How to Win Every Argument ( PDFDrive )

The analogical fallacy As our culture ripens, it is only na put out seeds to reproduce itself (An argument for colonialism wh The fact is that civilizations are analogical trap, you will soon be from the soil, and perhaps even Hume, in his Dialogues Conc earnest Cleanthes compare the ism, like a watch. And, just as w necessary existence of a watchm But the sceptical Philo kills the a that the universe seems to him The analogical fallacy is dev against the person who first pr uses analogies of sorts; all you ha by an opponent and continue it own line of argument. With luc into the admission that his own a and will lose points with the aud 'As we sail forth on our new comm can all pull together for a smooth 'The chairman is right. But reme chains and whipped. And if the s You will go far in any organiz Family life evokes a pleasant glo you in practice to argue for alm pocket money to the members supperless to bed.

13 atural that it should, like any organism, in distant places. hich should be nipped in the bud.) not flowers. If you fall into the e having them drawing strength n exhibiting their blooms in turn. cerning Natural Religion, has the universe to a delicate mechan- we can deduce from a watch the maker, so from the universe . . . argument at this point by saying much more like a cabbage. vastatingly effective when used roduced the analogy. Everyone ave to do is seize upon one used in a way more conducive to your ck, your opponent will be forced analogy was not a very good one dience. mittee, may I express the hope that we h voyage. ' ember that rowers were usually put in ship sank, they went down with it. ' zation by likening it to a family. ow, and the analogy will enable most anything, including giving s and sending the naughty ones

14 Antiquitam, argumentant ad Students of political philosophy re antiquitam the central core of the Put at its simplest, it is the fallacy good or right simply because it is This is the way it's always been to do it. (It brought poverty and misery be There is nothing in the age of alone makes it right. At its simple which economizes on thought. It are done, with no need for difficu elevated, it is a philosophy. Previ and they survived; so will we. The continuity and our contemplation While the age of a belief atte attest to its truth. To equate olde the territory of the fallacy. After a replacing the older with the bette a particular way, or hold particular This does not make it right, any m You are not having a car. I nev and nor did his father before h (Which is probably why none of th The Conservative Party is the ho raised it and by golly they are go must be the right ones. Patriotism - you name it. If it's old, it must

How to Win Every Argument d ecognize in the argumentum ad e arguments of Edmund Burke. of supposing that something is s old. n done, and this is the way we'll continue efore, and it will do so again...) a belief or an assertion which est, the ad antiquitam is a habit shows the way in which things ult decision-making. At its most ious generations did it this way e fallacy is embellished by talk of n of the familiar. ests to experience, it does not er with better is to venture into all, human progress is made by er. Sometimes men do things in r beliefs, for thousands of years. more than it makes it wrong. ver had a car, my father never had one, him. hem got anywhere.) ome of the ad antiquitam. They oing to keep it. The old values m, national greatness, discipline be good.

Apriorism The commercial world is sen fallacy, and modifies its actions called Woodbine, with a large m becoming dated, but did not preference for the traditional. A Astounding feared that its name hold back its development. In bo to effect gradual change, with t the magazine name both cha weeks. Astounding made it into A have disappeared without trace. more conservative than science- Skilful use of the ad antiquita of China. The reason is simple. C for so long, and has covered so almost everything has been trie knowledge will enable you to advocating has a respectable ant and there it brought peace, tranq centuries. We make our furniture in the be (And it's every bit as uncomfortab Apriorism Normally we allow facts to be the see what the facts are, we can re start out with principles from the as the basis for accepting or reje way round. It is to commit the f

15 nsitive to the prevalence of the s accordingly. A cigarette brand market share, feared its image was wish to shatter the instinctive A science fiction magazine called reflected an earlier era and might oth cases the decision was made the cigarette-packet design and anging imperceptibly over the Analog, but Woodbines seem to . Perhaps cigarette customers are -fiction readers? am requires a detailed knowledge Chinese civilization has gone on o many different provinces, that ed at one time or another. Your point out that what you are tiquity in the Shin Shan province, quillity of mind and fulfilment for est way; the old way. ble as it always was.) e test of our principles. When we etain or modify our principles. To e first (a priori) and to use them ecting facts is to do it the wrong fallacy of apriorism.

