CMONOSTVREUCMTIEVINSMTAN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ART AND POLITICS DURING THE CONSTRUCTIVISM MOVEMENT
Jemima Holly Amelia Morgan BA (Hons) Graphic Design Nottingham Trent University February 2022 OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DURING THE CONSTRUCTIVISM MOVEMENT ANALYSISART AND POLITICSAN 3
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List of Figures Declaration Acknowledgements. Introduction Conclusion References 5
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Malevich, K. (1913). Black Square. Malevich, K. (1915). Eight Red Rectangles. Tatlin, V. (1914). Corner Counter Relief. Tatlin, V. (1920). Model of the Monument to the Third International. Mayakovsky, V. (1920). \"ROSTA\" Window. Lissitzky, E. (1919). Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge. Rodchenko, A. (1922). Design for Working Clothes. Rodchenko, A. (1923). Alexander Rodchenko in Working Clothes. Stepanova, V. (1920). Design for a Sports Costume. Popova, L. (1923). Fabric Design. Rodchenko, A. (1923). Dobrolet. Rodchenko (Drucker, 2009), A. (1923). State Tobacco Ads. Rodchenko, A. (1923). Advertisement for the Rubber Trust. 7
This submission is the result of my own work. All help and advice has been acknowledged and primary and secondary sources of information have been properly attributed. Should this statement prove to be untrue I recognise the right and duty of the Board of Examiners to recommend what action should be taken in line with the University's regulations on assessment contained in its Handbook. 8
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This dissertation aims to examine the relevant interactions between art and politics throughout the Russian Revolution, and its aftermath, in the years of 1917-1930, and how political unrest and pre- revolutionary culture led to the artistic movement that is known as Constructivism. Constructivism is identified as a movement that renounces the idea of art for art's sake and opts for the design of utilitarian products such as furniture and clothes, rejecting traditional art as an expression of the Bourgeoisie society. Prior to the establishment of this movement, new art forms had begun to emerge in the 1910s, inspired by experiments that were sought out as an escape from the political unrest following the attempted revolution in 1905. The first chapter will discuss artists such as Vladimir Tatlin and Kazimir Malevich and how through the application of non-objective art and Cubist inspired work, Malevich developed his own movement, Suprematism, in 1915. Through the artistic language used within this movement, the foundations for future Constructivism were laid. 12
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While the Constructivist style had naturally will be studied, before tackling the ideology developed from previous movements, the that the role of the artist had been reimagined Constructivist attitude arose from the radical as an engineer with tools and that art was demonstrations and armed uprising that to be intended for practical application and stemmed from World War One and the industrial production. Relevant art pieces publics’ rejection of autocracy in Russia. This that acted as an active agent in advancing rebellion prompted both the consolidation social and political goals during this period of Bolshevik power in 1917 and the Civil War will be investigated; involving work from in 1918. Artists such as Vladimir Mayakovsky Constructivists that pioneered the movement and Alexander Rodchenko reacted through such as Alexander Rodchenko and Liubov their work, believing that they had a wider Popova. The ways in which they applied public role, which enabled the revolutionary their work within textiles and graphics message to be spread among the Russian design to everyday life and examples of the population, playing a large part in the propaganda and advertisements will be formulation of Constructivist ideology and analysed and how they drove the revolution. the establishment of the Soviet Union. Overall, this essay will track and dissect how Within the second chapter, Constructivism Constructivist art and politics reinforced one and its importance regarding the revolution another during a time of great political unrest. 15
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This first chapter will cover the growing unrest during 1905-1917 Russia and the impact that the political instability had on the development of art and culture. The political instability that characterised Russia throughout the early 1900s resulted in political tension that would reach its climax in 1917 with the outbreak of revolution and public demand for social and political reform (Glisic, 2018). The new art styles and trends that emerged during the 1910-1917 period became a way for artists to reject the reality of the political turmoil that they were experiencing, leading to developments in pre- established movements such as Cubism and Futurism. The explosion of culture as a reaction to the political situation in Russia allowed for one of the most significant art movements of the 20th century to emerge: Constructivism. 18
