Answer book _ fast facts about our world ( PDFDrive )_clone

WHAT WAS THE GREEN REVOLUTION? During and shortly after World War II, the results were indisputable. In the rice productivity almost doubled, and 249 the Rockefeller Foundation led efforts I960s, these crops were introduced green revolution crops accounted for to boost agricultural productivity in to such rapidly growing countries as most of the world's agricultural pro- »z developing countries by applying sci- Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indo- ductivity gains in the I960s and 1970s ence to the selective breeding of high- nesia, Bangladesh, and Egypt. Asian and for 80 percent in the I980s. Vl yield, high-protein \"miracle crops.\" These efforts produced many new MASS PRODUCTION depends on top technology. Here an Iowa combine reaps 27,000 ~ strains of fast-growing rice and wheat. bushels-over 750 tons-of corn in one harvest. Miracle crops often yielded two or m three harvests per year, compared with one for most traditional breeds, and ;;D each crop was two to three times larg- er; often they were more drought and ooOJ disease resistant as well. Critics point- ed out that the crops often required A more water, fertilizer, pesticides, and money than indigenous crops, increas- o3: ing costs for small farmers. However, o • .• m z;;D » Cl ;;D () C ~ C ;;D m Aquaculture: The rearing of fish, shellfish, and some aquatic plants to supplement the natural supply. / Hybrid: From Latin ibrido, \"mongrel.\" Offspring of parents that differ in genetically determined traits; usually refers to animals or plants resulting from a cross between two races, breeds, strains, or varieties of the same species accomplished by human intervention . THE FUTURE OF FISH FARMING One of the fastest-growing areas occurs in developing countries, with of food production in the world is China accounting for a bit more than aquaculture, or fish farming-the two-thirds of the world's total output. controlled breeding, raising, and har- Aquaculture now produces 40 per- vesting of fish and the cultivation of cent of the fish that people eat around seaweed. Techniques for fish farming the world; experts project that by date back some 4,000 years in China. 20 I0, fish farming may overtake cattle ranching as a world food source. About 90 percent of aquaculture A CHINESE FISH FARMER stands proudly amid a swirl of catfish he has grown . \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF FISH see Fish, CHAPTER 4, PAGES 158·9 + THE GROWING WORLD POPULATION see World Populotion, CHAPTER 6, PAGES 250·1

GUINEA-BISSAU / 7. 1 31 NIG ER / 7. 1 .!;1 EAST TIMOR / 7.0 l!l AFGHANISTAN / 6.8 r~o ANGOLA / 6.8 BURUNDI / 6.8 ::J LIBERIA / 6.8 rr0oo. SOMALIA / 6.8 DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC V> OF CONGO / 6.7 c0:. MALI / 6.6 ::l. ::J \"I\" ~ 'I\" :i\" c0:. V> .\" ::l. ::J \"r\"o' V> ~<' ~ :i\" ~ ::J 0. ~ '\".::J c ~ ~ '-\", --,0 '\"r0o. .V=>r .rso-. oo~ co a:: rom around 8000 B.C. to the mid-17th century, the in less developed countries: Sub- w world's population grew slowly from 10 million to Saharan African countries such as ~ V) z Mali, Niger, and Uganda have rates of « 500 million. The human presence on Earth was lim- increase over 3 percent. In the more ited by the planet's carrying capacity-its ability to developed world, by contrast, rates sustain human life on the available land. Then, be- are typically low or even declining. ginning In the 19th century, the industrial revolution, huge Russia and Germany, among others, will see their populations drop over Increases in agricultural productivity, and great strides in the coming decades. health care brought about an explosion in human numbers. Country populations also grow or shrink due to migration. Immigra- From one billion people in the early The growth equation is simple: tion to industrialized countries has 1800s, the population expanded with Births minus deaths equals the rate been on the rise since the 1980s. increasing speed, reaching 6.6 billion of natural increase. At a 2007 an- Canada's foreign-born population in 2007. More than one-third of that nual rate of 1.2 percent, population is close to 20 percent, and immi- total lives in two countries, China and growth worldwide translates by 2050 grants make up well over 10 percent India, with populations of 1.3 billion to a total of 9.3 billion human beings. of populations in the United States and 1.1 billion respectively. Much of that increase is taking place and Ireland. Small, wealthy countries FAST FACT The total number of humans born since 50,000 B.C. is estimated at 105.7 billion. FOR MORE FACTS ON EARLY HUMAN MIGRATION see Human Migration. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 220·1 + URBANIZATION IN RECENT TIMES see Cities. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 260-1

such as Qatar or Singapore draw 251 foreign workers in droves; poorer nations in war-torn regions, such »z as Botswana, swell with refugees as well as job seekers. Ul NEWBORNS ABOUND at the Xining ~ Children Hospital, Qinghai Province, China. Chinese population experts predict a small m baby boom in the coming years. Already 110,000,000 children under six live in China. ;;D FAST FACT By 2050. India will be the world's most populous country, With 1.7 billion people. ooOJ THOMAS MALTHUS I POLITICAL ECONOMIST A Born into a society that believed in steady human progress, Englishman Thomas o~ Robert Malthus (1766-1834) took a dimmer view. A professor of history and politi- ;;D cal economy, Malthus published An Essay on the Principles of Population as It Affects C- the Future Improvement of Society in 1798, which notes that although the populations O tend to grow geometrically---exponentially-food supplies increase arithmetically, at a constant absolute rate. Clearly, he said, the future holds famine, unless populations o-0 could be held in check by such means as war, disease, and abstinence. Malthus under- standably failed to foresee the agricultural revolution or the advent of widespread -0 contraception. Nevertheless, his views continue to be influential among economists and policymakers in a world beset by rapid population growth, war, and famine. C c- ~ oz \" Population, when unchecked, Increases In a geometrical ratio. Subsistence \" increases only in an arithmetical ratio. - THOMAS MALTHUS, 1798 THE AGING WORLD Although populations continue to grow, countries will face the problem of hav- POLISH ELDERS meet at a park in Krakow fertility rates on average have dropped. ing a dwindling workforce supporting a and pass their time playing--or commenting This, combined with improvements in populace in need of more health care, on- a game of cards. health care and life expectancy, means even while countries at the other end that the world's population is an aging of the spectrum will contend with many one, particularly in industrialized coun- young mouths to feed and educate. tries. By 2050, 26 percent of Europe's Every country, in the end, will face the population will be over 65, as will be same challenge of nurturing a chang- 21 percent of North America's. These ing population with limited resources. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON WORLD HISTORY IN MALTHUS'S TIME see Revolutions 1600· 1800, Nationalism 1790- /900 & The Industrial Revolution 1765- /900, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 298-303 + ADVANCES IN MEDICINE see Medical Science, CHAPTER 8, PAGES 338-45