16 We don't need to look through there cannot be more than se (This was a short-sighted view.) The relationship between facts one. We need some kind of princip itself as a fact in the first place. Th much primacy to principles, and modified by what we observe. I sumption in favour of a theory uns therefore rejects evidence relevan All doctors are in it for themselv for no payment, then all I can s hidden gain we don't know ab (In addition to the less well-hidden Aprioristic reasoning is widely have very little to do with reality a brush which sweeps untidy facts tion. It is a necessary household a to keep their mental rooms clean Engraved on the handle, and on legend: 'My mind's made up. Do Many of us might be unimpres which the claim was made that re and lack of recovery was proof th might point out that the facts we medicine, whichever way they tu cisely the same claim is made for poorer countries. If there is develo there is no development, that sh Heads they win, tails logic loses.

How to Win Every Argument h your telescope, Mr Galileo. We know tha even heavenly bodies. s and principles is a complicated ple, otherwise nothing presents he fallacy consists of giving too d in not permitting them to be It makes an unwarranted pre- supported by the evidence, and nt to the case. ves. If yours really did give up all that time say is that there must have been some bout. n fallacy we do know about.) y used by those whose beliefs anyway. The fallacy is the short s under a carpet of preconcep- appliance for those determined n of the dust of the real world. n the mind of the user, is the on't confuse me with facts.' ssed with a patent medicine for recovery proved that it worked, hat more of it were needed. We were being used to support the urned out. Yet every day pre- r overseas development aid to opment, that shows it works. If hows we must give more of it.

Baculum, argumentum ad The fallacy of aphorism can conceived judgement against th support is caught cheating in e mising position with an intern, situations. They steel him and candidate for office. For anyone qualify them from office. Since there are no cats in Tibet, t the tail of a cat, the fur of a cat a Tibetan dogs are pretty good act (Not only that, they also catch m It is generally unproductive, w the facts out of hand as untrue. Af been there to witness them. You preting those facts, showing how t Far from contradicting your conte / still maintain that the books I re ones. Of course I don't deny that entire library; but I take that as a a book is really popular, people don't wait to borrow it from a lib (At least the fallacy is popular.) Baculum, argumentum ad When reason fails you, appeal to baculum introduces force as a me resorted to by those who would

17 also be used to support a pre- he evidence. If a politician we examinations, or in a compro- these are character-improving test him, making him a fitter else, of course, they would dis- this animal here, with the ears of a cat, and the whiskers of a cat, shows that tors. mice and drink milk from a saucer.) when using apriorism, to dismiss fter all, your audience might have u will go much further by reinter- they were not what they seemed. ention, they really support it. ecommended were the most popular they were the least read ones in the a sign of their popularity. You see, when buy it or borrow it from friends; they brary. to the rod. The argumentum ad eans of persuasion, and is often d lose the argument without it.

18 It would be better if you told us w wouldn't want your aged mother o we? (Probably yes.) The threatened force does not ical violence. The argumentum a ever unpleasant consequences are with the speaker's wishes. ('If yo the new missile, I regret I will b graphs to the newspapers.') The fallacy of the argumentu duction of irrelevant material into ing, it leaves the argument beh means of persuasion. While fo sometimes in directing courteou wishes, its use represents the b reason. The ad baculum, alas, perform national relations. Powerful count way by reasoned discussion are n baculum to influence the talks. If something a little larger. Joseph Stalin was a master o made it his own to such an exten in a line of Krushchev which sum says \"dance!\" a wise man dances. taken the view that anyone with business being involved in inte question, 'How many divisions has a suggestion that the Pope shou conference. As Stalin's enemies not a very effective counter to an

How to Win Every Argument what we want to know. After all, we or your crippled sister to suffer, would have to take the form of phys- ad baculum is committed when- e promised for failing to comply ou do not bring us the plans of be forced to send these photo- um ad baculum lies in its intro- o the argument. Strictly speak- hind, moving on to force as a orce is undoubtedly effective ous attention to the speaker's breakdown and subversion of ms on the public stage of inter- tries which fail to get their own not averse to tossing over an ad f even this fails, they toss over of the ad baculum. Indeed, he nt that his name is immortalized ms up its potency: 'When Stalin .' Stalin himself appears to have hout force to threaten had no ernational affairs. His famous s the Pope?', was in response to uld take part in an international often discovered, argument is n ad baculum.