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The devastating war between Russia and publications (Newth, 2002). From this, Japan that ended in 1905 had resulted in an Russian culture became more multifaceted attempted revolution against the autocracy in the years after 1910, where art and artistic of the Tsar. Many held the government life had been activated as a response to the responsible and reacted with strikes, pressure from the state for the need for more demonstrations and acts of political terrorism radical art, artists used art to escape from (Glisic, 2018). In response, adjustments \"the surveillance, censorship and restriction were published in the October Manifesto, of public activities\" (Glisic, 2018 p.21) that a document issued by Tsar Nicholas that were previously used to control them. promised significant political reform and Because of this, St. Petersburg and Moscow contained the easing of the 1866 censorship were considered the centre for the Avant- laws that restricted freedom of speech in Garde, a broad movement that encompassed 20
multiple art trends and styles throughout of multiple artists were presented including the years to come, such as Cubism/Futurism, that of Kazimir Malevich and Vladimir Tatlin Suprematism and Constructivism. This led who had become members of a group called to the emergence of a wider range of artists Union of Youth. Union of Youth emphasized that experimented with different directions its openness to new art directions and anti- for art, exploring new takes and viewpoints. traditional craft that did not represent Many were inspired by the artistic energy a specific movement. These exhibitions that stemmed from the daring exhibitions were shown in Moscow and St Petersburg organised by Mikhail Larionov, who was incorporating pre-established movements prominent among the Avant-Garde as a suchasCubism,aswellasbeginningnumerous painter and used exhibitions to confront the artistic trends, that left deep impressions on Russian public (Bakos, 1988 p.54). The works Russian artists and are still relevant today. 21
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The Cubism movement was influenced by what is known as non-objective art, defined as art that is non-representational and most often made up of geometric shapes and lines. This art renounces \"the evocation of the images of real objects\" (Wallis, 1960 p.62), which suggests that through their arrangement, they make up abstract compositions that simulate rather than represent an idea. This was popularised throughout the 1910s by abstract artists who began taking different steps in order to cross fully into non-objective art, one of them being Wassily Kandinsky. He was known as one of the pioneers of this style and developed a method to avoid materialistic representation while still communicating to an audience, using shape, colour and line (Washton, 1975 p.217). Another example is Kazimir Malevich, who adapted from his Cubo-futurist style to geometric painting, creating famous art pieces such as Black Square (fig. 1.0) in 1913 which intended to abandon depicting reality and instead focus on using shapes and forms to create something that did not mean anything. It represented the birth of his new movement and became a figurehead of what in 1915, Malevich named as 'Suprematism' in reference to \"the supremacy of pure feeling in creative art\" (Eskilson, 2007 p.184). His art became purely artistic expression with no associations to the lived-in world, opposed to imitations of nature as well as art with utility. Kazimir Malevich believed that through liberation from the object, art could achieve freedom from its own history (Stupples 2001), suggesting that the realism behind certain art pieces prevents the viewer from being able to experience the feeling in which the art was meant to evoke. These abstract elements are also shown in Malevich's piece, Eight Red Rectangles (fig. 1.1) in 1915. The uneven spacing between the eight red rectangles and slight tilt of the various sized shapes elicits an uncomfortable feeling from the viewer which reinforces Malevich's intention of pure emotion being the objective of all art. The reduction of art down to its smallest elements allows the viewer to come up with their own concept and meaning anwd fully immerse themselves in a piece of work. This is shown from the ambiguity in the composition, which allows the outcome to be read in a variety of ways depending on who is viewing the piece. While it was not Malevich's intention for his work to mean anything, the shapes stimulate an image in the viewer's head, allowing them to come up with their own meaning which makes each art piece unique to the viewer. The visual language of Suprematism -\"hard- edged lines and flat shapes of primary colour\" (Cramsie, 2010 p.185) - was very much an inspiration for Constructivist's paintings and posters which is evident visually in the harsh, direct lines and bold shapes that were used to advertise and to convey messages. 23