oo~ ransportation shapes the world: Along with communications, it forms a global net that con- co nects each person to the next, one city to an- n:: other, and every country to every other country. Transportation routes, such as roads, waterways, w and airways, as well as vehicles-feet, carts, steamships, jets- are vital to the functioning and spread of every civilization. ~ A country's economy depends on The earliest way of traveling was V) reliable transportation for its trade. undoubtedly by foot, and humans' Cities spread out along roads, rivers. earliest means of transporting goods z and rails. Information travels along was carrying loads on their back or « CIRCA 3500 B.C. the same routes, as do armies, who head. By 4000 B.C., people were us- depend on roads as much as they do ing domesticated animals for trans- First known w heel. Mesopotamia weapons in their campaigns. Until port, a method greatly improved the 20th century, these routes were in some parts of the world by the 3000 B.C. by land or water. With the invention invention of the wheel, which was Egyptians bu ild sailing ships of powered flight, the air became an probably first developed in Mesopo- open road as well. tamia around 3500 B.C. A.D. 1769 Cugnot invents steam-propelled vehicle 1783 Montgolfier brothers fly hot-air balloon 1807 Fulto n operates successful steamboat 1885-1886 Daimler & Benz build gas-powered auto 1903 Wil bur and Orvi lle Wright fly airplane FOR MORE FACTS ON MAPS & THEIR ROLE IN HUMAN TRANSPORTATION see The History of Mopping & Mapmaking, CHAPTER I, PAGES 20-1, 24-9 + ANIMAL MIGRATION see Migration, CHAPTER 4, PAGES 172-3

Until the 19th century, animals JET AIRCRAFT picked up speed rapidly during the Cold War era. The fastest supersonic craft 253 were the engines of land transpor- was the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird (above), which logged 24 years of service with the Air Force. On tation. But with the invention of the its final flight, in March 1990, the two-seat titanium Blackbird set a speed record by flying from Los »z steam engine and the internal com- Angeles to Washington, D.C., in I hour, 4 minutes, 20 seconds-an average of 2,124 miles an hour. bustion engine, railroads and automo- Vl biles revolutionized travel and trade. Although the Montgolfier broth- spurred rapid technological advances, More than 600 million cars and trucks ers and their successors took flight in including the advent of jet aircraft in ~ travel the world today. balloons in the 18th century, air travel 1939. In 1958, Pan American World was not practical until the invention Airways began transatlantic passenger m Water has always been a fast and of powered flight in 1903. Within service and air travel blossomed. Pas- economical mode of travel, and even ten years, the commercial aviation senger volume worldwide is forecast ;;D today it remains a primary mover of business had begun. Two world wars to reach 2.8 billion annually by 2018. heavy goods. The importance of wa- ooOJ terways to human civilization can be seen on any map: Virtually all of the A world's major cities are located on coastlines or rivers. As early as 7000 -I B.C., people were building dugout ca- noes; long-distance sailing ships were z»;;D common by about 3000 B.C. Steam and internal combustion engines Vl greatly boosted the speed and effi- ciency of ships in the 19th and 20th o-u centuries. Until the I950s, ships were the chief means of overseas passen- ~ ger travel. Now most oceangoing ves- sels are used to carry heavy cargo or oz for military transport. HOW DID HUMANS BUILD WITHOUT WHEELS? Once ancient builders had the wheel, ramps, rolling logs, and brute force. had to drag the stones up ramps. The they could transport heavy materials The 2.5-ton blocks of sandstone, mysterious folk who built Britain 's to their building sites. Yet even be- granite, and other materials that built Neolithic monument Stonehenge may fore the wheel, civilizations managed the pyramids could have been floated have used similar techniques. Some of to build huge, heavy structures, such on barges down the Nile from their its massive stones were quarried in as Egypt's pyramids or Britain's stone quarries-but on land they would Wales, 240 miles away. The builders circles. How did they do it? have to have been dragged on sleds, may have used rafts, sledges, log roll- perhaps over wooden rollers. Once ers, and serious muscle power to bring Most theories involve a combi- at the building site, workers probably the stones to Salisbury Plain. nation of water transport, sledges, \":OR MORE -ACTS ON CITIES AS GATEWAYS OF TRADE & TRANSPORTATION see Cities. CHAPTER 6, PAGE 261 + ENGINEERING ACCOMPLISHMENTS ANCIENT & MODERN see Physical Science: Engineering. CHAPTER 8, PAGES 332-3

NESTLE SA Switzerland KRAFT FOODS, INC. USA (Il linois) CONAGRA, INC. USA (Nebraska) PEPSICO, INC. USA (New York) UNILEVER PIC UK & Netherlands ARCHER DANIELS MIDLAND USA (ill inois) oo~ co a:: rade-the traffic in goods-has been a so- traded wools, gold, silver, glassware, w cial and economic institution since prehistoric olive oil, and wine. ~ V) z The Vikings, better known as raid- « times. In the form of gift, barter, or sale, trade ers, were traders as well. In the early can take place between individuals, clans, com- Middle Ages they traveled along the panies, or countries. It is closely linked to trans- coasts and rivers into what is now Rus- portation, so the people who have dominated world trade sia. They carried furs, amber, jewelry, and glass throughout northern Europe. have typically dominated its trade routes as well. In the south, the Crusades opened up the Near East and the Silk Road routes Phoenicians were among the world's dynasty began to spread out across to Venetian traders, among them the great early trade powers. From about overland caravan routes. Flourishing inimitable Polo family. 1200 B.C., Phoenician galleys domi- from 200 B.C. to A.D. 200 and again With the age of exploration and nated shipping in the Mediterranean about I ,000 years later, these routes the opening of sea lanes to Asia, com- for more than a thousand years. Their eventually linked Asia to Europe and merce and national power became even wares, including bronze, gold, ivory came to be known as the Silk Road. more closely linked. In the 17th and and glass artifacts, textiles, and furni- More than silk traveled these routes, 18th centuries, companies dedicated ture, have been found from one end of however. Asian traders bought spices to trade with Asia were formed in the Mediterranean to the other. like cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg to Europe, most notably the Dutch and To the east, the Chinese of the Han Europeans; Mediterranean merchants the English East India Companies. FOR MORE FACTS ON EARLY MAPS FOR TRADE & TRAVEL see The World in Mops & The History of Mopping. CHAPTER I, PAGES 18·21 + TRADE IN MEDIEVAL TIMES see Middle Ages 500-1500. CHAPTER 7, PAGES 278-81