Bifurcation Political parties founded on an frequently accuse their rivals of baculum diplomacy. Sir William B epigram on the subject: The King to Oxford sent a troo For Tories own no argument With equal skill to Cambridge For Whigs admit no force but (It would be a close thing today to to find a Tory at Oxford than a lit You can use the ad baculum deploy and can escape the conse there to prevent arguments alwa and the many broken bones it w was he. But your threats need no effective. Many a speaker has ga make an intolerable nuisance of met. The Romans probably dest Cato. Bifurcation The presentation of only two alt called the fallacy of bifurcation. S and white' fallacy, it presents a reality there is a range of options If you are not with us, you are

19 n idealized view of human nature too frequently resorting to ad Browne delivered a well-wrought op of horse, but force: e books he sent, t argument. o decide whether it would be harder terate man at Cambridge.) m when you have the force to equences of using it. The law is ays being won by the stronger, would take to determine which ot be strong physical ones to be ained his way by threatening to himself until his demands were troyed Carthage just to shut up ternatives where others exist is Sometimes known as the 'black an 'either/or' situation when in s. e against us.

20 (Some people might think you par on some things, against you on ot not care enough to have an opini Some situations in life have in straightforward choice. There a between light and dark, but not boy and a girl. The fallacy of bif limited choice of the second clas covered by the first. There are two types of people in t you want to get rich, or are you ha (In fact there are degrees of richne dom. You can be rich by compari alongside others. Suckers, too, se The mistake is made by the de the field, the perpetrator is leavin which could well influence the o caused not by the intrusion of exclusion of relevant items. Bifurcation is used to limit employ it to squeeze out smaller valid options. Fanatics, for and ag in between who cannot be bothe people into one category or ano vast range of individual opinions One of the more irritating us occurs in the collection of sta research polls, along with offic assigning people into broad ca requested with the answer ' y e s

How to Win Every Argument artly right. Others might be with you thers. The vast majority probably do ion at all.) nfinite gradations; others offer a are many intermediate shades all that many things between a furcation consists in taking the ss into situations more properly this world: the rich and the suckers. Do appy to remain a sucker? ess, as there probably are of sucker- ison with some, but poor when set eem spread across a continuum.) enial of extra choices. In limiting ng out of the discussion material outcome. The fallacy this time is irrelevant material, but by the choice. Large political parties r ones by denying that they are gainst, use it to flail the vast mass ered. Ideologues use it to classify other, rather than admit to the s. ses of the fallacy of bifurcation atistical information. Marketing cial forms, can only work by ategories. Information is often s ' o r ' n o ' when the individual

Bifurcation concerned knows that neither is pose hypothetical situations a human ingenuity. Bifurcation often occurs in a dilemma itself is a sound form of If we import goods we send ou our property abroad. Since w either our jobs or our property (But it is not a black-and-white ch export others.) Lord Nelson uttered the famous c Westminster Abbey or victory! (Overlooking the possibility that h St Paul's, where he ended up.) The greatest use you can ma choice limited to something very are advocating. Either the audienc will be the end of all life on earth Either we paint the door gree People will think we have no t stock of the whole neighbourh trying to influence your decisio You must learn to introduce wha possible choice by saying: 'Well, we have two possible choices...'

21 correct. Personality tests which always grossly underestimate a dilemma, even though the argument. ur jobs abroad; if we export goods we send we must either export or import, we lose y. hoice. We can import some things, cry: ! he might get both; or the option of ake of bifurcation is to offer a y unpleasant or the course you ce does what you suggest, or it h as we know it. en, or we will be mocked and ridiculed. taste at all, and we'll become the laughing hood. I leave the choice up to you; I'm not on one way or the other. at you consider to be the only ladies and gentlemen, it seems '

