could emerge from an observed Successful innovators are able to finish a project, accident and, often, can’t help wondering what would seeing it through from ideation to completion. They happen in the event that a slight modification to the don’t allow distractions to derail them, and they don’t basic premise took place. bring a project to completion prematurely. Risk Taking: No Fear of Failure Dissatisfaction While innovators are not necessarily risk takers in the Innovators are dissatisfied with what exists and same way as entrepreneurs, they do take risks. Inno- are always looking at what can be improved (3). For vators approach their endeavors as challenges, with example, an individual interested in architecture can- failure serving as an opportunity for learning. This not prevent himself from looking at floor plans for reduces the focus on risk and the perception of risk. new construction to see if they are correct or lacking Being wrong, on its own, doesn’t unlock new doors, in some aspect. For future use, they analyze and store, but it does force the innovator to look for them (7). in their memories or in their notes, information on what they consider good and bad. They are constantly Positive Attitude looking at everything in sight, analyzing what they A positive attitude is key for innovators, as their see and mentally looking at what can be improved, outlook on life allows them to be receptive to new asking themselves why things have been done in a possibilities and opportunities. In addition, because certain manner and how they might have been done innovators often go against the status quo, there may differently.

THOUGHTS ON IMPROVING INNOVATION 327 It Takes a Village lead to clear thinking and help determine how one can improve what exists today. Innovators must possess Open-mindedness the courage to step into the darkness, to learn, and to Innovators are receptive to new information and understand. Because of their vision, innovators have ideas. They are also skeptical of preconceived ideas, an excellent sense of timing, seeming to understand preferring to maintain an open mind and consider exactly when the environment is ripe for innovation. limitless possibilities. This ability often gives them They are always scanning the horizon, watching for an advantage because they can solve problems using shifts and trends that signal opportunities for inter- lateral thinking to come up with innovative ways to vention and change. tackle an issue instead of getting bogged down in The utilization of all of these innovative traits var- circular vertical thinking. ies in importance, depending on the domain in which Cross-Fertilization the innovator is immersed. Innovators can also have any combination of these traits, but some of the traits The ability to bring a new skill set to a field can and characteristics may be thought of as being more yield a different perspective on a situation (21). People conducive to innovation than others. The innovator with a broad knowledge in diverse areas working who utilizes abstract thinking, is very motivated, in association can solve complex problems where understands the importance of cross-fertilization, individuals cannot. Although being well versed in is inspired and persistent in trying to achieve goals, one or more disciplines is helpful, it is not a necessary is very curious and creative, tends to be dissatisfied requirement. with the present situation, and is usually well educated Beyond the individual, organizations can play in at least one discipline will likely have the more a major role in moving innovations forward and successful path. bringing them to fruition by fostering environments that encourage people to take risks. Working with CHARACTERISTICS OF INNOVATIVE other motivated individuals in environments that are ENVIRONMENTS motivating provides the ideal situation to optimize cross-fertilization of ideas and concepts, resulting Innovative new ideas, as well as incremental new in outcomes far superior to what would be realized advances, are achieved by groups and by individuals from one individual’s thought process (16). (10). These individuals or groups can be influenced by the environments in which they exist, and they, Salesmanship: Art of Communication in turn, can influence their environments. We speak Salesmanship is defined here as the ability to often of Thomas Edison as a great inventor but infre- transfer information in a concise and convincing quently of Menlo Park and the variety of minds and manner with the goal of achieving acceptance of the skills that were brought together to achieve the actual transferred message. Innovators need to possess the innovative process. Perhaps in this current era, in ability to present their ideas and concepts in a clear which so much innovation comes from the university and precise fashion. To manifest their innovations, community, we forget the influence that Edison had they may require financial backing and must be able in establishing the Naval Research Laboratory and to convince potential investors to support their vision. how that lab and the National Bureau of Standards They also need to attract individuals to form a team set the stage for research and development during that can assist in the development of the innovation. World War II, facilitating not only the Manhattan The same skills in salesmanship may be needed to Project, but also countless innovative new prod- convince their peers in the scientific community. ucts that influenced how war was fought, as well as how the injured were treated. Some industries, such Vision and Timing as Bell Labs and US Steel, had already learned the An innovator can benefit from being a visionary lessons of Menlo Park before the war, but dozens fol- (10). The ability to look into the future to determine lowed in the post-war years, giving life and substance what avenues to follow and what to undertake can to the great industries we recognize as Xerox, 3M,

328 POIRIER ET AL. IBM, Apple, Google, and so many others. Similarly, NEXT STEPS those lessons had impacts on the federal government Having considered the innovation process, the and led to the great laboratory systems of Depart- traits of innovative individuals, and the importance ment of Energy, Department of Defense, National of innovative environments, we must now consider Institutes of Health, and National Aeronautics and how to use this information to create an efficient and Space Administration, as well as many lesser-sized effective educational process to concretely improve government laboratories in other departments and innovation outcomes. agencies. We believe that we do not need to try to create Bement, Dutta, and Patil, in addition to noting innovative characteristics; rather, we simply need to the importance of the organization, observed that show individuals how to cultivate innovative thought physical spaces for free open and informal discussions by: 1) fully utilizing the traits they already possess, can lead to improvements in innovation (3). Facility 2) awakening dormant traits, and 3) understanding ergonomics are important to maximize the cross pol- the importance of contextual factors, or the innova- lination of the inventive capacity of an organization: tion environment. In doing so, we would “shift the offices, labs, common sharing areas, large gathering curve to the right,” allowing individuals to improve areas for open technical reviews, and poster sessions their innovative thinking and increase the quality (3). and number of innovations they create. Johnson also indicated that physical spaces work Looking ahead to that task, we must consider what hand in hand with organizational inspiration to build educators can do to help individuals identify and information networks that allow hunches to persist, improve their innovative characteristics and how they disperse, and recombine, creating an environment can help those individuals collaborate successfully by where brainstorming is something that is constantly providing an effective innovation environment. In running in the background throughout the organi- order to take this next step, we will need to consider zation (7). the following key questions: In order to maximize the ability to collaborate effectively and foster improvement in innovation, • What are the most effective pedagogical meth- Bement et al. identify four key aspects. The first is ods to teach the habits of mind associated with proximity, which ensures that multi-disciplinary creativity and innovation? people are close to each other. The second is inde- • What resources—human, material, and orga- pendence, as individuals need to be independent if nizational—can be assembled to provide the they are to collaborate. The third is open areas for best foundation for understanding innovative freeform discussions and experimentations. And thinking? the fourth is privacy, for most innovative thinking • How can the development and execution of happens during private downtime (3). innovative thought be best assessed? Within the great laboratories and collaborative • In what situations do individual and collective innovation environments, there are many common innovations complement or conflict with each themes, but there are also many differing tactics to other? How can both types of innovation—indi- create an environment rich with opportunity for vidual and collective—be best supported? innovation. Group effort requires both inspiration • How can we create effective innovation envi- and management. Institutions, such as the ones men- ronments for our student innovators? tioned above, identify strategic areas of corporate (or • How do we address various levels of knowledge governmental) interest; bring the elements, people, and ability regarding innovation among student facilities, and work environment together; search for populations? and encourage areas of potential opportunity; orga- • What pedagogical techniques and classroom nize paths to progress; and exploit innovations when policies can be employed to promote innovative revealed. In order to make this process successful, thinking? companies and other entities must set the stage for • What study design and instruments would be success. appropriate to implement and employ for the