Another example that developed from Communist Parties that Cubism and Futurism is the work of Vladimir promoted the spread of Tatlin. Instead of his usual representational revolution and while the and figurative paintings, Tatlin opted for a tower was never made, multitude of materials that were recycled his plan for this building from his environment such as wood, iron and demonstrated how the cardboard as an alternative to colour, as, unlike principles that were Malevich, he was unopposed imitating nature. developed in the creation Using these mediums, he created floating of his Counter-Reliefs compositions which he labelled as 'counter- could be transferred to reliefs'. Each relief would have different the revolutionary cause forms and expressions as he engaged with (Eskilson, 2007). The the different materials, using their different objective behind Tatlin's characters, shapes and sizes to evoke a response Monument to the Third from the viewer. One of Tatlin's more important International confirms counter-reliefs is a Corner Counter-Relief a clear link between art (fig. 1.2), which consisted of planes of metal and politics during the hovering in mid-air, held in place by wire and late 1910s, which fitted cord-rigging. He believed that the placements with the description of these materials created their significance of Constructivism as and meaning, shown in how the mediums \"the uniting of purely assembled in his 1914 Corner Counter-Relief artistic forms with to create an abstract three-dimensional utilitarian intentions\" collage of a seafaring (Lynton, 2009 p.49). (Stupples 1981 p.68), Tatlin is remembered most for his design of emphasising that for the Monument to the Third International art to be considered (fig. 1.3) (1919-1920), which was what he utilitarian it meant planned to be the Communist International putting it in a political headquarters. The Communist International context to advocate for was an organisation that consisted of multiple world-wide revolution. 24
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As World War 1 progressed, the mobilisation of manpower, industries, and transportation, such as many peasant farmers being enlisted into the army, meant that there was a disruption in the production and distribution of food, which resulted in food shortages and overall war fatigue among the peasant population of agricultural Russia (Freeze, 1997). The proletariat - the economic and social class of Russia that consists mainly of industrial workers and peasants; considered one of the crucial driving forces in the February Revolution - began radical demonstrations against autocracy and the capitalist bourgeoisie which would start the revolt on the 23rd February 1917. In an attempt to restabilise Russia, a Provisional Government was established with the intent to continue the war and honour their alliances. The February Revolution also brought with it an easing of many restrictions, including an end to censorship in April 1917 (Newth, 2002). Many artists began to develop an appetite for artistic reform and innovation that would ally itself with the social, economic and political goals of the revolution. 27
In order to capitalise on the political turmoil in Russia and advance Bolshevism, by April 3 , 1917, Vladimir Lenin's return from exile in Europe had been arranged. Lenin was a Communist Revolutionary, who upon his arrival promised \"peace, bread, land\" (Freeze, 1997 p.241) in order to appeal to those within the Russian public that were tired of war and its consequences. He demanded for the elimination of dual power with the aim to transfer \"all power to the soviets\" (Freeze, 1997 p.241). Additionally, the unrest stemming from the disruption among the Russian public that included strikes and soldiers deserting was seen by some as the end to civil order. These developmental stages in the revolution subsequently led to the pivotal date of 25th October later that year. The uprising led by the Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party against the Provisional Government, allowed the Bolsheviks to consolidate their control and work towards the establishment of a new regime. The call for peace with Germany at any price ended with the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk on March 3 , 1918, as Bolsheviks were willing to make large territorial concessions in order to align themselves with their promise of peace. However, by this point, Russia was now bankrupt and in industrial ruin with banks and church property being seized, as well as the nationalisation of almost everything. Anti- Bolshevik forces that were attempting to displace new policies resulted in Russia's descent into civil war. Western powers and Japan collaborated with Russian Tsarists, Nationalists and Liberals to create the White Army who aimed to end the Bolshevik regime. 28
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From 1917, following the introduction of communism, artists and their art were given a social role whereby their energies were turned to transforming Russia into \"an international beacon in the political, economic and cultural spheres\" (Story, 2019 p.33) which, providing the cultural practices were in support of the revolution, allowed any form of art to be used as a political tool. The Bolsheviks used state-sponsored mass media to spread communist ideology around the world. Topics such as the October Revolution and the Civil War were explained through visual art, architecture and theatre speading the message to the largely illiterate population of Russia. This not only involved Monumental Propaganda - the replacements of Tsarist monuments with sculptures of their own leaders - but also the establishment of 'Agitation-Propaganda', shortened to AgitProp. These posters were essential mediums of communication that intended to instil specific ideologies within the minds of the masses, as a means to hold on to power during the turmoil of the Civil War. The posters were filled with slogans and half-truths in an effort to \"exploit the emotions of the uneducated\" (Cramsie, 2010 p.172) as the support from the Red Army that kept the Bolsheviks in power relied heavily on their ability to appear in control and their political acuity. 31