22 Blinding with science Science enjoys an enormous pre things right. In the popular ima in his white coat is a fount of rea opinion. The fact that he is u Frankenstein monsters scarcely pronouncements. Many people views with the authority of the scientific jargon in an attempt to something they are not. The fallacy of blinding with technical jargon to deceive the utterances of a scientific natu objective experimental evidence The amotivational syndrome where achievement orientati tional and social milieu. (Which means roughly that peo unless they want to get on. Now are daunted from challenging expert view.) The white coat of technical ja having been tainted by any real audience to the true merits of evaluating contentions on the b for and against them, the audie the jargon. The fallacy is com material has no place in the arg to prejudice a case emotionally, try to induce an unearned

How to Win Every Argument estige because it has got so many agination, the dedicated scientist al knowledge as opposed to mere using that knowledge to make y diminishes the respect for his e, anxious to invest their own scientist, don the white coat of o pass off their own assertions as science specializes in the use of e audience into supposing that ure are being made, and that e supports them. is sustained by peer group pressure except ion forms a dominant aspect of the educa ople don't work if their friends don't, w this may be true or false, but many what is dressed up to look like an argon is so dazzlingly clean (never l scientific work) that it blinds the f what is being said. Instead of basis of the evidence marshalled ence recoils from the brilliance of mmitted because this irrelevant gument, just as loaded words try so does pseudo-scientific jargon respect for what is said. The

Blinding with science proposition is the same, whate language to make its acceptance Although blinding with scienc many will recognize the specia subjects which like to consider t not. Science deals with things where individual differences do n 'all' rolling bodies or whatever, test by experiment. The troubl unlike rolling bodies, the individu again unlike rolling bodies, the Although this might prevent u human beings, it does not stop u do here is to add the word 'scie 'economic science', 'political sci we dress them in that white coat that no one will notice the differ The transportation^ flow cha meridian peak reveal a pattern units in cluster formations sur (You could spend years formulat even be in the running for a No mention that people are coming followed by a movie or a show.. The first rule for using this fall words. ('When the pie was op sing.') Never use a four-letter wo a 24-letter word to take its plac master, but a subscription to Ne Remember that the basic functio munication. Their real task is to

23 ever the language; and use of e easier is fallacious. ce can be used in any argument, al domain of this fallacy as the themselves as sciences, but are from atoms to stars at a level not matter. The scientist talks of and formulates general laws to le with human beings is that, ual differences do matter. Often, ey want to do different things. us from being scientific about us pretending to be so. What we ence' onto the study, giving us ence' and 'social science'. Then of scientific language, and hope rence. arts for the period following the post- n of décantation of concentrated passenger rrounding the central area. ting laws to predict this, and might obel prize. Just remember never to g into town to have a bite to eat, ..) lacy is to remember to use long pened, the birds commenced to ord, especially if you can think of ce. The jargon itself is harder to ew Society is a good investment. on of words is to prevent com- transform what is banal, trivial

24 and easily refuted into something to deny. The small, domesticated carni sedentary mode in superior re woven horizontal surface fabr (With its saucer of milk beside it.) The fallacy of blinding with sci trouble required to master it. Th you not only with a doctorate in t ability to deceive an audience u know what you are talking about The bogus dilemma Quite apart from the casual use of choice, the dilemma is also the na a dilemma, we are told the conse and told that since we must tak accept one of the consequences who was contemplating a career Don't do it. If you tell the trut gods will hate you. Since you must be hated either by men o The dilemma is a valid form of described are true, and if there re them, then one or other of the c often, however, the information choice is not as limited as is m

How to Win Every Argument g profound, impressive and hard ivorous quadruped positioned itself in elationship to the coarse-textured rush- ric. ) ience is well worth the time and he years of work at it will repay the social sciences, but with the utterly into believing that you t. of the term to describe a difficult ame of an intricate argument. In equences of alternative actions, ke one of the actions, we must s. A Creek mother told her son r in politics: th men will hate you, and if you tell lies the must either tell the truth or tell lies, you or by the gods. argument. If the consequences eally is a straight choice between consequences must follow. Very n given is incorrect, and the made out. In these cases the