These organizations were practically insula, Ceylon, the Malabar Coast of the Indian Mutiny of 1857. New eco- countries in their own right, exercis- India, Japan, and South Africa in the nomic theories, industrialization, and ing sovereign powers, administering 1600s. In the 18th century the English revolutions in transportation and com- colonies, and waging war. The Dutch East India Company established a mo- munications have begun to change the East India Company exercised a trade nopoly in India and China, maintaining face, but not the underlying nature, of monopoly in Indonesia, the Malay Pen- political control over most of India until world trade. • .• 255 Commerce: The exchange of economic goods on a large scale. I Monopoly: The exclusive possession of a market by a supplier of a product »z or service for which there is no substitute. Vl WHAT IS CURRENCY? ~ In prehistoric times-and even in some with admiration the Chinese paper m contemporary African SOCietles- money he encountered in the 13th cen- cattle were used as currency. By I 200 tury; Europe did not use paper currency ;;D B.C., the Chinese used cowrie shells; until the 17th century. China also expe- 200 years later, they began to circulate rienced the hazards of easily printed ooOJ metal versions, the first coins. Round, currency early on: Medieval Mongol rul- stamped coins of precious metals ap- ers printed so much that it became vir- A peared in Turkey, Greece, and the tually valueless, a problem still plaguing Roman Empire beginning in 500 B.C. many inflation-racked countries today. () In A.D. 806, China created the first o paper money. Marco Polo described 3: 3: m ;;D () m CURRENCY typically means metal coins and paper money to modern users, but any agreed- upon item, arbitrary and consistent, can suffice as a symbol of monetary value. LOCAL TRADE Barter- a moneyless trading system still prevalent in traditional socie- ties- is the oldest form of commerce. Almost anything can be bartered: la- bor for food, cattle for sheep. But the person doing the bartering must put time and effort into finding a partner willing to trade . Bartering exists today, supported by the Internet (and taxed, when possible, by the government) . CHINESE FARMERS discuss the price of a calf: Local economies continue despite the growing prevalence of international commerce. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON HUMAN PREHISTORY see Human Migration, CHAPTER 6, PAGES 220-1 + IMPERIALISM & TRADE see Imperialism: Middle East & Africa 1500-/900 & Imperialism: Asia & Pacific 1750-/900, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 304·7

WORLD TRADE TODAY T256 he mercantilism of the 17th survive without trade with other occurs between the richest countries,o and 18th centuries, in which countries, and for some, international demonstrating what economists call -c-r-:' countries sought to accu- trade makes up more than half the na- the gravity equation: Like attraction o 5 mulate wealth and territory through tional income. This exchange of goods between two masses, the volume of «z dominance of trade, has given way and services benefits trading partners trade between two countries is pro- L in recent years to an interdependent by allowing them to export the goods portional to the size of their econo- :J I web of associations in which countries that they are best at producing and mies and the distance between them. w promote trade in order to build their import those that are best produced Richer countries typically ex- I I- economies. Few nations now could abroad. The greatest amount of trade change different varieties of similar x manufactured goods, such as auto- V) mobiles. When higher income regions cr: w trade with lower income regions, the l- n«.. richer countries usually provide more I U complex goods, such as electronic equipment, while low-income coun- oo~ tries provide primary goods such as CO minerals. Smaller, poorer countries cr: are more likely to be dependent on w 5 exporting a single commodity, such as V) coffee or petroleum. In general, poor, z « labor-abundant countries tend to ex- port labor-intensive goods, such as textiles and shoes, and the countries rich in arable land will export foods such as grains. Germany, the United States, and China, with its rapidly growing econ- omy, now lead the globe in the total value of their merchandise exports. In general, the value of a country's imports is close to the value of its exports. The exception is the United States, which, driven by huge consumer demand in the early 21 st century, im- ported far more than it exported. The CRUDE OIL OPTIONS TRADER at the New York Mercantile Exchange yells out a bid. Even result of such a trade imbalance has the most sophisticated marketplaces still teem with human emotion. been a large trade deficit. FOR MORE FACTS OJ\\! . THE INTERNET AS A FORCE FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS see The Internet. CHAPTER 8, PAGES 348-9 + UNIONS, AGREEMENTS & ASSOCIATIONS AMONG COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD see Nations & Alliances. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 358-9

OUTSOURCING Although outsourcing, or hiring out- CALL CENTER RESPONDENTS live and work in Mohali, Punjab, India, but they answer 257 side contractors to perform jobs service questions from American users of Quark software. that could be done by employees, »z has been much in the news in recent educated workers in countries such as developed countries, where local years, it is nothing new to business. India. Outsourcing and offshoring con- workers feel they are losing jobs to Vl tinue to be controversial topics in many foreign competitors. In recent years outsourcing has ~ been increasingly linked to offshoring, the use of contract labor from other m countries. This form of outsourcing is driven by differences in labor costs, ;;D since workers in countries such as China or India typically make a small ooOJ percentage of the wages paid in the most developed countries. A Facilitated by the 24-hour con- o~ nections of the Internet, service jobs such as customer call centers have ;;D long been popular forms of interna- C- tional outsourcing. O Increasingly, jobs in areas like fi - -I nancial management and information technology are also going to well- »;;D o m o-I o 2< WHO INVENTED CONTAINERIZATION? American businessman Malcolm slow and inefficient. He saw that car- vast networks compnslng merchant McLean started out as a truck driver go could be packed and shipped far ships, rail, and road links. Standard - hauling farm goods during the De- more easily if goods were packed into ized units whose shipping costs fall pression, but he ultimately developed separate, detachable freight contain- as their payload increases, containers a system that revolutionized world ers that could be hauled by trucks or have greatly reduced time and costs trade: containerization. trains without being emptied. in shipping; a shipment from Hong Kong to New York that took 50 days McLean recognized that unload- Containerization soon broke in 1970 now takes just 17. ing trucks and ships crate by crate was down transport barriers and created FAST FACT The United States accounts for about one-fifth of the world·s imports of fuel. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE HISTORY & VARIETY OF MODES OF TRANSPORTATION see Transportation. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 252·3 + THE ECONOMY OF HONG KONG see Asia. CHAPTER 9, PAGE 392