From 1918-1922, over 3,500 of them were published by the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA) to be placed in vacant windows (Cramsie, 2010 p.172). While this began in Moscow, other major Russian cities followed their example and later exhibited them in other public locations, including clubs and railroad stations. The young revolutionary poet Vladimir Mayakovsky produced nearly all the text for these notices; most of them containing colloquial speech of the working- class, intertwining slang and puns (Cramsie, 2010 p.173). This is exemplified in his poster (fig. 1.4) that bared the title \"Do You Want To Join Up?\" which acted as a direct question to the public. This was followed by four questions: \"1. Do you want to conquer cold?\", \"2. Do you want to conquer hunger?\", \"3. Do you want to eat?\" and \"4. Do you want to drink?\". The message was then summarised below in a demanding tone to \"Hurry up and join the strike team of exemplary labour\" (Cramsie, 2010 p.173). The blunt use of language is used purposefully to converse directly to the proletariat making the message come across as familial, using the second person pronoun 'you' to ask a rhetorical question that will make the viewer think and be inclined to respond. This allowed the Bolsheviks to appear empathetic and understanding of the public desires in an attempt to maintain a bond with them and uphold their support. This is evident when Mayakovsky wrote in 1928 that the posters meant that the men of the Red Army were \"going to fight not with a prayer but a slogan on their lips\" (Deak, 1973 p.48). While these posters featured multiple aspects of different movements, such as Futurism, Cubism and Suprematism, a new art form that used the pictorial designs of simple, brightly coloured images had begun to feature in the revolutionary propaganda, one that took influences from previous movements, called Constructivism. 32
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The Red Army emerged victorious from the Civil War in 1920 which subsequently led to the Constructivist's designs promoting peace-time reconstruction where Constructivists were these years. This suggests that the direct encouraged to prioritise functional objects over link that art and politics had throughout the decorative paintings (Walworth, 2017 p.17). This revolution was affecting the spirituality one led to a deep ideological split concerning the role feels when creating an art piece and therefore oftheartistwithintherevolution.Sovietofficials the individual's emotional connection to each had criticized the avant-garde style, describing outcome, seen by Malevich as the most essential it as \"impractical experiments in abstract form aspect of creative art. To combat this opinion, and metaphysical speculations\" (Eskilson, 2007 in 1921, a group of twenty-five artists led by p.184). In reaction to this, certain creators, such Vladimir Tatlin and Alexander Rodchenko as Malevich and Kandinsky argued that they actively renounced the idea of 'art for art's sake' wanted art to \"remain an essentially spiritual aligning themselves fully with the Bolshevik activity apart from the utilitarian needs of cause by devoting themselves to industrial society\" (Meggs, 2016 p.319). This desire is design, calling on artists to \"stop producing further indicated through Malevich's belief useless things such as painting and turn to that reductive geometric abstraction could poster\" (Meggs, 2016 p.319), believing that art convey powerful emotions even when baring had a duty to serve the new communist society. no representational relationship to the natural This approach intended to unify the population world (Eskilson, 2007 p.184), this principle and rebuild Russia from the parlous state it was contradicts the political connotations that left, due to the collapse of the economy under art was consistently associated with during the impact of war, revolution, and civil war. 35
There was also a continuous threat of famine in urban areas that was a result of War Communism, which was the term used for the temporary economic system required by wartime circumstances from 1918-1921. At its core was the forced nationalisation of industry and grain requisition from the peasants' food surpluses to provide for urban workers and soldiers of the Red Army during the Civil War; this was unpopular with the peasants which made up the majority of the population and led to strikes where there was \"refusal to sow more land than what was necessary to feed his own family\" (Carr, 1952, p.150). To encourage economic recovery following the end of War Communism, Lenin introduced his New Economic Policy (NEP). The NEP was contentious as it introduced capitalism within a socialist setting in a bid to rapidly stimulate economic growth. This policy