The bogus dilemma dilemma is bogus. The bogus dil mistakenly presenting a dilemma In the above example, the son can claim that the dilemma is b sequences follow - this is called horns'. He can simply deny that truth: on the contrary, he might for it. The alternative statements the 'conjuncts', and it is enough to label the dilemma as bogus show that the choice is false. Th horns', and consists of showing Instead of limiting himself to truth some times, deceitful at others which contain elements of bo dilemma is shown to be bogus if 'disjunct', is not an exhaustive on dilemma is to rebut it. This is requires an equally ferocious be same elements as the original opposite direction to meet it hea youth replied: / shall do it, mother. For if I tell li truth the gods will love me. Since beloved of men or gods. (This is so pretty that when one urge to throw money into the rin Protagoras, who taught law a poor student by agreeing to waiv his first case. As time went by, and

25 lemma is the fallacy of falsely or a where none exists. n has several possible replies. He bogus by denying that the con- d 'grasping the dilemma by the men will hate him if he tells the t claim, they would respect him s about consequences are called to show that one or both is false s. As another option, he might his is called 'going between the that other choices are possible. th or lies, he might be truthful at s. He might make statements oth truth and falsehood. The f the choice, which is called the ne. A third way of dealing with a s an elegant technique which east to be fabricated out of the one, but sent charging in the ad-on. In the above example, the ies, men will love me for it; and if I tell e I must tell truth or lies, I shall be sees it done in debate, there is an ng.) among other things, dealt with a ve the fee until the man had won nd there was no sign of the youth

26 taking on a case, Protagoras su simple: If the court decides for me, it says wins his first case and must therefo or for him, I must receive my mon The youth had been a good stu the following defence: On the contrary. If the court decid decides for Protagoras, then I still not pay. Since it must decide for me (The judge had a nervous breakd finitely. He thereby proved the dis the horns of both dilemmas.) The fallacy in the bogus dilem consequences or a false choice, a in situations where decisions whi templated. Quickly you step in, things will happen, and that bad If we allow this hostel for problem either it will be empty or it will be waste of money; and if it is full it the area can cope with. Reluctantl (Cross your fingers and hope ther the committee.)

How to Win Every Argument ued him. The prosecution was he must pay. If it decides for him, he ore pay me. Since it must decide for me ney. udent, however, and presented des for me, it says I need not pay. If it have not won my first case, and need e or for him, either way I need not pay. down and adjourned the case inde- sjuncts false, and escaped between mma consists of presenting false and it will be of most use to you ich you oppose are being con- pointing out that one of two d results will follow either way: m teenagers to be set up in our area, full. If it is empty it will be a useless will bring in more trouble-makers than ly, therefore... re are no students of Protagoras on

Cireulus in probando Cireulus in probando Cireulus in probando is a specia the petitio principii. It consists of authenticated by the very con arguing in a circle. 7 didn't do it, sir. Smith mino 'Why should I trust Smith min 'Oh, I can guarantee his hones (Any teacher who falls for that on thumbs from two hypotheticals.) The cireulus is fallacious for t cousin, petitio. It fails to relate th known or accepted. All it gives chasing each other's tails that ne reality. We know about God from the because it is the inspired word (A circle in a spiral, a wheel withi As with the petitio, its close re building a cosy little nest in reli there really were convincing p ideologies, it would be much mo to disagree about them. In plac petitio and cireulus are often ca The same could even be said o our so-called scientific knowledg cireulus? When we perform s assuming that the rest of our kno

27 alized and very attractive form of f using as evidence a fact which is nclusion it supports. It is thus or will vouch for my honesty.' nor?' sty, sir. ' ne deserves to be suspended by his ) the same reason as is its larger he unknown or unaccepted to the s us is two unknowns so busy either has time to attach itself to e Bible; and we know we can trust the Bib d of Cod. hin a wheel.) elative, the cireulus is often found igious or political arguments. If proofs of particular religions or ore difficult for intelligent people ce of cast-iron demonstrations, alled upon to serve. of science. How do we know that ge is no more than one giant scientific experiments, we are owledge is good. All we are really

28 testing is whether the new theo sistent with the rest of our theori of them against some known ob theories about what our senses t ment. It all comes down to sayi sistent and useful look at the univ circulus. You will find it difficult, howeve in support of your own use of the for effective application in argum his big cousin, petitio. 7 have the diamond, so I shall be 'Why should you get to keep the d 'Because I'm the leader, stupid.' The more likely your conclusi reasons, the more likely are you support of it. When people are a something, they do not examin closely. That said, circulus shoul ments where memories are short 'I'm asking you to do this because 'How do I know that you respect m 'Would I ask you to do it otherwise (If you want to do it, you'll believ The intelligent reader might circulus are too obvious to be mo they could never seriously distor through the massed ranks of ci mittees and the cabinet? Not s