oo~ s they have done with other necessities of life, humans have taken the need for shelter and co turned it into a social statement and an art n:: form. At its most basic, human shelter must provide protection against the elements, a w place to sleep, a location for a fire, access to the outside, and a light source. Yet even cave dwellers more than 30,000 years ~ ago went so far as to decorate the walls of their caves with exquisite images of bears, lions, mammoths, and humans. V) As civilizations grew up around cen- North America, or limestone in the z ters of trade and agriculture, human Karst regions of China. « shelters came to reflect a host of influ- ences. They incorporated their envi- They also reflected social and BURJ DUBAI / 3, I 17 FEET ronment in both their plans and their economic status. By the Middle Ages, materials: mud bricks in the ancient wealthy landowners built themselves D ubai, United Arab Emirates (and modern) Middle East, wood in large castles and palaces that served the forested realms of Europe and as social centers, defensive fortifica- TAIPEI 101 / 1,669 FEET tions, and visible exemplars of power, Taipei , Taiwan BUSAN LOTTE TOWER / 1,620 FEET Busan, South Korea SHANGHAI WORLD FINANCIAL CENTER / 1,614 FEET Shanghai, China ABRAJ AL BAIT TOWERS / 1,591 FEET Mecca, Saudi Arab ia INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE CENTRE / 1,588 FEET Hong Kong, China FOR MORE FACTS ON TREES & FORESTS see Trees. CHAPTER 4, PAGES 142·3, & Forests. CHAPTER 5, PAGES 196·203 + THE MIDDLE AGES see Middle Ages 500-1500. CHAPTER 7, PAGES 278-81

while peasants shared their single- and oriented toward local mountains spawned suburbs, with larger houses 259 room dwellings-built with straw and and streams according to the practice standing on more land. Technology mud-with their animals. The social of feng shui, which seeks to maximize brought heating, lighting, and indoor »z extremes of Europe in the 17th and nature's positive influences on the in- plumbing to the masses, while steel 18th centuries found their greatest habitants. Houses in China were typi- and elevators made tall apartment Vl symbol in the palace of Versailles, the cally built around an inner courtyard, buildings possible. French royal residence, a complex of without windows to the outside, to ~ extravagant buildings on 37,000 acres protect a family's privacy. Contemporary building tech- that could house 5,000 inhabitants niques and materials have made hous- m (mostly servants). In the Western world, the indus- ing more comfortable for much of the trial revolution brought new technol- world, but the rules that governed the :;D Grand palaces also formed VIS- ogies and an expanding middle class. ancient Romans still apply to 21 st- ible displays of imperial power in Asia, These prospering workers built them- century dwellings: Wealth, occupa- ooOJ but everyday houses exemplified the selves more standardized, comfort- tion, and social status still playa part spiritual and social philosophies of the able, single-family houses, even while in shaping human shelters, from the A average family. Chinese houses were the poor crowded into tenements. favelas of Rio de Janeiro to the Mc- (and often still are) built facing south Improved transportation routes soon Mansions of the American suburb. Vl I m ~ m :;D •: Feng shui: From the Chinese. \"wind\" + \"water.\" A traditional Chinese method of arranging the human and social world in auspicious alignment with the forces of the cosmos. / Tepee: From the Dakota. \"to dwe ll.\" A tall conical tent dwelling used by the Plains Indians of North America. I-lAVE YURT, WILL TRAVEL Homes need not be anchored to the ground. Nomadic A HOUSE IN THE ROUND, the ger-still a common dwelling in peoples around the world have perfected portable, practical Mongolia-is constructed of a wood frame and fabric covering. dwellings that can be packed up and moved on short notice. The nomads of Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan, for instance, live in ergonomic round structures of felt on wood lattices, called yurts or geTS. These can be rapidly disassembled, packed into a truck or onto a camel's back, and transported to a new place. The camel-herding Tuareg of Niger also move frequently. Their sturdy tents, supported on curved sticks, are built and owned by the women of the community. Evenki reindeer herders also live in canvas or deerskin-covered tepees that they pack up and move as they follow their herds. The simple, efficient construction of these kinds of portable homes has changed little over the generations. \":OR MORE - ACTS ON THE TREND TOWARD URBANIZATION The Industrial Revolution 1765- /900. CHAPTER 7, PAGE 303 + URBAN LIFE see Cities. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 260-1

8000 B.C. / 10 million A.D. 100 / 200 million 1000 / 265 million 1700 / 500 million 1800 / I billion 1927 /2 bi llion 1960 / 3 bi llion 1974 /4 billion 1987 / 5 bi llion 1999 / 6 bi llion 2008 / 6.7 billion 2025 (PROJECTED) / 7.9 billion 2050 (PROJECTED) / 9.3 billion oo~ co a:: alf of the world now lives in cities. Between globalization of the economy, the roles w 1960 and 2007, city dwellers more than tripled of world cities are less about imperial ~ V) z power and more about multinational « in number, from I billion to 3.3 billion, while the corporate organization, international world population roughly doubled, from just banking and finance, and the work of over 3 billion to 6.6 billion. Analysts predict 6.4 international agencies. billion urban dwellers by 2050-86 percent of the population in These influential cities do include some of the largest in the world, in- more developed countries and 67 percent in less developed na- cluding London, New York, and To- tions. China and India will account for one-third of the increase. kyo. But they also include Brussels, Chicago, Frankfurt, Los Angeles, Paris, Clearly, the world's cities are growing City size is not the only factor in Singapore, Zurich, and Washington, in both size and number. deciding which areas become domi- D.C. These world cities are centers In 1975 there were 174 urban ag- nant in the world. Ever since the ad- of authority, containing specialized glomerations of I to 5 million people vent of merchant capitalism in the firms and expert professionals. They and 17 urban areas of 5 to 10 mil- 15th century, certain cities, known as channel their nation's resources into lion. Today there are approximately world cities, have played key roles in the global economy and transmit the 360 metropolitan areas of I to 5 mil- the world's economy. In earlier cen- impulses of globalization back to na- lion and 30 metropolitan areas of 5 turies, these were such cities as Berlin, tional centers-pivotal points in the to 10 million. Venice, and Lisbon. Today, with the reorganization of global space. FOR MORE FACTS ON THE RAPID EXPANSION OF THE WORLD'S POPULATION see World Population. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 250·1 + THE GREAT CITIES OF AFRICA see Africa. CHAPTER 9, PAGE 371