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Technology and Innovation, Vol. 18, pp. 331-342, 2017 ISSN 1949-8241 • E-ISSN 1949-825X Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.21300/18.4.2017.331 Copyright © 2017 National Academy of Inventors. www.technologyandinnovation.org FINDING AND PREPARING TEACHERS TO MEET THE NEEDS OF U.S. STUDENT INNOVATORS-IN-THE-MAKING Paul Swamidass and Christine Schnittka 2 1 1 Harbert College of Business, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA 2 Science and Engineering Education, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA This paper addresses a special subset of U.S. school students for whom innovation is innate and intuitive; they are the young innovators-in-the-making (YIITM). In considering these students, we need to ask several key questions. Are elementary and middle school teachers capable of keeping the innate, innovative desire burning in these young minds? Are teachers capable of nurturing youth who seek to understand the world around them in scientific terms? Are teach- ers inadvertently quenching the innate, innovative, and creative desire in these young minds? Do young minds strongly attracted to science and engineering have ambition and inclination beyond the comprehension of elementary and middle school teachers? Evidence provided in this paper from earlier research indicates that youth with an early interest in engineering and science may find their schoolteachers incapable of understanding and helping them. The question addressed at the end of the paper is: What is the best way to prepare teachers who can ultimately understand, develop, and encourage science- and engineering-oriented youth? Some policy issues are addressed, and several research hypotheses are proposed for future empirical investigation. Key words: Young science and engineering innovators; Teaching young innovators; Teacher qualitifications; Preparing teachers of young innovators; Facilities and resources in schools; ACT and SAT tests A LINGERING PROBLEM market and is a worthy competitor to established According to the 2012 report of the Program for or former U.S. technology leaders, such as Apple, International Student Assessment (PISA) (1,2), U.S. Motorola, Zenith, RCA, and others. In fact, in many teenagers ranked 21 in science and 26 in math technologies and products, Samsung has wrested the th st among 34 industrialized nations of the Organiza- leadership from iconic U.S. technology companies. tion for Economic Cooperation and Development It is not a surprise that South Korean student per- th th (OECD). This should not be acceptable for a nation formance ranks 7 in science and 5 in math on the aspiring to remain the technology leader among all 2012 PISA. nations. Several nations now have the workforce and The latest PISA results indicate that the average innovators to challenge the U.S.; for example, South U.S. teenager is behind the rest of the industrial- Korea’s Samsung is a technology leader in the global ized world in science. There are several negative _____________________ Accepted November 30, 2016. Address correspondence to Paul Swamidass, Ph.D., Harbert College of Business, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA. E-mail: swamipm@auburn. edu 331

332 SWAMIDASS AND SCHNITTKA implications of this for gifted students. The gifted The Lagging Nature of Science Skills of U.S. or exceptional science and math students who are Students at Large young innovators-in-the-making (YIITM) may be The state of science education in the United States hindered by the prevailing culture’s de-emphasis on has long been a topic of debate, especially in the years science, which is reflected in the underachievement of following the pioneering 1957 launch of the Soviet students in science and math. Given the typical school satellite, Sputnik. After Sputnik shocked the U.S., systems in the U.S., significant segments of our stu- Hurd (8) published a short position paper entitled dent population may be left out of promising careers “Science Literacy: Its Meaning for American Schools” in science and engineering, which means schools are based on the thesis that scientific knowledge was no also discarding potential innovators-in-the-making. longer a luxury for just some American students and Teachers and school administrators have the power to arguing that an understanding of both science and change this status quo. Some non-teachers are already its applications in technology was needed across the doing something about it (3-7), and perhaps teachers student body. However, as the first paragraph of this and administrators should be doing more as well. paper states, more than fifty years after Hurd, U.S. students are still doing poorly in science compared Do Innovators-in-the-Making Have “Special with the rest of the industrialized world. Needs” While in School? According to a 2011 Nation’s Report Card by the YIITM are not typical children. They are naturally National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (9), th inquisitive and experimental and are attracted to the only 31% of 8 grade students performed at a profi- science and engineering challenges that the average cient level in science on the National Assessment of child in school might avoid or shun. Adult innovators Educational Progress (NAEP). The test has a scale push the boundaries of science and create new prod- from 0 to 300 with a national mean of 151. Pub- ucts and solutions that make life better for the rest of lic school students in Mississippi scored the lowest us and help produce jobs for everyone. Potential inno- with a mean of 137; 53% of students scored below vators, now students in school, will eventually join basic, and only 19% scored proficient or advanced. this subgroup if they are encouraged, nurtured, and Public school students in North Dakota scored the mentored by capable teachers and/or parents from highest with a mean of 164; 18% of students scored an early age. This small subset of children has special/ below basic, and 45% of students scored proficient or advanced needs that go unrecognized for the most advanced. An average state was Pennsylvania, where part. They need special understanding and attention if public school students scored 151; 34% of students they are to grow up to be future innovators. The U.S. scored below basic, and 35% of students scored pro- needs teachers qualified to identify, understand, and ficient or advanced (10). teach these YIITM. The science classroom in schools Taking a closer look at an average state, such as is the ideal place to encourage YIITM, as scientific Pennsylvania, reveals a hidden nationwide prob- th literacy is the gateway to careers in engineering and lem. In Pennsylvania in 2012, only 42% of 11 grade technology. students passed the science section of the statewide Given the lagging nature of science skills revealed Pennsylvania School System of Assessment (PSSA) by the PISA report, this small set of YIITM may be (Table 1) (11). falling between the cracks. We address the severity of Table 1. Statewide Passing Performance in PSSA Tests, 2012 this need using existing research; however, we offer Math 60% passed new interpretations of published research and offer recommendations for rescuing our YIITM, who need Reading 68% passed special attention from teachers if they are to reach Science 42%* passed their full potential during and after the K-12 school years. Writing 83% passed *Average for math, reading and writing: 70% (Data provided by Greatschools.org)