How to Win Every Argument ory under examination is con- ies. At no point can we test any bjective truth. After all, even the tell us are in the same predica- ing that science gives us a con- verse through the ring of a giant er, to use the prestige of science e circulus. He is too easily spotted ment, being rather less wily than e leader. ' diamond?' on is to be acceptable for other u to get away with a circulus in already half-disposed to believe ne the supporting arguments as ld be reserved for verbal argu- rt. e I respect you. ' me?' e?' ve it.) suppose that fallacies such as ore than debating tricks. Surely rt decisions of state by slipping ivil servants, government com- so. A major policy of Britain's

The complex question (plurium interrog government in the 1960s, adopt debate, was based upon a relativ This was the National Plan, an national economic planning. F national growth-rate of 3.8 per basis what their own plans for exp estimates were added up by the that the combined plans of Britis rate of 3.8 per cent! The National Plan was valu except to connoisseurs of logical up remaindered copies of it in se The complex question (plu Plurium interrogationum, which is otherwise known as the fallacy several questions are combined yes-or-no answer is required, the chance to give separate replies complex question is committed. Have you stopped beating yo (If 'yes', you admit you were. If ' This might seem like an old versions: Did the pollution you caused Did your misleading claims re Is your stupidity inborn?

gationum) 29 ted after the most serious public vely obvious circulus in probando. n exercise in (then fashionable) Firms were asked to assume a r cent, and to estimate on that pansion would be. These various e government, which concluded sh industry suggested a growth- ueless then and subsequently, absurdity lucky enough to snap econdhand bookshops. urium interrogationum) h translates as 'of many questions', of the complex question. When into one, in such a way that a person they are asked of has no to each, and the fallacy of the . our wife? 'no', then you still are.) d joke, but there are modern increase or decrease your profits? esult in you getting promoted?

30 All of them contain an assumptio has already been answered affir presumption which constitutes th be asked, but if the answer to som a plurium interrogationum has b A common version of the fa 'who' or 'why' about facts whic Even oldies such as 'Who was the and 'Why did the chicken cross t examples of this fallacy. They pr was none', or 'It didn't.' Why did you make your wife alter you then go along to the chemist t put it into her cocoa, and how d attention? (Attempt not more than three qu The inhabitants of the world o They can never understand why who echo anti-patriotic propaga abuse in our schools, or why it people are produced by our advertisers of that world want to worth the extra care that their pr we chose their brand of shampo In the real world none of thes as valid until the facts they depen complex question has to be brok the denial of the fact presumed altogether. A variety of complicated gene could be advanced to explain wh

How to Win Every Argument on that the concealed question irmatively. It is this unjustified he fallacy. Many questions may me is assumed before it is given, been committed. allacy asks questions beginning ch have not been established. e lady I saw you with last night?' the road?' are, strictly speaking, reclude answers such as 'There her will in your favour? And why did to buy rat poison? Why did you then did you do it without attracting her uestions.) of the plurium are a puzzled lot. we tolerate television reporters anda, how we can curb drug is that so many unemployable universities and colleges. The know whether our families are roduct brings and if we are glad oo. se questions would be regarded nd on had been established. The ken into simpler ones; and often d invalidates the larger question etic or evolutionary explanations hy the adult human female has

Composition four more teeth than the adult m effective as counting along a few Plurium interrogationum is ve ducing the semblance of democ enables you to give children a ch Would you prefer to go to bed Do you want to put your brick (Beware, though. After about ten Mum, would you prefer to bu birthday? He who sows the wind...) Composition The fallacy of composition occurs true for individual members of considered as a unit. Some noun the thing as a whole or to the var fallacious to suppose that what i true of the new entity which the This must be a good orchestra musician. (Each individual might be exce unison with colleagues. All of the trying to excel personally to play Many a football manager has sim class players, only to find himself work as a team, it is easier to get than the ball into the net.