YESTERDAY'S GATEWAY CITIES, TODAY'S HISTORY Some of the world's biggest and de Janeiro in the Americas; Luanda istrative centers. Before long they 261 most prosperous urban centers arose and Cape Town in Africa; Aden in Ye- developed their own manufacturing during the 17th century as gateway men; Goa and Colombo around the industries and commercial and finan- »z cities- cities that because of their Indian Ocean; and Malacca, Manila, cial services. As colonies developed, location served as links between one and Macau in East Asia. many gateways grew rapidly, becom- Vl country or region and others. ing major population centers as well Protected by fortifications and as important markets for imported ~ Gateway cities include Boston, European naval power, they began European goods. Charleston, Savannah, Recife, and Rio as trading posts and colonial admin- m •• • • • SHANTYTOWNS ;;D ooOJ A n -I m Vl The unprecedented rates of urban WITH HOUSES built right up to the water line, this favela, or shantytown, represents the growth in developing regions have precarious edge of urban sprawl in Manaus, Brazil, a city of more than a million on the Amazon. been driven by rural push- overpop- ulation and the unemployment in the one million poor Cairenes to live in rent and do not own the land, but in countryside-rather than by the pull \"cities of the dead\" among the tombs some cities they have developed a of resources of towns and cities. Many of Cairo's cemeteries. Occupants in sense of community ties and a viable, cities, particularly in developing coun- these ramshackle settlements pay no if difficult, way of life. tries, have added more people than they have jobs or housing. This overur- banization creates instant slums, char- acterized by shacks, open sewers, and squatter settlements. Typically, well over one-third of the population of major cities in less developed countries lives in these unofficial settlements. The shantytown of Dharavi in Mum- bai, India, contains 600,000 people in tin shacks on just one square mile of land- land said to be worth ten billion dollars. The favelas of Rio de Janeiro, over 500 squatter settlements on the city's hillsides, have housed the poor for generations. Housing shortages in Cairo, Egypt, have driven as many as FAST FACT More than 20,000 Chinese leave the countryside to settle in urban areas every day. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON HOUSING see Shelter. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 258-9 + HISTORY OF THE 17TH CENTURY see Renaissance & Reformation 1500- /650 & A New World 1500-1775. CHAPTER 7, PAGES 294-7



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ANCIENT HISTORY 3500 B.C.- A.D. 500 From the rise of Sumer in Mesopotamia and the beginning of writing to the fall of Rome MED IEVAL HISTO RY A.D. 500- 1500 The Middle Ages, through the time Co- lumbus and other European mariners reached the Americas MODERN HISTORY I500-present An era of expanding European empires and then two world wars co a:: round 10,000 B.C. the Ice Age waned, the planet and in other such towns lived people in- w ~ began warming, and humans had to adapt. volved in nonagricultural trades, includ- They did so with great ingenuity. Many of the ing merchants and potters. zV> « By 6500 B.C., artisans at the town of larger mammals on which people had relied <;atal Huyuk in Anatolia (modern-day for food died out as a result of global warming Turkey) were hard-firing pots in kilns. The potter's wheel, developed later, and overhunting. At the same time, edible plants flourished in may have inspired wheeled vehicles. places that had once been too cold or dry to support them. Artisans in Anatolia and Mesopota- mia also pioneered the craft of smelting By 8000 B.C., people in some parts of Some of the earliest settlements copper. This led to the development of the world had moved beyond gathering arose in a region called the Fertile Cres- bronze and ushered in a new techno- plants to cultivating them. They domes- cent, extending from Mesopotamia to logical era, the Bronze Age, which suc- ticated animals, too. Eventually, people the eastern Mediterranean coast. By ceeded the Stone Age. By 3500 B.C., who practiced agriculture in fertile areas 7000 B.C., about 2,000 inhabitants- advances in agriculture, metallurgy, and raised enough food to support special- more than ten times as many as found other crafts had laid the foundation in ists involved in various trades, fostering in a typical hunter-gatherer band-lived Mesopotamia for the emergence of the growth of complex societies. in Jericho, near the Jordan River. There cities and the rise of civilization. FAST FACT The cultivation of rice began In Southeast Asia around 7000 B.C. FOR MORE FACTS ON MIGRATION TRENDS & CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARLIEST HUMANS see Human Migration. CHAPTER 6. PAGES 220·1 + CROP DOMESTICATION & THE EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE see Agriculture. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 246· 7

WHAT DO B.C. AND A.D. MEAN? B.C. stands for \"before Christ\" and A.D. Some historians preferc.E. and B.C.E. 265 stands for anno Domini, Latin for \"in the (\"Common Era\" and \"before the Com- »z mon Era\") . Dates in the two systems are year of the Lord.\" Both terms origi- Vl nated when scholars took the year in identical, and B.C. and A.D. are still widely which they thought Jesus Christ was used, including in this book. ~ born as the basis for dating events. But if, as the Gospel of Matthew in- THIS CUNEIFORM TABLET from Iraq, m dicates, Jesus was an infant when King seventh century B.C., tells of a great flood in the Herod the Great of Judea died, then ;;D he was born just before 4 B.C. EPic of Gilgamesh. ooOJ THE THREE AGES OF HUMAN PREHISTORY A \"lJ ;;D m I Vl o-I ;;D -< In Greek mythology, the ages of man were stages of decline for humanity, beginning with the idyllic Golden Age of old and continuing through the violent Bronze Age to the corrupt Iron Age. Today, historians use similar terms, but they have a different way of defining the ages of human prehistory, based on technological advances. THE STONE AGE was the first phase in hu- THE BRONZE AGE followed , a period de- THE IRON AGE, which began around 1200 man technological development. It is divided into lineated by the developing technique of metal- B.C. in Europe and 600 B.C. in China, was distin- three periods: the Paleolithic, the Mesolithic, smithing: mixing molten copper with tin or other guished by iron tools and weapons, more durable and the Neolithic, each period representing new alloys to produce metal tools. In Greece and and widely available because iron ore was more advances in tool manufacture. The Neolithic, China, the Bronze Age dates from about 3000 plentiful than the tin needed to produce bronze. or New Stone Age, began around 10,000 years B.C.; in the British Isles, it did not occur until Production of iron tools and weapons seems to ago and witnessed the production of better about 1900 B.C. Distinctive inventions of the have been accompanied by increased patterns stone implements and the introduction oftools Bronze Age include the wheel and ox-drawn of permanent settlement, and the great cities and weapons made of copper and other metals. plow, greatly increasing agricultural potential. of the ancient world date back to this period. •; Domestication: The process of adapting wild animals and plants to make them more useful to people. I Metallurgy: Art and science of extracting metals from their ores and modifying the metals for use. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON LANGUAGE AMONG EARLY HUMANS see Language. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 228-31 + MODERN TECHNOLOGY see Physicol Science: Engineering. Medicol Science: Surgery & Nanotechnology. CHAPTER 8, PAGES 332·3, 342-3,350·1