332 SWAMIDASS AND SCHNITTKA TEACHING FUTURE INNOVATORS 333 implications of this for gifted students. The gifted The Lagging Nature of Science Skills of U.S. It is disturbing that only 42% of public school that a significant number of science-capable students or exceptional science and math students who are Students at Large children passed the statewide science exam in Penn- attend the sample of schools above as well as other young innovators-in-the-making (YIITM) may be The state of science education in the United States sylvania, while, in the same state, on the average, schools in similar locations that have non-performing hindered by the prevailing culture’s de-emphasis on has long been a topic of debate, especially in the years 70% of the students passed math, reading, and writ- students in science; in these schools, science-capable science, which is reflected in the underachievement of following the pioneering 1957 launch of the Soviet ing tests, nearly a 30-percentage-point difference. students will be non-performers too. students in science and math. Given the typical school satellite, Sputnik. After Sputnik shocked the U.S., Why this great disparity in our students’ science This is a serious matter although it has received systems in the U.S., significant segments of our stu- Hurd (8) published a short position paper entitled capabilities? Are there NEW explanations for this little attention, and the great majority of the public dent population may be left out of promising careers “Science Literacy: Its Meaning for American Schools” phenomenon that we must consider? That is the does not know that there are schools in the U.S. where in science and engineering, which means schools are based on the thesis that scientific knowledge was no question addressed by this paper along with some no high-school student can pass a state-level science also discarding potential innovators-in-the-making. longer a luxury for just some American students and potential solutions and policy recommendations. exam. In the above-mentioned case of Martin Luther Teachers and school administrators have the power to arguing that an understanding of both science and King High School, seven to 15 times as many students change this status quo. Some non-teachers are already its applications in technology was needed across the Inner-City Children Are Totally Left Out of pass non-science subjects. doing something about it (3-7), and perhaps teachers student body. However, as the first paragraph of this Science and administrators should be doing more as well. paper states, more than fifty years after Hurd, U.S. In certain schools in inner-city Philadelphia, 2% A National Problem th students are still doing poorly in science compared or fewer 11 graders passed the PSSA science exam The evidence is clear: In statewide schools, and Do Innovators-in-the-Making Have “Special with the rest of the industrialized world. in 2012; for example, only 2% of Martin Luther King more so in inner-city schools, science performance th Needs” While in School? According to a 2011 Nation’s Report Card by the High School’s 11 grade students passed the state significantly lags behind performance in reading, YIITM are not typical children. They are naturally National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (9), PSSA exam for science (Table 2) (12). writing, and math. In the judgement of the authors, th inquisitive and experimental and are attracted to the only 31% of 8 grade students performed at a profi- this problem has not become a part of our public science and engineering challenges that the average cient level in science on the National Assessment of Table 2. Martin Luther King High School Performance Results conversation as it should be; in our assessment, either for 2012: Percent of Students Passing PSSA Tests child in school might avoid or shun. Adult innovators Educational Progress (NAEP). The test has a scale this is an incurable problem, or, as a nation, we do push the boundaries of science and create new prod- from 0 to 300 with a national mean of 151. Pub- Math 14% not want to tackle the problem. In the following sec- ucts and solutions that make life better for the rest of lic school students in Mississippi scored the lowest Reading 16% tions, evidence is presented that points to a previously us and help produce jobs for everyone. Potential inno- with a mean of 137; 53% of students scored below unnoticed classroom factor that may explain a source of the problem. To resolve it, we need to make some vators, now students in school, will eventually join basic, and only 19% scored proficient or advanced. Science 2% significant changes and perhaps adopt some difficult this subgroup if they are encouraged, nurtured, and Public school students in North Dakota scored the Writing 31% policy decisions. mentored by capable teachers and/or parents from highest with a mean of 164; 18% of students scored (Data provided by Greatschools.org) an early age. This small subset of children has special/ below basic, and 45% of students scored proficient or HOW DO WE RESPOND TO THE PROBLEM? advanced needs that go unrecognized for the most advanced. An average state was Pennsylvania, where While students in many inner-city schools are part. They need special understanding and attention if public school students scored 151; 34% of students performing poorly across the board, note the abso- We are Importing Innovators they are to grow up to be future innovators. The U.S. scored below basic, and 35% of students scored pro- lute lack of performance in science: Only 1% passed “More than three out of every four patents at the needs teachers qualified to identify, understand, and ficient or advanced (10). in 2009, 0% passed in 2010, and 2% passed in both top 10 patent-producing U.S. universities (76%) teach these YIITM. The science classroom in schools Taking a closer look at an average state, such as 2011 and 2012. Since a passing rate of 0% to 2% can had at least one foreign-born inventor. More than is the ideal place to encourage YIITM, as scientific Pennsylvania, reveals a hidden nationwide prob- be considered a measurement error, we can conclude half of all patents (54%) were awarded to…foreign th literacy is the gateway to careers in engineering and lem. In Pennsylvania in 2012, only 42% of 11 grade that science proficiency is virtually non-existent. This inventors,” says a report from the Partnership for a technology. students passed the science section of the statewide school is not alone. A sample of four schools, Over- New American Economy (13). The report also found Given the lagging nature of science skills revealed Pennsylvania School System of Assessment (PSSA) brook High School, South Philadelphia High School, that “foreign-born inventors played especially large by the PISA report, this small set of YIITM may be (Table 1) (11). West Philadelphia High School, and Martin Luther roles in cutting-edge fields like semiconductor device falling between the cracks. We address the severity of Table 1. Statewide Passing Performance in PSSA Tests, 2012 King High School, averaged 3.7% in biology profi- manufacturing (87%), information technology (84%), th this need using existing research; however, we offer Math 60% passed ciency among 11 graders in 2014; these four schools pulse or digital communication (83%), pharmaceu- new interpretations of published research and offer had an average graduation rate of 53% (all data from tical drugs or drug compounds (79%), and optics recommendations for rescuing our YIITM, who need Reading 68% passed GreatSchools.org). (77%).” special attention from teachers if they are to reach Science 42%* passed The level of student non-performance we see in When U.S. school students are performing poorly their full potential during and after the K-12 school these illustrative schools, arguably, may be attained in science, it is fortunate that international students years. Writing 83% passed WITHOUT TEACHING SCIENCE and without with strong science and engineering backgrounds *Average for math, reading and writing: 70% employing teachers and laboratories. Of relevance to attend our universities and contribute to our science (Data provided by Greatschools.org) this investigation, the laws of statistics would suggest and engineering infrastructure. Nonetheless, the data

334 SWAMIDASS AND SCHNITTKA begs the question, “How could we produce more U.S. (16), relates a telling anecdote about Dorsey’s father, innovators?” who is an engineer and entrepreneur, helping his son build a model of a mass spectrometer—something The Role of Parents in the Early Start of most adults would not even recognize—out of LEGO Innovators blocks when he was 11. Clearly, an early start, coupled For decades, this nation has been desperately try- with parental mentoring, brings out the innovative ing to strengthen science, technology, engineering, genius in children. and mathematics (STEM) education in K-12 to pre- pare our school students for technological innovation, Selling Engineering to Girls Early in Life Outside but some compelling evidence from research shows of Schools that our innovative children may not get the needed Females are underrepresented in engineering and attention and support early in school life unless their engineering innovation. Debbie Sterling (4-7), as a parents get involved (14), as in the cases outlined student at Stanford’s College of Engineering, saw the below. obvious: There are very few women in engineering. “How to be a GEEK DAD,” by Adam Savage, of For decades, numerous national and state funded Mythbusters TV-show fame, was WIRED magazine’s STEM programs have spent millions if not billions cover story (15) in an issue whose running theme may to correct this with limited success. Sterling set out be summarized as, “Before I was a geek dad, I was a to do something about it although she was neither geeky kid.” Indeed, many future innovators started training to be a schoolteacher nor preparing to work early. Elon Musk, age 45, born in South Africa in 1971, for a school district or a federal/state department is a well-known innovator in the U.S. with a block- of education. As a concerned citizen, inventor, and buster series of innovations, including SpaceX, Tesla entrepreneur, she saw an obvious need to address a Motors, and PayPal. He is not done yet; he is floating lingering problem, and she attempted to set it right mega-technology project ideas that can change the with a novel and innovative private-sector response. way we live. It is reported that he got his first computer In order to assist girls to choose an engineering at age 10 and learned programing, and at age 12, he career, she reasoned that girls, from an early age, sold his first commercial space game called Blaster need toys that wake up the silent and dormant engi- for about $500. His company SpaceX successfully neering potential in them. She designed a toy with launched the first Dragon space capsule on May 22, girls in mind, invested thousands of dollars of her 2012, for eventual docking in space with the Interna- own money to produce a high-quality prototype, tional Space Station. The capsule was launched with and tested it with about 100 parents and their chil- SpaceX’s own Falcon 9 rockets after NASA retired its dren, a process which revealed a strong demand for entire fleet of space shuttles. That such technological her engineering-oriented toy among girls. Armed successes would be within the reach of private com- with her test results, she used a powerful video (4) to panies was unthinkable 20 to 30 years ago. Young appeal for funds on the crowdfunding website Kick- Elon Musk got an early start, and it is more than a starter to launch a new business called GoldieBlox coincidence that his father was an engineer. to design, produce, and sell engineering-themed toys The founder of Twitter and Square, Inc., Jack for girls. She was overwhelmed by the response to Dorsey, had early encouragement and introduction her appeal on Kickstarter; she raised over $285,000 to advanced science and engineering thought pro- in five days—far in excess of her target—before she cesses through his father. Square, Inc. introduced went into production. Her line of specialty toys for a square attachment, about one square inch in size, channeling girls to engineering education became that enables smart phones to accept credit cards bestsellers by 2013 (17). anywhere and everywhere, which is an innovation After completing the immense task of fulfilling causing the company to be listed as one of the top the initial orders for her toy, this is what Sterling five “Most Innovative Companies of 2012” by Fast- said on her blog, “Ultimately, we’ve learned that the Company.com. Ellen McGirt, of FastCompany.com world is ready for this idea. Engineering toys for girls