31 male. None of them would be as w jaws and denying the fact. ery effective as a means of intro- cracy into the domestic scene. It hoice over their destinies: d now, or after you've finished your cocoa? ks in the box, or on the shelf? n years this will come back to you as: uy me a disco deck or a motorbike for my s when it is claimed that what is a class is also true for the class ns can be taken to refer either to rious parts which make it up. It is is true of the parts must also be ey collectively make up. a because each of its members is a talented ellent but totally unable to play in ese virtuosos might be far too busy y as an effective team.) milarly transferred in many first- f transferred out. Unless they can t the manager out of the ground

32 / have gathered into one regim This will be my strongest regim (I doubt it. The strength of a regim morale and its teamwork, not to operate with minimal supplies, an The fallacy arises from a failure distinct entity of which things can individual persons. Evidence adva the members is therefore irreleva Americans are particularly vul their grammar makes no distinctio and the individuals within it. It American language to use singu regardless of whether the mem referred to. In English we would say 'the c it as a separate entity, but 'the cre of its members. In American one cases, losing an important distinc If everyone in society looks afte that looks after itself. (It will certainly be a society of peo maybe society has aspects which acting in concert.) A variant of the fallacy of com things which are true for individu extrapolated to cover the whole

How to Win Every Argument ment all of the strongest men in the army. ment. ment depends on such factors as its o mention its speed, its ability to nd similar attributes.) to recognize that the group is a n be said which do not apply to anced to attest to the qualities of ant to an appraisal of the group. lnerable to this fallacy because on between the collective entity seems to be universal in the ular verbs for collective nouns, mbers or the group are being crew is a good one', referring to ew are tired', if we are speaking e uses the singular verb in both ction. er themselves, then our society will be one eople who look after themselves; but need to be looked after by people mposition covers cases in which uals become untrue if they are group.

Concealed quantification Farmers benefit from price su supports on shoes, and so on benefit if all products were su (The point is that farmers and sho small group which benefits at th principle is extrapolated, everyo pays the taxes to fund them, and crats who administer the transfe Society, indeed, provides the intent to deceive. You should a qualities to the people in our countrymen will have no difficu them. When you slide in a surrep urge the same for society as a un of the good qualities they just cl We all know that the averag erosity. That is why our socie sick, the unemployed, and th (These actions might be worthw done by individuals. To take m others actually diminishes their o You might just as well try: 'Iris know. I'm surprised the country Concealed quantification When statements are made abo about all of the members of it, s and at other times it is not clear

33 upports on beef; shoemakers gain from pri n. Obviously the whole economy would ubsidized. oemakers only benefit if they are in a he expense of everyone else. If the one receives the subsidies, everyone nd everyone loses out to the bureau- ers.) best place to use the fallacy with attribute all kinds of sympathetic country. An audience of your ulty in attesting to the truth of ptitious fallacy of composition to nit, they will be reluctant to let go laimed. ge Briton is noted for a warmhearted gen- ety has to increase the rights of the old, the hose in less developed countries. while, but are only generous when money away from people to give to opportunity to be generous.) shmen tend to die young, you y is still going.' out a class, sometimes they are sometimes about some of them, which is referred to. The fallacy

34 of concealed quantification occurs permits a misunderstanding of th Garage mechanics are crooks. (What, all of them? It does not sa refers to all of them, then to talk to many motorists may have their mechanics do.) Very often the quantification i rather lame to make bold stateme much better, but probably untru such a technicality, a speaker will the hope that 'all' will be unde miserate with a distraught parent troublesome.' This can be accepte tend to be so', but it could also b only to find a teenager to locate a not have been intended, however comes with the ambiguity. The s one meaning, yet intended with ferent conclusions can be drawn It is well known that members ment are communists. (It is indeed, but not all of them, as are communists, there is still room or stupidity.) The fallacy is widely used to c basis of some of their members. Subversives teach at the Open

How to Win Every Argument s when ambiguity of expression he quantity which is spoken of. ay, but there is a big difference. If it o one is to talk to a crook. Although r convictions, few of the garage is concealed because it sounds ents about some of a class. 'All' is ue. Rather than be limited by l often leave out the quantity in erstood. Someone might com- by telling them: 'Teenagers are ed as 'some are,' or even 'many be taken to mean that one has a troublesome person. This may er plausible it sounds. The fallacy statement can be accepted with h another. Of course, very dif- from the two meanings. s of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarma- as seems to be implied. Even if some m for others motivated by sincerity condemn whole groups on the n University.