CIRCA 3500 B.C. Sumerians develop cities 266 CIRCA 2900 B.C. Powerfu l city-states emerge in Sumer 1;:: 2334 B.C. o King Sargon of Akkad conquers Sumer l- 1792 B.C. Hammurabi establishes V> Babylonian Empire I CIRCA 900 B.C. o Assyrians expand in northe rn Mesopotamia oa--:-:' 539 B.C. ~ Cyrus the Great of Persia z conquers Babylonians w >w V> a:: w I- \"«- I U oo~ ~--------------------------~ co a:: arking the dawn of human civilization, in temples, and scribes kept accounts by drawing pictographs of common w objects such as sheaves of grain. Over time, those pictographs evolved into ~ abstract characters known as cunei- zV> ancient cultures built impressive cities or form, inscribed in clay with a stylus. Su- « ceremonial centers adorned with fine works merian scribes used this form of writ- ing not just for bookkeeping but also of art and architecture. All had strong rul- to inscribe on clay tablets their laws and legends, thus preserving a record ers capable of commanding the services of their civilization for posterity. of thousands for public projects or military campaigns. Most By 2900 B.C., Sumerian cities were expanding into city-states that con- used writing to keep records, codify laws, and preserve wis- trolled surrounding villages. Warfare between rival city-states such as Ur dom and lore in the form of literature. and Uruk, which had more than 50,000 inhabitants, took its toll. In 2334 B.C. The world's first civilization arose in Building and maintaining that irriga- southern Mesopotamia, where the tion system required strong leadership Tigris and Euphrates converged to and yielded agricultural surpluses that form a fertile floodplain. Here the Su- fed people in emerging Sumerian cities, merians dug canals to bring river wa- where merchants and artisans pursued ter to their fields in the dry season. their trades. Surplus grain was stored FAST FACT Assynan armies numbered up to 200.000 men and were divided Into several diviSions: cavalry, light Infantry armed With bows, and heavy Infantry armed With swords and spears. FOR MORE FACTS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF CITIES IN HUMAN CULTURE see Cities, CHAPTER 6, PAGES 260·1 + MATHEMATICAL ADVANCES MADE BY THE ANCIENT BABYLONIANS see Counting & Measurement. CHAPTER 8, PAGE 323

the Sumerians were conquered by T u RK Cas p ian Sargon of Akkad, a land to their north, HETH Sea. who forged an empire reaching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. 4, ME DIA His dynasty was short-lived, but later Mesopotamian rulers followed. Among E\", ~ .r ASSYRIA them was Hammurabi, from Babylon, who united Mesopotamia under his ,01.;. 0 267 authority and codified the laws of his realm. The Babylonian Empire he fos- , .0 oli-11i I RAN »z tered was shattered in 1595 B.C. by the Hittites, invaders from the northwest. M edi.te r ranean S YRIAN AKKAD.>-so-'':to~ Vl Their collapse around 1200 B.C. left a DESERT void in the region that was later filled Sea fCANAAN Babylon,~ -1 ~ by the Assyrians, who wielded iron ISRAE \"-so' weapons and ruled with an iron first. -l Jerusalem-, I ~ m ·- o~ IRA Erech.SUMERIA In 612 B.C., Babylonians overthrew I:qWER ;;D the Assyrians and regained power. EG PT ELAM Storming Jerusalem, they carried cap- ooOJ tive Jews off to Babylon but yielded to fertile Crescent Ur' PARSA superior force in 539 B.C. when Per- A sians led by Cyrus the Great overran ,IEGYPT ...., 0';.......m,i \"-==~~4~0, 0 KUWAIl (PERSIA) the region and went on to forge the 11 largest empire the world had yet wit- 0 km 400 Persian nessed-from northern India to Egypt. Gulf THE MIDDLE EAST, or Near East, extends from the southern and eastern Mediterranean to Iraq, once called Mesopotamia. Centers of civilization clustered in this fertile land in ancient times. WHAT IS THE MIDDLE EAST? Because the Middle East straddles two Christianity. In medieval times, it gave continents, armies, migrants, mer- rise to Islam . chants, and ideas have long moved steadily through the region. In recent times, the discovery of vast oil reserves and the establishment In ancient times, this was the Fer- of Israel in this largely Muslim region tile Crescent, the cradle of civilization, have made the Middle East one of the and the birthplace of Judaism and world's most hotly contested areas. FAST FACT Some Sumenans sold themselves or members of their family Into slavery to escape poverty or debt. WHAT WAS HAMMURABI'S CODE? IMPRESSIONS IN CLAY evolved into the Hammurabi's Code is a collection of the two and cast them into the wa- first system of writing, such as those shown in laws written during the reign of Ham- ter. \" Yet the very act of putting laws this transcription of Hammurabi 's Code. murabi in the 18th century B.C. and in writing protected people from ar- recorded on a stela, a stone marker, bitrary punishment. If defendants felt in the temple of the Babylonian god they had not received justice under Marduk. It was discovered in 190 I. the law, they could appeal to Hammu- rabi, who included as part of his legal By modern standards, the laws code, inscribed on the stela, these set forth by Hammurabi seem harsh. words: \"Let the oppressed man who \"If the wife of a man is caught lying has a cause come into the presence of with another man, \" Hammurabi's my statue and read carefully.\" Code decreed, authorities \"shall bind \":OR MORE -ACTS ON MEDICAL PRACTICES CITED IN HAMMURABI'S CODE see Medical Science: Surgery, CHAPTER 8, PAGE 342 + COUNTRIES IN THE MIDDLE EAST TODAY see Asia. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 380·3

co gypt's Nile Valley was one of the most fertile places a:: in the ancient world. Each summer, monsoon rains w swelled the Nile and flooded surrounding fields, depositing a rich layer of silt. In prehistoric times, ~ people settled along the river and began cultivating wheat and barley and building rafts of papyrus. Around 3000 zV> B.C., a king from Upper Egypt led forces into the Nile Delta and « CIRC A 3000 B.C. conquered Lower Egypt, founding the first of more than 30 dynasties that would rule this land over the next 3,000 years. King Narmer unifies Upper and Lower Egypt (the N ile De lta) Rulers from Thebes (today's Luxor) (ca ISSO B.c.-1070 B.C.). when Egypt inaugurated the Middle Kingdom reached the height of its power. New CIRCA 2700 B.C. / OLD KINGDOM around 20S0 B.c.-a time of expansion Kingdom rulers such as Ramses II sent Egyptian pharaohs begi n when Egyptian troops conquered much armies against the Hittites and other of Nubia (Sudan). Lords of Thebes Middle Eastern rivals. By 1000 B.C.. constructing huge pyramids also repelled an invasion by warriors however. Egypt was losing strength. In called Hyksos around 1630 B.C. Thebes centuries to come, it fell subject to one CIRCA 2550 B.C. emerged as capital of the New Kingdom foreign power after another. Pharaoh orders Great Pyramid at Giza CIRCA 2050 B.C. / MIDDLE KINGDOM After drought and famine. order is restored CIRCA 1630 B.C. Hyksos invade Nile Delta CI RCA 1550 B.C. / NEW KINGDOM Theban ru le begins FOR MORE FACTS ON EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMY AS THE BASIS FOR TODAY'S CALENDAR see Telling Time. CHAPTER 8, PAGE 325 + THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT TODAY see Africa. CHAPTER 9. PAGE 364