TEACHING FUTURE INNOVATORS 335 are here to stay. We’re working hard on our product distributors of her toys, at least. The case of Deb- development, making improvements to the first toy, bie Sterling exemplifies the fact that every potential getting the next ones ready to ship, and dreaming innovator who is turned away, at an early age, from up new adventures for Goldie” (5). Her toys are now science and engineering is a great loss to the society. accessible to girls and their parents all over the world In our research on technological innovators, we through Amazon.com as well as large brick and mor- found some disturbing evidence that young future tar stores; as of 2016, at least 11 different GoldieBlox technological innovators may find K-12 schools a toys are marketed by Amazon.com on its website. difficult place because their teachers may be incapa- Sterling has made a significant contribution to ble of understanding, mentoring, and helping future meeting the formidable challenge of generating inter- innovators grow and develop. est in engineering among generally disinterested girls at an early age; she is making it acceptable for girls THE ROLE OF SPATIAL SKILLS to be interested in engineering although the popular Engineers/Scientists are Different: Their Spatial culture draws girls away from all things engineering Ability Stands Out (see her powerful video motivating girls to take up Studies at the Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for engineering (6)). Research on Human Development, supported by Her products are so successful that her business Templeton Foundation and the National Institute of could afford to place an advertisement during the Child Health and Development (Figure 1), graphically 2014 Super Bowl, where a 30-second spot for a com- show the spatial abilities of graduates from various mercial is the most expensive in the U.S. because the common disciplines in a typical university: engi- TV audience could be the largest in a given year (18). neering, physical sciences, math/computer science, Later in this paper, we propose controlled studies to biological sciences, humanities, social sciences, arts, gauge the lasting effect of GoldieBlox toys on girls. business, and education. Note the stark difference in However, we do know that parents now have the spatial skills between graduates from the colleges of option of giving toys meant to wake up the inner engineering and education. We hypothesize that, to engineer in girls when they are still very young; they effectively understand, assist, and motivate a child do not have to depend on public schools entirely. with high spatial skills and a potential engineer-in- Why is Debbie Sterling relevant? She is creative novator, teachers would need reasonably high spatial (19) and innovative. She recognized the need to create skills too. While we cannot expect all teachers in a interest in engineering issues, ideas, and contrap- given school to be endowed with generous spatial tions among girls still in pre-school and elementary skills, schools need at least a few teachers with strong school, girls who could become future technological spatial skills to interact with such children on a reg- innovators. The efforts of Debbie Sterling and her ular basis. commercial success confirm that we need to take a fresh look at the problem of lagging science compe- Complex Spatial Thinking Ability tency and interest in substantial, non-trivial segments Spatial thinking, spatial ability, spatial structur- of our student population, including inner-city chil- ing, or whatever it is called, is a collection of unique dren, who seem to be left out of science today. thinking skills (20) that collectively form an enabling skill for engineers and scientists. It allows us to hold Could We Afford the Loss of Innovators? objects in the mind’s eye and mentally manipulate The dominant culture could have stopped Sterling them. Researchers report that there are several types from seeking an engineering career. What would of spatial abilities. Three different assessments and have been the loss if Debbie Sterling had not taken aspects of spatial ability are summarized below. to engineering and instead chose one of the con- Andersen describes visual-spatial ability as a ventional career paths for women? A great loss to component of individual intelligence that is made millions of girls, their parents, employees of her com- up of two components: visualization and imagery pany, the employees of suppliers to her company, and (21). Ganesh, Wilhelm, and Sherrod recognize spatial

336 SWAMIDASS AND SCHNITTKA Figure 1: Average Z scores of participants on general ability level and spatial, mathematical, and verbal ability levels for bachelor’s de- grees, master’s degrees, and Ph.D. degrees plotted by field. Note for Figure 1: For education and business, masters and doctorates were combined because the doctorate samples for these groups were to small to obtain stability (n 30). Average z scores of participants on spatial, mathematical, and verbal ability for bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and Ph.D.s are plotted by field in the figure. The groups are plotted in rank order of their normative standing on g verbal (V), spatial (S), and mathematical (M) along the x-axis, and each arrow indicates on the continuous scale where each field lies on general mental ability. All x-axis values are based on the weighted means across each degree grouping. This figure is standardized in relation to all participants with complete ability data at the time of initial testing. Respective ns for each group (males and females) were as follows (for bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorates, respectively): engineeering (1,143, 339, 71), physical science (633, 182, 202), math/compter science (877, 266, 57), biological science (740, 182, 79), humanities (3,226, 695, 82), social science (2,609, 484, 158), arts (615, masters & doc- torates 171), business (2,386 masters & doctorates 191), and education (3,403, master’s & doctorates 1,505). Figure and note reproduced from Wai Lubinksi, and Benbow, 2009. visualization, spatial projection, cardinal directions, any of its many axes and then being able to promptly and periodic patterns as important components of recognize how that object would appear after the spatial ability (22). rotation. Spatial visualization is a complex analytical Finally, Linn and Petersen describe it as spatial process where one is not only able to rotate objects perception, mental rotation, and spatial visualization in the mind but is also able to keep track of multiple (23). In practice, spatial perception uses one’s sense of steps of the process while working rapidly. When gravitational up and down despite conflicting infor- the definitions of various researchers are combined, mation; it is the ability to straighten a painting on the spatial thinking reduces to one’s ability to mentally wall even when the ceiling above the painting that visualize, rotate, transform, represent, and recognize forms a reference is inclined. Mental rotation is the symbolic information. ability to imagine a 2D or 3D object rotated about