Conclusion which denies premises (This could mean that some do subversives are so employed. It c only subversives teach there. Th vary enormously, depending on the course content.) Concealed quantification can individual with the characterist belongs by hiding the fact that group. Have you ever noticed that bi has been raised to a bishopri (Weight and see.) You should use concealed quan look stronger than it is. If you a person, you can use their mem general aspersions about them statements which are true of so supply the 'all' or the 'only' whi well. / don't think we should hire T take up fishing, so I think it's (The audience take the bait, ma already hooked.) Conclusion which denies The conclusion which denies its p forgot-what-l-started-to-say' fall

35 o, but is unlikely to mean that all could even be taken as telling us that The quality of the average BA would n which were true, as indeed might n also be a prelude to tarring an tics of the group to which he they apply only to some of that ishops are fat? I suppose now that Johnson ic he'll expand a bit himself. ntification to make a weak case are trying to sow doubts about a mbership of some group to cast m. Make reasonable-sounding ome, and allow your audience to ich are needed to brand him as Thomson. I see he's a keen fisherman. Idler s a very bad sign. make it 'only idlers', and Thomson is premises premises is one of the 'oh-dear-l- lacies. It starts by maintaining

36 that certain things must be true, which flatly contradicts them. If th with the arguments used to reach hole in the reasoning through whi away. 'Son, because nothing is certain experience tells us. ' 'Are you sure, Dad?' 'Yes, son. I'm certain.' The fallacy is identified by the in contradicts the premises, at least This means that our conclusion i from false information. The conclusion which denies uninvited into religious argume thinking of divine beings as exce tend to use the word 'everything except God.' Everything must have a cause. cause. Since it cannot go back f uncaused causer to start the pr (But if everything must have a cau as an uncaused causer?) The fallacy has a most distin (although not identified as suc Aquinas among many others. It h causer' can be a 'first cause,' or reworded in many ways, but nev Attempts to make a divine bei

How to Win Every Argument and ends up with a conclusion he conclusion is not consistent h it, then somewhere there is a ich the logic has slipped silently n in this world we have to hold on to what nconsistency. If the conclusion t one of them must be wrong. is either false itself, or derived s its premises constantly slips ents. People are so used to eptions to every rule that they g' when they mean 'everything That, in turn, must result from a previous for ever, we know that there must be an rocess. use, how can there be such a thing nguished history, being used ch) by Aristotle and Thomas has many faces. The 'uncaused even a 'first mover'. It can be ver without fallacy. ing the allowable exception to

Conclusion which denies premises the original claim usually beg th ment, 'Everything in the univer itself . . . ' The intention is clear outside of the universe and there for it. Unfortunately, the reword 1 . The new version is more co 2. The universe is not in the u 3. 'Everything in the universe This allows us to translate the op have a cause outside of itself.' hardly surprising that we go on There are many simpler versio them free from the basic incons answer to be the one permitted No matter how many stages y a beginning somewhere. Co (He, presumably, did not have a Nothing can go on forever. T (One who goes on forever, of co When using the conclusio should bear in mind three things between your opening line and are your audience to spot the often allow a speaker to mak without applying them to the conclusion is about things whic exceptional properties, your f escaping detection.

37 he question or subvert the argu- rse must have a cause outside of rly to establish a cause which is efore needs no cause to account ding admits several faults. omplex and is not obviously true. universe, it is the universe. e' is the universe. pening line as: 'The universe must Given such an assumption, it is n to prove it. ons in popular currency, none of sistency of allowing the preferred d exception. you take it back, everything must have had od started it all. a beginning somewhere.) There must have been a god to start it. ourse.) n which denies premises, you s. First, the more distance there is d your conclusion, the less likely contradiction. Second, they will ke statements about 'everyone' speaker himself. Third, if your ch are usually admitted to have fallacy has a better chance of