Smart_Thinking_Skills

FURTHER READING 187 Excellent introduction to, and then extended discussion of, the way that social and cultural theorists have developed more sophisticated understandings of 'knowledge' as a product of social and cultural forces in the past fifty years. Morton, Adam, Philosophy in Practice, Blackwell, Oxford, 1996. Covers many issues relating to both epistemology and other aspects of philos- ophy (such as identity, ethics, and so on); particularly useful for its discussions of certainty and doubt. Schirato, Tony and Yell, Susan, Communication and Culture: An Introduction, Sage, London, 2000. A very comprehensive treatment of the way meaning is generated by context, intertextuality, and discourse within culture and society. This book, unlike many critical thinking texts, is grounded in the insights of post-structuralist philosophy and will significantly assist your understanding of the way 'objective' truth is a construct of social processes as much as it is a property of objects in the world. Stefik, Mark, Internet Dreams: Archetypes, Myths, and Metaphors, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1996. An eclectic collection of primary and secondary analysis of the early days of the Internet. Used here for the work of Licklider but an interesting commentary on why technologies of information and communication do not substitute for reasoning in our search for information. Further reading on reasoning Bowell, Tracy and Kemp, Gary, Critical Thinking: A Concise Guide, Routledge, London, 2002. Alternative book to the larger reasoning textbooks listed below: good concise explanations and advice. Browne, M. Neil and Keeley, Stuart M., Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2003 (7th edn). An excellent book that organises its ideas around the key concept of analytical questioning, which I deploy in chapters 8 and 9. Cederblom, Jerry and Paulsen, David W., Critical Reasoning, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 2000 (5th edn). A large reasoning textbook that contains an excellent discussion of the problems and advantages of relying on experts and authorities. Dowden, Bradley H., logical Reasoning, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1998. Another textbook with a particularly good chapter on explanations and on causal reasoning. Little, J. Frederick, Groarke, Leo A., and Tindale, Christopher W., Good

188 FURTHER READING Reasoning Matters! A Constructive Approach to Critical Thinking, McClelland & Stewart, Toronto, 1989. This book was, in part, responsible for my emphasis on writing arguments and explanations, rather than analysing them. Its advice on writing good arguments is particularly helpful. Makau, Josina M., Reasoning and Communication: Thinking Critically about Arguments, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1990. A shorter work, with less emphasis on methods (such as casting). It is particu- larly useful for its discussion of the contexts in which argumentation takes place; a new edition was published in 1998. Nickerson, Raymond S., Reflections On Reasoning, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1986. This book provides some very revealing insights into the processes of teaching and learning the skills of reasoning. Rudinow, Joel and Barry, Vincent, Invitation to Critical Thinking, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 2003 (5th edn). Contains an excellent section on casting and a comprehensive discussion of the generic errors that people make in reasoning. Ruggiero, Vincent Ryan, Beyond Feelings: A Guide to Critical Thinking, Mayfield, Mountainview, CA, 1984. A much republished book that provides simple, common-sense advice on many issues related to reasoning; it also provides an excellent example of how the failure to consider contextual issues can render much of this advice impractical. Ruggiero, Vincent Ryan, The Art of Thinking: A Guide to Critical and Creative Thought, Pearson Longman, 2000 (6th edn). More up-to-date work by Ruggiero that expands on the original guide in a more 'textbook' manner. Of value is the focus the author places on personal change and commitment to critical thinking, instead of simple technique. Rybacki, Karyn C. and Rybacki, Donald J., Advocacy and Opposition: An Introduction to Argumentation, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986. This work gives considerable advice on the process of proving particular types of conclusions and inspired my approach in chapter 8. Toulmin, Stephen, The Uses of Argument, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003. Most recent book by Toulmin, one of the most influential analysts of critical thinking and argumentation. Toulmin, Stephen, Rieke, Richard, and Janik, Allan, An Introduction to Reasoning, Macmillan, New York, 1984. An excellent, thorough critical thinking textbook, with a particular emphasis on the different ways in which premises and premise-like statements combine to

FURTHER READING 189 demonstrate a conclusion. My concept of 'framing premises' was developed from Toulmin's much more complex discussion of the 'warrants' and 'backgrounds' that are involved in argumentation. This book is useful, also, for its recognition of the need for a contextualised approach to critical thinking. Waller, Bruce N., Critical Thinking: Consider your Verdict, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2000 (4th edn). Although this book concentrates on the role of critical thinking in the decisions made by juries (and thus draws most of its examples from the legal context), it provides particularly sensible discussions of relevance and assumptions. Further reading on writing and communicating Hay, Iain, Bochner, Diane, and Dungey, Carol, Making the Grade, OUP, Melbourne, 2002. Wide-ranging and up-to-date advice on study skills, including assistance with writing and communicating. Murphy, Eamon, You Can Write: A Do-it-YourselfManual, Longman, Melbourne, 1985. Excellent advice on writing and the use of plans; still useful twenty years after publication because of its clear tone and style. Summers, Jane and Brett Smith (eds), Communication Skills Handbook: How to Succeed in Written and Oral Communication, Milton, Qld, John Wiley, 2002. Covers many different aspects of communication, with a particular emphasis on business communication.