TEACHING FUTURE INNOVATORS 337 Spatial Skills Are Necessary for STEM Problem and “How do we develop and impart spatial thinking Solving in teachers?” Spatial thinking is an important mental capability that helps problem solving (24) by understanding Are Standardized Tests Stacked Against Students various underlying math and science concepts, such with Strong Spatial Skills? as geometry, chemistry (25, 26), or engineering design On the one hand, as a nation, we have been sup- (27). More generally, it helps us understand the world porting various initiatives and programs to build and around us, manipulate objects, or design, build, and strengthen STEM education and skills. Ironically, on create in many dimensions. the other hand, perhaps unknown to policy makers Spatial thinking can be challenging to some. Here and proponents of STEM education, ACT and SAT are some instances where spatial thinking is in play: tests may be stacked against students with high spatial assembling IKEA furniture from pictures, program- skills. ing a robot, putting together a 1000-piece puzzle, or Students who have high spatial aptitude have the describing to a tourist how to get to the post office skills needed for success in STEM professions because across town. Regardless of its value and importance, they have the ability to think visually with images and this skill often lacks formal recognition (21,28). pictures and see beyond the limitations caused by Spatial thinking is at the center of many scientific words (31). However, they may be underachievers in discoveries, engineering marvels, and great works of school due to their neglected strengths and may be left art. Examples of significant spatial thinking are: out by college admission programs when they achieve 1. James Watson and Francis Crick visualizing low scores on the SAT and ACT examinations (21), and modeling the 3D structure of DNA from which are designed to assess intelligence only through a 2D x-ray photo taken by Rosalind Franklin verbal and mathematical reasoning and neglect spatial (29) thinking. 2. Einstein visualizing himself riding on a beam This testing bias is not a new phenomenon. In of light, which helped him develop the theory 1921, psychologist Lewis Terman administered the of special relativity (30) Stanford-Binet test to schoolchildren in California in NASA launched a spacecraft from one rotat- order to identify the 1000 brightest youth in the state. ing object in space (Earth) and landed it safely on Two of these test takers, William Shockley and Louis another rotating object that was also revolving about Alvarez, scored below the 135 IQ cut off. However, us (Moon), a feat requiring considerable spatial think- they both went on to win Nobel Prizes in physics, a ing to ensure its success. Spatial thinking is universal discipline requiring strong spatial skills. It could be and necessary for recognizing and posing problems that the Stanford-Binet, like the SAT and ACT, does before proposing and expressing solutions, and it is not measure spatial intelligence (32). Andersen calls an essential ingredient for inventors. for a broader/more balanced approach in measuring In their report, “Learning to Think Spatially,” the intelligence, one that includes spatial ability as an National Academy of Sciences recommends that spa- indicator of holistic intelligence in addition to the tial literacy be fostered in youth to equip them better verbal and mathematical skills now measured by tests for life and for work in the modern technological (21). world. The report encourages the design of curricula Project Talent, a study of data on 400,000 people that infuse spatial thinking across different school over 50 years (starting in 1960), compared spatial subjects. One concern of the report’s authors is that abilities in adolescence to later career choices, and spatial thinking may “remain locked in a curious their results show why addressing the intelligence educational twilight zone: extensively relied on across testing gap/bias is imperative. They found a direct the K-12 curriculum but not explicitly and systemat- correlation between high spatial reasoning scores ically instructed in any part of the curriculum” (28). and the choice of STEM careers even when math and This leads us to two important questions: “How do verbal skills were controlled (33,34). we develop and impart spatial thinking in children?”

338 SWAMIDASS AND SCHNITTKA Insight into Spatial Ability of Typical shortcomings of the child’s teacher in science Schoolteachers and engineering. A child with science and engi- Classrooms in U.S. schools may be unwelcome neering skills from one of these homes would places for future engineering majors and potential be ill-served at home and at school; there would innovators (34,35). Figure 1, reported by Wai et al. be no safety net at home when schools fail to pro- (34), indicates that education degree holders score the vide an environment that promotes science and lowest on spatial skills, while engineering graduates engineering in the classroom. score the highest among all college graduates at all As a reminder, let us give credit to all our U.S. school- levels: bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels. teachers, who provide a strong education to our young Figure 1 uses Project TALENT data collected from students in reading, writing, social studies, and several about 400,000 high school students in the 1960s and non-STEM subjects and do their best to teach science includes data collected from their respondents eleven and mathematics. years after graduation. Some inferences from Figure 1 might be: Who Is Teaching Future Innovators in Our 1. Potential technological innovators may score Schools? high in spatial abilities Table 3 summarizes the differences in spatial skills 2. Most schoolteachers recruited from colleges evident in Figure 1 between undergraduate degree of education may be strong in many subjects holders from the colleges of education and engineer- but not spatial abilities ing in terms of standard deviation (z-score). The last 3. There may not be sufficient numbers of school column in the table estimates that engineering degree teachers in the elementary and middle schools holders are about one standard deviation stronger to guide and mentor engineering-oriented chil- than education degree holders. This table suggests at dren with high spatial skills least two conclusions: 1) The extent of the difference 4. Teachers lacking spatial skills may unknowingly in spatial skills is significantly large and not a mar- and unwittingly discourage students enthused ginal difference (one standard deviation difference), by engineering/science issues, problems, and and 2) Because of the magnitude of the difference, challenges education college graduates may not acquire spatial 5. Teachers lacking spatial skills may steer stu- skills merely by more training and education. dents into non-engineering activities inside Given the specific shortfall in teacher skills in and outside the classroom by subtle rewards Table 3, it would be difficult or impossible for the and admonishments average schoolteacher to model specific thinking skills 6. Schools may have a widespread shortage of teachers attuned to science and engineering that would inspire future engineering students while unless they recruit engineering graduates, but they are still in school. The potential effect on young this is not occurring innovators in our schools could be one or more of 7. If parents are socio-economically disadvan- the following: taged with insufficient education, the child may 1. Future innovators may be bored in the not have a parent who could substitute for the classroom and may become dropouts, Table 3. Gaps in Abilities between Undergraduate Education Majors and Engineering Majors Education (z) Engineering (z) Education-Engineering Gap measured in z Verbal 0.65 0.8 -0.15 Spatial 0.25 1.25 -1.0 Math 0.5 1.5 -1.0 (Measured in terms of std. deviations (z); Extracted from Figure 1)

TEACHING FUTURE INNOVATORS 339 especially if parental mentoring and support 7. Installation of Processes, Practices, and Policies is lacking (PPP) to enable selected or interested teachers 2. Student interest in technological innovation to work with students endowed with high spa- may be dulled with time tial skills 3. Not being understood by teachers, potential 8. PPP to develop spatial skills in all school chil- innovators’ respect for education may be com- dren from an early age promised and student de-motivation may set 9. The development and distribution of training in materials for teachers on spatial skills 4. Future scientists and innovators may become 10. Facilities and resources in schools for teaching problem students spatial skills and applied spatial skills The Jack Dorseys and Debbie Sterlings of the future 11. A curriculum and program for inner-city need a parent and/or teacher to fuel their interest in children in schools where science proficiency science, engineering, and technological innovation. is non-existent (see Philadelphia example above) In homes where there is no parent with an engi- neering or science background to nurture a future innovator, schools must play a vital role in nurturing Directions for Future Research future innovators from an early age. For the benefit of Because the findings of Wai et al. (34) are central such students, schools may strive for student contact to our study, we recommend the following investiga- with teachers equipped with degrees from colleges tions to solidify our interpretations of their findings of engineering. concerning future innovators. Particularly, we would like to recommended empirical tests of our implied NEXT STEPS hypotheses: 1. Hypothesis 1: Teachers with low spatial skills Responding to the Lack of Teacher Preparedness cannot or would not understand the aspira- The foregoing is ample evidence that we need to tions, motivation, and behavior of a child with make policy-level changes to K-12 education in the high spatial skills U.S. to appreciate and improve spatial skills in future 2. Hypothesis 2: Teachers with low spatial skills innovators among our youth. We suggest the follow- can benefit from more science and math con- ing: tent courses but may not serve the purpose of 1. Investigation of how the Next Generation Sci- understanding and motivating YIITM ence Standards (NGSS) (36) would address the students high on spatial skills needs of YIITM 3. Hypothesis 3: Teachers with low spatial skills 2. The integration of engineering/spatial skills may find it a challenge to develop spatial skills with math and science in K-12 school STEM in students curricula as found in the NGSS (also see (37)) 4. Hypothesis 4: Toys such as GoldieBlox have 3. Teacher preparation for accomplishing the said a lasting effect on the spatial skills of girls and integration in Item 2 above their attraction to higher education in science 4. Training of teachers to recognize spatial skills in and engineering their students as well as training them to We also propose a study to investigate the features develop their own spatial skills of the various programs in U.S. schools in grades 5. The availability of a double major in engi- K-12 that are more effective in meeting the needs of neering and education in universities to prepare YIITM. Further, we propose another study to inves- engineers to work with future teachers in col- tigate how teachers with low spatial skills could assist leges of education and develop the skills and talents of students with 6. The availability of a master’s degree in teaching high spatial skills. for engineering graduates