WHO WERE THE PHARAOHS? Along the Nile River, irrigation al- and laborers for military campaigns completed around 2500 B.C. Pyramids 269 lowed Egyptian farmers to increase and public projects. Over time, the symbolized the soaring ambitions of »z the amount of land under cultivation term \" pharaoh\" came to mean both pharaohs, who identified with the and to produce enough food to sup- the king and his palace. sun god Re. One text written in hi- Ul port people involved in other pursuits, eroglyphs by a royal scribe promised including priests and rulers. Powerful Around 2700 B.C., Egypt entered its that the pharaoh's spirit would rise up ~ men called pharaohs- a term mean- first great age of power and prosperity, from the pyramid and \"ascend to ing \"great house\"- collected taxes in known as the Old Kingdom, marked heaven as the eye of Re\"- inspiring m the form of grain and drafted troops by the construction of massive royal the image on the American dollar bill. tombs like the Great Pyramid at Giza, ;;D THE MUMMY of Ramses II, who reigned in WHAT'S A MUMMY? Egypt for 67 years, from 1279 to 1213 B.C., ooOJ now lies on display in the Cairo Museum. Egyptians sought to preserve the body In later times, however, many Egyp- A after death, fearing that the wandering tians were mummified and buried in soul might be lost if it had no corpse coffins on which spells were inscribed m to return to. Mummification, prepar- to ward off evil and launch the spirit Cl ing the body of the dead by removing safely on its heavenly journey. \" I shall perishable internal organs and em- sail rightly in my bark, \" reads one such -< balming the remains, was a practice verse. \"I am lord of eternity in the originally confined to royalty. Poor crossing of the sky.\" Mummified ani- \"lJ people buried their dead in the sand, mals were buried as offerings to dei- which inhibited decay. ties such as the cat goddess, Bastet. --I RAMSES III PHARAOH OF EGYPT It was not uncommon for Egyptian kings to have numerous wives and offspring, but Ramses II went to extremes by fathering more than 100 children during his long reign. His principal wife, Queen Nefertari, had to share him with many sec- ondary wives, including his sister. (Incestuous unions were common within the royal family.) Secondary wives sometimes lived together with their children in households called harems and performed useful tasks such as weaving. After bat- tling Hittites at Kadesh in Syria in 1285 B.C., Ramses made peace with the Hittite king by engaging to wed his eldest daughter. He then prayed to the gods to see her safely to Egypt: \"May you not send rain, icy blast or snow, until the marvel you have decreed for me shall reach me!\" \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE PLACE OF MYTH IN HUMAN HISTORY see Language. CHAPTER 6, PAGE 229 + THE PYRAMIDS & OTHER WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD see Engineering. CHAPTER 8, PAGE 333

CIRCA 2500 B.C. Harappan civilization develops CIRCA 700 B.C. Upanishads, Hindu scripture, composed 270 C IRCA 560 B.C. Siddhartha Gautama, founder 1;:: of Buddhism, is born in India o 327 B.C. l- Alexander the Great invades India V) 321 B.C. I Maurya dynasty is founded o oa--:-:' 5 z AD. 320 w >w Gupta dynasty is founded V) aw:: h-____________________________ I- «0.. I U n India, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, civilization arose Gautama, known to his followers as 'oo\" in a fertile floodplain-in this case, the Indus River Valley. the Buddha, or Enlightened One, and co the teachers who composed the Upa- nishads. a:: Abundant harvests from irrigated fields there fed the growth w Around 520 B.C., Persians con- quered the Indus Valley and made it 5 of cities such as Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, which gave a province of their empire. Two cen- turies later, Alexander the Great took V) control here but withdrew after his z troops rebelled. « its name to the Harappan civilization that emerged around Alexander's departure left be- 2500 B.C. Those cities were laid out on plans with standardized hind a power vacuum that was soon housing for the common people, larger residences for the elite, filled by Chandragupta Maurya, who came from the wealthy kingdom of and a sanitation system with bathrooms linked to sewers. Magadha in the Ganges Valley. He and his descendants forged an empire that Seasonal flooding helped nourish the mountain passes from Afghanistan and covered all of the Indian subcontinent fields but was sometimes catastrophic. Iran (named for the Aryans). Gradu- except its southern tip. That empire Mohenjo Daro had to be rebuilt at ally, Aryan rulers called rajas expand- reached its peak with the conquests least nine times. Ruinous floods may ed from the Indus Valley into the lush of Ashoka, who, after establishing his have contributed to the decline of Ganges Valley and formed more than Harappan civilization after 2000 B.C., a dozen states or kingdoms across when the cities were abandoned. northern India. Aryan doctrines were questioned and reinterpreted by In- Around 1500 B.C., invaders called dian philosophers such as Siddhartha Aryans entered the valley through FAST FACT Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language still used by Hindu scholars, IS related to Greek, Latin, German, and English-all belonging to the Indo-European language family. FOR MORE FACTS ON EARLY RELIGIONS OF INDIA see Hinduism & Buddhism CHAPTER 6, PAGES 234·5 + CITIES IN HUMAN CULTURE see Cities. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 260·1