lasted from 1921-1928, encompassing the revival of economic activity, with the introduction of a mixed economy, instigated by the reprivatisation of small-scale trade and commerce. The NEP heavily impacted artistic life as the newly established private enterprises were a threat to the achievements of the revolution as they opted for messages that adopted \"the old traditionalist cultural mentality\" (Glisic, 2018, p.91). Those who viewed the NEP era as a crucial stage within the revolution, took it upon themselves to form a new organisation named Left Front of the Arts (LEF), providing a platform for progressive writers and artists. Constructivists within the group brought attention to \"the production of objects [and] the organisation of spaces\" (Glisic, 2018 p.92). These artistic practices promoted communism and shielded the Soviet body against the influence of competing ideologies. The private publishers persisted to create competition for state-owned publishing companies with their counter-revolutionary messages leading to an increase in the need for Constructivist and Futurist art. This forced them to prove their art as useful in ways beyond propaganda images, and they explored different forms of art including textiles, theatre, and industrial design, jumpstarting the transition to Constructivist 'engineering' and utilitarian projects. 36
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To summarise, the political instability throughout Russia from 1905 until 1917 led to the development of multiple artistic movements as restrictions were eased and artists were now able to experiment with new directions and styles. As political pressure continued throughout World War One, the duties of art changed, some considering it a “teacher of life” (Bakos, 1988 p.61) and the role of the artist had been reimagined as an engineer. No longer was art expected to be kept within the four walls of a museum but was created with the intention to inspire and mirror social change among the Russian population. Through the experimentation of styles and meaning Futurism and Cubism stimulated the birth of Malevich’s Suprematism. With the added engagement in agitational expression, Constructivism developed, and revolutionary themes became visible across all types of art from fine art to literature to theatre. 38
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This chapter will explore how the Revolution in 1917 and the result of the subsequent Civil War led Constructivists to test and alter their previous design styles to fit into a movement that is still around in the 21st century. Examples of methods taken from 1917 to 1930 as a means for artists to fully align themselves with the Bolshevik cause following the war will be discussed, and work from the likes of Alexander Rodchenko and Varvara Stepanova will be explained and explored. The chapter will cover other well- known artists of this movement, such as Liubov Popova and El Lissitzky and how the work they created, that applied art to everyday 42
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A brochure Konstructivizm by Alksei Gan in 1922 was an early attempt at formulating Constructivist ideology; writing “WE DECLARE UNCOMPROMISING WAR ON ART” which reflected the Constructivist philosophy that art had no means beyond practical applications and industrial production. This is also emphasised by Rodchenko who “came to the conclusion that in order to truly serve the revolution it was necessary to end his career as a painter and sculptor” (Eskilson, 2012 p.195) and opted for graphics and photojournalism as it allowed him to “play a part in the reorganisation of everyday life and public spaces” (Tupitsyn, 2009 p.13). However, Meggs states that “the Constructivist ideal was best realised by [...] El Lissitzky” (Meggs, 2016 p.319) as through his work he influenced the course of graphic design and therefore Constructivism, adapting the design language of Suprematism into political symbolism that was understood world-wide. He believed that “pictures were universally comprehensible by humans” (Milner, 1979 p.276) which is illustrated in the style of art throughout the Civil War that intended to educate and encourage the Russian population by using simplistic and bold pictorial designs in order to combat illiteracy in the country. 45
Lissitzky was behind one of the more famous posters that bridged the gap from Suprematism to Constructivism called Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge (1919) (fig 1.5). This is a two-coloured lithograph, which clearly demonstrates a sharp and intrusive red wedge piercing a soft circular form, representing the Communist Red Army’s triumph against the counter-revolutionary forces of the White Army. While it appears two-dimensional at first, elements of texture created through mark making, and occasional three-dimensional shading enhances the experience for the viewer, as it provides a component of reality. This piece of art is an excellent example of how Constructivism stemmed from Suprematism; leaving behind the idea of non- representational art to a new system where the art was no longer ambiguous but told a story that was intended to be understood by everyone. The style employs Suprematist principles and visual language while also sticking to Constructivist