340 SWAMIDASS AND SCHNITTKA CONCLUSIONS teachers could be instrumental in designing and While we may draw many conclusions from the offering programs to keep spatially skilled students foregoing, our primary conclusion addresses the challenged and on a track to seek higher education in spatial skills of teachers or the lack of them. Our science and engineering. Today, engineers are primar- starting premise is derived from two sets of data- ily employed in the private sector and government; based evidence: 1) the low performance scores of U.S. we need policies that would attract some of them to school students in all things science when compared the teaching profession at all levels. Compensation for to students in OECD nations and 2) the significant engineers in industry and the government might be difference in spatial skills between graduates of col- far better than the compensation in school districts, leges of engineering and education. but this obstacle can be remedied if our commit- While graduates from U.S. colleges of education ment to educating future innovators is sufficiently provide valuable education to our students, it must strong. The National Science Foundation could set be a challenge for them to adequately serve the needs aside funds to investigate some of the suggestions of students endowed with extraordinary spatial skills and conclusions in this paper. and strong potential to be future innovators. We need We need facilities and resources in schools to to train existing teachers as well as prepare new teach- enhance spatial skills in all students with emphasis ers who are strong in spatial skills so that they may on students with higher levels of spatial skills at all age serve and mentor students endowed with high lev- levels in schools. This may be the critical missing link els of spatial skills. We must also conduct empirical in preventing future innovators from losing interest studies to understand how we may prepare interested in all things science, engineering, and technology. We teachers, even those with low spatial skills, to meet the need facilities and resources for STEM labs to stimu- needs of students with high spatial skills and YIITM, late our innovators-in-the-making from elementary if that is possible. schools onwards. At these labs, interested students Schools must keep children who are endowed with could design solutions, conduct experiments, and high spatial skills—who could be potential future learn to make proof-of-concept prototypes under the scientists and innovators—interested and engaged in guidance of an engineer. These labs may be part of programs that develop and strengthen spatial skills extracurricular opportunities at the school or could very early in their lives while attending elementary be integrated in the curriculum for interested students and middle schools. If we neglect such students’ inter- as an elective. ests at an early age, we risk losing them from the The investment needed for one such lab and at future pool of innovators. least one engineer per school would be far less than We need to debate as well as research whether sports facilities and staffing for football or basketball popular college-entrance tests, such as the SAT and programs that most schools boast today. Our public ACT, ought to include a spatial skills component. In schools would not let a football or basketball talent the meantime, how do we compensate for the lack in the student body go to waste; we cannot say that of a spatial skills component in these popular tests? today about science/engineering talent in the student How should we address the needs of the spatially body. We need to start with the teachers who are skilled children left behind by these tests? strong in the spatial skills that engineers possess; they We also need programs and curricula for all could serve as a magnet to attract and coach future students regardless of their native spatial skills to innovators who may be currently lost, drifting, or enhance their spatial skills. Such programs could ignored in our schools. They need at least as much enhance the pool of students entering science and attention as athletes. engineering programs. In creating a sound educational infrastructure for We need to attract a cadre of engineering college finding and teaching YIITM, we have a long way to go, graduates to teach in K-12 schools to be role models but we have to start somewhere. In this paper, we have for students endowed with high spatial skills. Such offered hypotheses for pioneering empirical research

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Technology and Innovation, Vol. 18, p. 343, 2017 ISSN 1949-8241 • E-ISSN 1949-825X Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.21300/18.4.2017.343 Copyright © 2017 National Academy of Inventors. www.technologyandinnovation.org T&I BOOK REVIEW Dean F. Martin Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA Research to Revenue: A Practical Guide to commercialization of a bright idea, buttressed by a University Start-ups patent position whose cost must be covered somehow. Don Rose and Cam Patterson Accordingly, it behooves a faculty member to have UNC Press, 2016 (352 pp) good understanding of what is involved in establish- $29.95 (ISBN: 978-1-4696-2526-3) ing a “start-up company” that will bring in the support money, and, at this point, the erstwhile academic, Many academic institutions are now concerned inventor, and CEO would be wise to be well informed with technology transfer, commonly referred to as at all stages. Until recently, this was rarely taught in tech transfer, the conversion of academic research graduate school, either in courses or in experiences into commercial products, as D. Malakoff noted in leading to an advanced degree. Science in 2013 (339:750-753). This is hardly a new Further, though, this professor-inventor, as well occurrence, as chemists will remember G. Freder- as patentee-CEO, would be well advised to read this ick Smith (a professor at the University of Illinois book to gain a solid background in the steps to form- Urbana-Champaign), who provided products, such ing a start-up, both successful ones and failures. as perchlorate salts, perchloric acid, and other mate- The authors provide lucid explanations, define rials, that were sold by his brothers during the Great types of university start-ups (where do you the reader Depression (as G. F. Smith Chemical Co., later GFS fit in?), and illustrate key step-by-step procedures Company). with helpful tables (Milestones vs. Value-creating But the current situation arises in no small part Milestones) and creative, well-organized figures. because “state universities” may be now drifting The writing is focused on the experiences of a into “suino” status (state universities in name only), university inventor, and thus on their perspective, spurred by state legislatures’ curtailment of the finan- with one section entitled “The University–Friend or cial support they supply to state universities coupled Foe.” However, some pages at the end are directed with increasing demands on increasingly diminished to university administrators, their roles, and their federal funding. STEM Faculty seeking tenure are constraints. The bottom line is that this is a well-writ- thus faced with the dilemma: How do they demon- ten and well-organized book produced by articulate, strate their notable creativity without the supporting experienced authors for the benefit of would-be entre- documentation of grants, preferably from a presti- preneurs. gious funding agency? Tech transfer has been an important part of the solution to this problem. Don Rose is director of Carolina Kickstart and adjunct To be successful, however, tech transfer requires lecturer at the Kenan-Flagler Business School, Univer- a solid bedrock of patents, and the costs must come sity of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. Cam Patterson is from somewhere. Accordingly, the enthusiastic fac- senior vice president and CEO at New York-Presbyte- ulty member who takes this route must face the need rian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medical Center. to support the patent process, and one solution is _____________________ Accepted November 30, 2016. Corresponding Author: Dean F. Martin, University of South Florida, Department of Chemistry, 4202 East Fowler Avenue CHE205, Tampa, FL 33620, USA. Tel: +1 (813) 974-2374; Email: [email protected] 343