Guide to Important Skills Use the following questions and answers as an index to specific advice in Smart Thinking on the key skills of reasoning. They are designed to help you 'get back into' the book after you have read it thoroughly for the first time; they also provide a basic summary of what Smart Thinking can do to 'smarten up' your own thinking. These questions provide a connection between the skills discussed in this book and the most common concerns that people have when faced with the task of writing an essay or report, or preparing an oral presentation. In other words, these ques- tions show you how to understand and apply smart-thinking skills in practical contexts. Each question is answered in brief, and then page references are given to direct you to the detailed advice necessary for you to answer the question for yourself. The guide is divided into two sections. The first contains questions that are more general and that are expressed without mentioning specific concepts from the book (the answers then give those concepts); the key issue in each of these questions is presented in bold type. The second section contains questions that guide you towards specific concepts that are mentioned in the book (in bold). If you have not yet read Smart Thinking through thoroughly, you should begin with the first section. General questions How can I think through complex ideas so that I have a good under- standing of them? Ask questions, do not be satisfied with easy answers, and do not make assumptions about what things mean. (See pp 83-6, 105-7, 124-8.) What do I need to do to be convincing in my reports, essays, and presen- tations? Make sure you have a good analytical structure and have a strong argument or explanation. (See pp 81-6, 121-8.) 190

GUIDE TO IMPORTANT SKILLS 1 9 1 How do I make my reasoning easy to follow for people reading or listening to my arguments and explanations? Make sure that you properly indicate the reasoned links you are making, signalling the analytical structure to your audience. (See pp 27-9.) Why, and how, should I use footnotes or other references in my work? They provide references to authority, which strengthen the substance of your reasoning. (See pp 65-7, 78-9.) What should be the goal of my reasoning? Reasoning has many purposes, each of which will affect the precise way that you argue or explain. (See pp 4, 21—2, 124-5.) When writing or presenting, how do I deal with ideas with which I do not agree? Make sure you use reasoning to show explicitly why an idea is wrong, thereby preventing criticism of your work. (See pp 85-6, 112-13.) How do I make sure that I understand the interpretive frameworks that are central to all knowledge? In your thinking, you need to distinguish between 'facts' and the way that they can be understood as relating to other 'facts'; in your writing, make sure that you use framing premises. (See pp 5-6, 45-6, 78, 111-13.) What are the two key components of a good argument or explanation? You need premises (reasons, evidence) to support your conclusion (a clear state- ment of what you are arguing for or explaining). (See pp 19-22, 32-6.) How can I distinguish between my ideas and what I am saying about others' ideas in my essays and presentations? Clearly distinguish between when you are arguing directly and when you are arguing indirectly. (See pp 57-60, 112-16.) What is wrong with giving just one reason for my conclusion? Your arguments will not have enough breadth and will not address all the issues that your audience is expecting you to consider. (See pp 4 4 - 5 , 71-4.) How can I be more effective in doing research and reading before I write? Ask questions, and understand the relationship between your sources and your own essay, presentation, or report. (See pp 107-13.) How can I assess someone else's reasoning to see if they have presented a good argument or explanation? You can 'cast' their work into claims and a structure diagram. (See pp 12-15, 32-7.)

192 GUIDE TO IMPORTANT SKILLS Specific questions How do I use analogies? By comparing items and drawing conclusions based on their similarities. (See pp 99-100.) How do I avoid making assumptions in my essays, presentations, and reports? Do not take the truth of a claim—or its relationship with other claims—for granted; stop and think about what your audiences expect you to do and what they already know. (See pp 7, 1 1 - 1 2 , 73-4, 122-7.) How can I begin to understand the audiences of my arguments and explanations? Regard your audiences as having certain expectations about what you should say to them and how you should say it, as well as certain background knowledge that directly affects your reasoning. (See pp 63-4, 73-4, 81-6, 122-7.) What is casting? Casting is a process of recovering the analytical structure from another author's narrative. (See pp 3 2 - 4 , 135-49.) How do I write about causes and effects? Reasoning from cause requires you to use premises that state the cause(s) of an effect that is expressed in the conclusion. (See pp 95—6, 110.) What do I need to know about claims in order to use them effectively in planning my reports, essays, and presentations? You must attend to their key properties and express them precisely. (See pp 11-14, 57-61, 86-7.) How do I plan complex argument structures? A complex argument structure is just a series of overlapping, intertwined simple arguments. (See pp 36-8, 53-4, 65-8, 71-4.) Why is context so important in reasoning effectively? No argument or explanation (text) is ever written or read in isolation: background (or context)—which includes the expectations, assumptions, and implied concepts of both author and audience—always affects the text. (See pp 1 1 - 1 2 , 81-6, 122-4.) How do I go about using definitions in my work? Make sure that your definitions are clear and are integrated in the main structure of your reasoning. (See pp 47-8, 57-8, 100.)

GUIDE TO IMPORTANT SKILLS 193 How do I make sure that my essays and presentations go into enough depth to be convincing? Make sure that you expand the reasons for your conclusion so that they are com- prehensive and form a chain of dependent premises. (See pp 40—5, 71—4.) How are knowledge and reasoning connected? They are two aspects of the same whole: knowledge is expressed and learnt as reasoning; reasoning utilises and relies on knowledge. (See pp 104-6, 109—13.) How would I define reasoning, and what can it do for me? Reasoning is about the relationships between ideas and events; using it helps you to think smart and communicate effectively. (See pp 1-9.) How can I make sure that I am being relevant? Make sure that your premises really do say something that supports your conclu- sion and that your audience understands this connection. (See pp 75-80.) What do I need to know if I want to use specific cases and general rules in my arguments? You need to understand the way in which general conclusions can flow from specific cases and how general rules provide the framework for establishing specific conclusions. (See pp 96-9, 108.) How can I improve the structure and logic of my essays, reports, and presentations? Use the analytical structure format to plan your work before you begin writing. (See pp 34-6, 128-32.) Why is the truth (or falsity) of claims so important? All arguments and explanations are designed to establish the truth of one claim on the basis of other true claims. (See pp 1 2 - 1 3 , 61-7.)