ideology by serving the revolution as propaganda. This was not the first time that the two movements were woven together. Over time the fine art approach to Suprematism was supressed in their art, while the aesthetic formulations of Kazimir Malevich’s movement stayed present, arriving at the stage where the two movements were very much intertwined. El Lissitzky viewed the Russian Revolution as a new beginning, believing that by the artist constructing a new world of objects, art and technology would unite and provide the world with a richer society and environment (Meggs, 2016 p.320). He referred to himself as a ‘constructor’ as eventually branched into a different field of art in an attempt to add to everyday communal living. His new direction that developed primarily in the period from the end of 1920 to 1922 was described as “the path from representation to construction [and] the transition from painting to architecture” (Bakos, 1988 p.64). 46
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In an attempt to rebuild Russia after the Civil War and to take art out of the studio into everyday life, the formation of the First Working Group of Constructivists occurred in 1921, where a group of “laboratory” artists had come together at the Institute of Artistic Culture (INKHUK). It consisted of the likes of El Lissitzky, Alexander Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova and Luibov Popova and together they began “working on the production of everyday objects like clothing, textiles and dishes” (Bakos, 1988 p.65). They focused on the design of these objects particularly as they could be mass produced with little material waste, due to postrevolutionary shortages. Clothing in particular was an important genre within utilitarian design, necessary to provide features that would fit the proletarian life. This is stressed by Stepanova, saying, “there is no one single type of clothing, but rather specific clothing for a specific productional function”. This is illustrated by the overalls designed by Rodchenko, which had pockets large enough to fit objects such as tools in, with the ability to easily take them in and out, this is shown in both the sketched-out design for working clothes in fig.1.6 and the real-life application in fig.1.7. This highlights the notion that clothes serve a particular function and that there is no universal dress (Adaskina, 1987 p.147). Additionally, this is demonstrated by Stepanova’s specialised clothing design for workers such as surgeons, firemen and pilots. Below is an example of her design for sports clothing (fig 1.8), which reflects and imitates the Constructivist visual language through the use of geometric forms, colour contrasts, and sharp rhythms. This design language is also present in Popova’s fabric samples from 1923- 4 (fig 1.9), where the repeat pattern of objects reflecting the revolution’s ideals showed clear associations to Constructivism, through the colour combinations, rhythm and compositional methods. The symbolic form of the hammer and sickle used “symbolised the unity of worker and peasant” (Lodder, 2010), and reinforced the communist message. Constructivist ideology also resurfaced in the form of rejecting ‘art for art’s sake’, as the textiles were not created for their interest or pure decoration, but rather as a “something inseparable for the shape of the garment and the wearer’s lifestyle” (Adaskina, 1987 p.150). Varvara Stepanova and Liubov Popova achieved the most within this field, successfully creating materials at a rate of mass production, as they believed that the development of art relied heavily on the mechanised nature of the modern industry. 49
Following the implementation of the contentious New Economic Policy in 1921, Alexander Rodchenko asserted himself in the new opening for advertising and worked on several publicity campaigns in the years following, in a continued attempt for his art to reflect the modern industrial world. An example of his designs for state-funded companies – who were now facing competition from the private sector – is the corporate identity for Dobrolet, an Airline (fig. 2.0). For this project he created multiple posters that focused on a lithographic image of a plane using design techniques to give the illustration dynamic energy, in this specific instance, the angle of the plane created this effect. Solely utilising the colour red is symbolic as it was the colour of the Communist Revolution, as for many years it has been used as a symbol of the working class (Sharma, 2021) and furthermore is heavily associated with left-wing politics and still acts as that in the 21st century. Each design included bold text that would contain slogans to guilt the viewer into investing in the airline, eliciting a sense of duty from them. In this case, the first text that the audiences’ eyes are drawn to is the thrice repeated word of “Everyone... Everyone... Everyone...”, which adds a demanding tone, enticing the viewer to read more as they feel that it is targeted to them personally. It then proceeds to express that if you are not a shareholder of Dobrolet, you are not considered a citizen of the USSR, which is a blunt message that encourages consumption to support the state and therefore the revolution. 50
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