i Aims and Scope promoting the development of a consensus. Patent Reviews: New patents of interest to the readers of The journal Technology and Innovation, Journal of the T&I are included in this category. National Academy of Inventors (T&I) is a forum for presen- tation of information encompassing essentially the entire Book Reviews on Innovation and Technology: Solicited field of applied sciences, with a focus on transformative or unsolicited short reviews of relevant books and issued technology and academic innovation. Owing to the broad patents are considered for publication in this category. nature of the applied sciences, authors should be guided by the interest of the readers who are likely to be knowledge- Preparation of Manuscripts able non-specialist scholars. 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Figures should action, and innovation as related to intellectual prop- be submitted separately from text. erty • Environmental (including human health) impact of Title page: Each paper should include a title page with the various technologies title of the paper, submission type, name(s) of author(s), • Articles on historical, societal, ethical, and related and complete affiliation(s). Provide a short title to be used aspects of science,engineering, medicine, or technol- as running head. Indicate the author to whom correspon- ogy, provided they are written for the scientific com- dence and proofs should be addressed (i.e. ‘corresponding munity and in a style compatible with a scientific author’), and provide a complete physical mailing address, journal phone, fax, and email address. • Articles should have a discussion on the process of Title: The title should be as short as possible but fully innovation and invention descriptive. Because T&I serves a multidisciplinary audience, authors Submission Type: The author should indicate the type of are urged to avoid writing for specialists. In particular, they submission that best describes their manuscript (Article, are discouraged from using expressions that are under- Commentary, Editorial, or Patent Review). standable only to a select audience of specialists. For example, mathematical expressions should be explained Abstract and key words: The abstract should contain a in words to assure their appreciation by nonmathemati- summary of the article, including its results in 250 words cians. All contributions will be subjected to peer review or less. Because many abstracting services use the abstract and will be evaluated on the basis of their general useful- without reference to the content, the authors are urged to ness for the readers, including scientific quality, originality, succinctly provide the essence of the paper in the (up to) and compliance with the style and format of the journal. 250 words allocated. Additionally, provide 3 to 6 key words The following categories of contributions will be consid- after the abstract. ered for publication: Tables and figures: Tables and figures should be under- Articles: Most articles will be review format with no min- standable without excessive reference to the text; particularly, imum or maximum length. The journal subscribes to the units and quantities should be clearly identified. In gen- concept that the length of an article is determined by its eral, material should be presented in tables or figures but content. However, a preference will be given for articles not in both. Avoid very wide or long figures and tables that that are between 7 and 15 published pages. would not fit on a printed page. By default, tables and fig- ures will appear in B&W. If color figures are necessary or Commentaries and Discussions: (Letters to the editor, desired, there is a charge for their reproduction. Figures editorials, and similar contributions also fall into this cat- should be submitted at the highest resolution possible, egory.) These are subjected to peer review and are required preferably 300dpi at 7 inches (width or height). Low-res- to follow T&I format and style and must be consistent with olution files that appear pixilated when printed will NOT the requirements of a scholarly journal. The discussion of be accepted for publication. contested areas of science where a consensus is lacking is included in this category. Commentaries are shorter than Tables: Present each table on a separate page at the end of regular manuscripts and must contain information that is the manuscript (i.e., not within the body of the text). Pro- likely to invoke scientific discussion with the objective of vide a short title for each table. Cite all tables sequentially

ii in the text and provide publishing staff with a cue for where hours of receipt. Corrections at this stage should be limited they should approximately appear in the manuscript (e.g., to printer’s errors and minor changes. No major changes ‘INSERT TABLE 1’) when published. Tables should be in or rewrites are allowed. an editable format. Open Access: To help authors reach maximum exposure Figures: Figures should be submitted separately from the for manuscripts published in Technology and Innovation, text. Cite all figures sequentially in the text and provide T&I utilizes Open Access publishing. Fees are billed when publishing staff with a cue for where they should approxi- a manuscript is accepted for publication. mately appear in the manuscript (e.g., ‘INSERT FIGURE 1’) when published. All figures must be high-quality art work Open Access Fee Rates in electronic format. Lettering should be large enough to Standard Single Submission: ..................................$1,000 be readable when reduced to fit page or column size. Avoid NAI Fellow Contributed Single Submission: ..........$800 light lettering and gray shading. SPECIAL NOTE: Figures If you are interested in publishing with T&I but believe in accepted submissions are printed for free in black & you will be unable to meet the Open Access fees, please white. If you wish to have your figures reproduced in color, contact T&I at [email protected] or (813) there is an additional fee for this service. All legends for 974-1347. figures should be included on a separate page at the end of the manuscript. Copyright: If data from any source other than the authors is used in tables or figures, it is the responsibility of the Equations: All equations should be typewritten. Math- ematical notations should be simple and suitable for a authors to obtain permission to reproduce such material. multidisciplinary audience. For example, fractions within Editorial staff may ask authors to provide proof that per- fractions and subscripts within subscripts should be mission has been granted from the original publisher and avoided. Where possible, incorporate equations into the indicate the source when signing our copyright forms. text rather than as a separate figure. For any questions relating to the formatting or submit- Units, quantities, and abbreviations: Use SI (metric) units ting of manuscripts, please contact T&I at tijournal@ and international quantities and abbreviations. Equivalent academyofinventors.org or (813) 974-1347. values in other systems may be used, provided their metric equivalents are included in every case. Note that percent, Ethics Statement ppm, and ppb are not metric units. The publishers and editorial board of Technology and Inno- Footnotes: Avoid text footnotes. Footnote material should vation have adopted the publication ethics and malpractice be incorporated into the text for the benefit of the readers, statements of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) editors, and printers. (http://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines). These guidelines highlight what is expected of authors and what Financial Disclosure: The authors should indicate any they can expect from the reviewers and editorial board in financial or other relationships connected with the infor- return. They also provide details of how problems will be mation in the article. handled. Briefly: Acknowledgment: If an acknowledgment is included, it should not contain lengthy descriptions of the reason for Author Responsibilities: Authors listed on a manuscript the acknowledgement. must have made a significant contribution to the study and/ or writing of the manuscript. During revisions, authors can- References: For references, please follow CSE citation-se- not be removed without their permission and that of the quence style. Information about CSE citation format can other authors. All authors must also agree to the addition be found at http://www.scientificstyleandformat.org/Tools/ of new authors. It is the responsibility of the correspond- SSF-Citation-Quick-Guide.html. If you have additional ing author to ensure that this occurs. questions about references or other formatting issues, please contact T&I at [email protected]. Financial support and conflicts of interest for all authors must be declared. Further information on this can be The designated corresponding author will receive a proof obtained from the International Committee for Medical of their article in PDF format via email before publication. Journal Editors (http://www.icmje.org/). The corresponding author should answer all queries at this time and carefully check all editorial changes within 48

iii The reported research must be novel and authentic and the to publish this as necessary so as to maintain the integrity authors should confirm that the same data has not been of the academic record. and is not going to be submitted to another journal (unless already rejected). Statements made in the introduction and Protection for Research Participants discussion should be supported by appropriate references, and sufficient experimental detail should be provided to These policies are in accordance with the recommenda- tions of The International Committee of Medical Journal allow for repetition of the study by another group. Plagia- Editors (ICMJE) rism of the text/data will not be tolerated and could result in retraction of an accepted article. Any text or figures n Humans reproduced for another source require the permission of the original copyright holders (normally the publishers). 1. If experiments or research reported in the article in- volve human subjects, the authors must indicate if Any manipulation of figures should be equally applied and their procedures were approved by an Institutional described in the text (including pseudocoloring) and must Review Board, ethics committee, or similar reg- not change the meaning of the figure. ulatory oversight committee. If a review board or committee is not available, the authors When humans, animals, or tissue derived from them have should indicate that their procedures are in accor- been used, then mention of the appropriate ethical approval dance with the Helsinki Declaration as revised in 2013. must be included in the manuscript. Reviewer responsibilities: Reviewers are expected to 3. Manuscripts must be accompanied by a statement not possess any conflicts of interest with the authors and that the informed consent of research participants research. They should review the science objectively and was obtained prior to participation or that documen- provide recommendations for improvements where nec- tation of informed consent was waived by the Insti- essary. When aware of relevant published work not being tutional Review Board, ethics committee, or similar cited, the reviewers should recommend inclusion of these regulatory oversight committee. references. If the reviewer feels that they would be unable to repeat the study as described, then additional meth- If images or other identifying information is included in odological details should be requested. Any unpublished the manuscript, explicit written informed consent of the information read by a reviewer should be treated as con- individual/patient must be obtained and included with your fidential. submission. Measures to protect the confidentiality of the individual(s) should also be employed. If consent cannot Editorial responsibilities: The editors will select an appro- be obtained, you are encouraged to contact the editor for priate number of reviewers for the manuscript so that they further guidance. can make an informed decision about whether to reject/ accept a manuscript. Their decision must be based only on n Animals the paper’s importance, originality, clarity, and suitability If experiments or research reported in the article involve for the journal. They must not have a conflict of interest animals, the authors must indicate if their procedures were with the authors or work described. The anonymity of the performed in accordance with the U.S. Public Health Ser- reviewers must be maintained. vice’s (PHS) Policy on Human Care and Use of Laboratory Should problems come to light after acceptance, then the Animals and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory editors agree to promote the publication of corrections Animals and were approved by appropriate institutional and/or retractions as deemed necessary. review committee(s). Publishing responsibilities: The publisher agrees to ensure Editors reserve the right to reject manuscripts if there is that, to the best of their abilities, the information that they doubt that appropriate ethical standards have not been met publish is genuine and ethically sound. If publishing ethics in research involving human and animal subjects or if there issues come to light, not limited to accusations of fraud- is reason to suspect research misconduct. ulent data or plagiarism, during or after the publication process, they will be investigated by the editorial board, including contact with the author’s institution if necessary so that a decision on the appropriate corrections, clarifi- cations, or retractions can be made. The publisher agrees



THE INVENTION GENDER GAP Guest Editor: Florence Haseltine Technology and Innovation (T&I) is currently soliciting manuscripts for a special issue on the gender gap in the invention arena. Statistics show that women are named as inventors on fewer than one in five patents despite gains in the number of women entering STEM fields, and addressing this disparity will be critical to remaining competitive in the global innovation sphere. This special issue builds on earlier work on the invention gender gap published in T&I by our guest editor Florence Haseltine (T&I 18.4) and Philippa Olsen (T&I 17.4). We seek articles and reviews addressing topics associated with gender-based differences in representation and outcomes for inventors. Relevant topics include but are not limited to: • The differential representation of men and women as inventors • Differences in outcomes for male vs. female inventors • Contributing factors and hypotheses related to the gender gap in invention— systemic, environmental, etc. • Analyses of relevant data and statistics • Proposals and solutions to close the gender gap in invention • Effects of the persistence of the gender gap in invention on inventors and society at large • Roles of universities, government agencies, and private enterprise in addressing the gender gap Initial manuscripts should be submitted by September 1, 2017. Instructions for authors can be found at: http://academyofinventors.org/ti/resources.asp. T&I is published by the National Academy of Inventors and presents information encom- passing the entire field of applied sciences, with a focus on transformative technology and academic innovation, and welcomes manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. We publish original articles in basic and applied research, critical reviews, surveys, opinions, commentaries, essays, and patent and book reviews of interest to our readers. If you have questions or would like to submit a manuscript, please contact assistant editor of T&I, Kimberly Macuare, at [email protected].





MICHAEL BASS, University of Central Florida ISSA BATARSEH, University of Central Florida RAYMOND J. BERGERON, University of Florida SHEKHAR BHANSALI, Florida International University ROBERT H. BYRNE, University of South Florida SELIM A. CHACOUR, University of South Florida WILLIAM J. CLANCEY, Institute for Human & Machine Cognition ROY CURTISS III, University of Florida WILLIAM S. DALTON, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer & Research Institute PETER J. DELFYETT, University of Central Florida DONN M. DENNIS, University of Florida DAVID M. EDDY, University of South Florida GREGG B. FIELDS, Florida Atlantic University KENNETH M. FORD, Institute for Human & Machine Cognition MICHAEL W. FOUNTAIN, University of South Florida RICHARD D. GITLIN, University of South Florida LEONID B. GLEBOV, University of Central Florida D. YOGI GOSWAMI, University of South Florida CLIFFORD M. GROSS, University of South Florida BARBARA C. HANSEN, University of South Florida RICHARD A. HOUGHTEN, Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies LONNIE O. INGRAM, University of Florida S. SITHARAMA IYENGAR, Florida International University RICHARD JOVE, Nova Southeastern University SAKHRAT KHIZROEV, Florida Internatitonal University DAVID C. LARBALESTIER, Florida State University C. DOUGLAS LETSON, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer & Research Institute GUIFANG LI, University of Central Florida STEPHEN B. LIGGETT, University of South Florida ALAN F. LIST, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer & Research Institute DEAN F. MARTIN, University of South Florida THOMAS O. MENSAH, Florida State University SHYAM MOHAPATRA, University of South Florida BRIJ M. MOUDGIL, University of Florida INNOVATION CAN BE DIFFICULT DAVID P. NORTON, University of Florida TO CREATE and more difficult to VICTOR L. POIRIER, University of South Florida sustain. For the past 6 years, the ANN PROGULSKE-FOX, University of Florida ALAIN T. RAPPAPORT, Institute for Human & Machine National Academy of Inventors Cognition has sustained and grown as an PAUL R. SANBERG, University of South Florida organization that recognizes and W. GREGORY SAWYER, University of Florida encourages invention. ANDREW V. SCHALLY, University of Miami SUDIPTA SEAL, University of Central Florida SAID M. SEBTI, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer & Research CONGRATULATIONS TO THE NAI FOR 6 YEARS Institute OF GROWTH and to these Florida inventors MARWAN A. SIMAAN, University of Central Florida FRANKY SO, University of Florida honored to be called NAI Fellows. M. J. SOILEAU, University of Central Florida NAN-YAO SU, University of Florida HERBERT WEISSBACH, Florida Atlantic University proud to SHIN-TSON WU, University of Central Florida partner JAMES J. WYNNE, University of South Florida with the JANET K. YAMAMOTO, University of Florida JIANPING (JIM) P. ZHENG, Florida State University