expanded reign, renounced violence )'PrRham~n rA and embraced Buddhism. The Indus \\Valley FGHAN ISTAN 1 Dheri\", .~-~ l # Ashoka died around 235 B.C., and • Pre- ~arappan earl y • Mundigak ;-/'vl q,n.ab ~ V' j:' . India fractured into competing king- doms. In the fourth century A.D. anoth- (' Pe r ia n Oll er ruler from Magadha, called Chan- r - -Ghundai Ja lipu~ dra Gupta in honor of Chandragupta farming settlement / Ropar Maurya, begin reunifying India. Under . . Kile Gud . • va~' n•iwHaalrappa the Gupta dynasty, trade, crafts, sci- • Major City ~f . . . Mohamm ad. . Rana Ghundal _ ence, medicine, and the arts flourished. l JHarappan Ci Vilization ~ Damb--S-a\"daa~ By now, Hinduism was the dominant ~To_ g_a_u· • Debar Kt S . • Kah.bangen faith. Doctrines such as reincarnation Harappan heartland •• Mehrgarh • KudwaIa were enshrined in sacred texts like 2500 s.c t o 1800 B,C. 0 the Bhagavad Gita. The Gupta dynasty Nowsha ro • • Lurewala Ther declined around A.D. 450 as nomads from Central Asia invaded India. ~A ~~mi' ~~200 PAKISTAN Trekoe ) o km 200 • Nal _ Kotas0r-· 271 Mohenjo Daroe. ... »z IRAN ~ ~Lohum~' 0 Daroe Kat Dljl INDIA Ul • Chanhu Da ra Sut kagen .So Pandi Wahi- I ~ Do r. Amri. m • ~ • .Ka~h~ ;;D :I-Sot ka Koh Balakot ooOJ A ll ahdi~~~ Ghara Bhi 0 A A r ab i an --.; .De: a lpur iurkotada . S ea \",of' z Kotada OMAN o \"Ra ngpur. • Lotha l » Present-day country boundaries and names shown in gray. THE RICH INDUS RIVER VALLEY in today's Pakistan and northwestern India cradled a remarkably sophisticated society in the third and second millennium B.C. Remains of ancient cities suggest an organized economy, social hierarchy, and civic infrastructure. WHAT'S THE CASTE SYSTEM? India's caste system had its origins in and landowners, and an underclass of to social status. Children were to take the class system of the Aryans, who laborers and peasants. The lowest of up the work of their parents and to invaded India around 1500 B.C. and the low were so-called untouchables, marry within their caste. Although long dominated the country. who performed tasks considered individuals had little opportunity to unclean such as butchering animals. advance socially, the caste to which At the top of the Aryan social they belonged sometimes rose in hierarchy were priests known as Over time an elaborate caste status as its members gained wealth Brahmans, followed by a ruling warrior system evolved, with hundreds of and political power. class, commoners such as merchants occupational groups ranked according ASHOKA I PROMOTER OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA Like the Roman emperor Constantine, whose conversion spread Christianity through the Mediterranean world, the Indian emperor Ashoka (ca 265 B.c.-235 B.C.) embraced Buddhism and promoted its teachings across Asia. Ashoka underwent his conversion after a brutal campaign of conquest in which his troops claimed tens of thousands of lives. Renouncing violence, he devoted himself to peaceful pursuits, including founding hospitals and building roads and inns to promote travel and trade. He preached religiOUS tolerance and stressed principles such as mercy, compassion, and kindness to animals, appealing to Indians of various sects, who believed that all creatures had souls. By supporting Buddhist monasteries and missionaries, he helped the faith he espoused advance beyond India to Tibet, Southeast Asia, and China. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON INDIA'S CASTE SYSTEM see Race. Class & Gender, CHAPTER 6, PAGES 226·7 + GEOGRAPHY & NATIONAL PRODUCTS OF INDIA TODAY see Asia, CHAPTER 9, PAGE 386

co hina's first kings came to power along the a:: Yellow River, so called for the yellow soil along w its banks. That rich soil was fertile, but it clogged the river and caused floods. Chinese chronicles ~ credit a king named Yu with taming the river's floods and founding the Xia dynasty. Rulers mobilized laborers zV> for flood-control projects and grew stronger in the process. « CIRCA 2200 B.C. Beginning around 1750 B.C., the Shang surrounded the royal district. Like Civi lization emerges along Yellow River dynasty succeeded the Xia and ex- other ancient civilizations, the Chinese panded beyond the Yellow River became highly stratified, with great CIRCA 1750 B.C. Valley. Around their cities, the Chi- gaps in wealth and status between rul- Shang dynasty begins nese built defensive walls up to 35 ers or nobles, peasants or slaves. feet thick, made of earth rammed CIRCA 1100 B.C. between a frame of timbers. At the Around I 100 B.C., challengers Z ho u dynasty begi ns and expands south Shang capital, Anyang, from about from western China overthrew the 1300 B.C., villages and workshops Shang and founded the Zhou dynasty, CIRCA 550 B.C. for bronze smiths and other artisans whose rulers claimed they had a man- Philosopher Confucius is born date from heaven to govern China as 403 B.C. Period of the Warring States 221-206 B.C. Q in Shi Huangdi is emperor of China AD. 220 H an dynasty collapses FOR MORE FACTS ON SOIL CLASSIFICATIONS & ELEMENTS THAT MAKE SOIL FERTILE see Soil, CHAPTER 3, PAGES 96·7 + THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF THE WORLD' S RIVERS see Rivers, CHAPTER 3, PAGES 116-7

long as they did so wisely and justly. dynasty in 206 B.C., which lasted more BRONZE EFFIGIES of ancestral spirits al- 273 Their kingdom reached southward than four centuries. lowed veneration of ancestors, an ancient to the fertile Yangtze River Valley, tradition in China. Confucius urged his follow- »z where rice was cultivated. To rule Han emperors governed China with ers to revere their parents and honor them that vast domain, they relied on local the help of officials schooled in the after death. Many Chinese did so by making Vl lords, who had their own troops and teachings of Confucius, a philosopher offerings of food and wine to ancestral spirits. equipped them with iron weapons. By born around 550 B.C. who urged rulers ~ the fifth century B.C., Zhou rulers had to lead by moral example. \"Approach China fractured into rival kingdoms and lost control of those lords, and their your duties with reverence and be was menaced by invaders from Central m kingdom was splitting into rival states. trustworthy,\" Confucius advised; \"em- Asia, who were advancing on several ploy the labor of the common people fronts and threatening other empires ;;D After nearly 200 years of strife, only in the right seasons.\" Han rulers around the world. known as the Period of the Warring did not always follow that advice. Peas- ooOJ States, the ruler of the strongest state, ants remained desperately poor and Qin, unified China and took the title were often conscripted to serve on A Qin Shi Huangdi (First Emperor). The the empire's expanding frontiers, from heavy demands he placed on the pop- Vietnam to the Korean peninsula. Late () ulace led to a rebellion after the First Han emperors faced uprisings, and in Emperor's death, ushering in the Han A.D. 220 the dynasty came to an end. I »Z FAST FACT Emperor Qin Shl Huangdl wanted to link defensive barriers In northern China into one wall that measured 10,000 II- roughly 3,000 mileS- In length. Ultimately, the Great Wall was expanded to a total of more than 4,000 miles. WHO WAS CHINA'S FIRST EMPEROR? Many of history's great empire-builders were more feared than admired. Qin Shi Huangdi, the man who laid the foundation for imperial China, was no exception. He executed his critics, burned their writings, and forced millions to work on public projects, including the defensive barrier that became the Great Wall of China. He also built roads, standardized laws and coinage, and instituted a common script that allowed Chinese ethnic groups who spoke many different languages to communicate in writing. When this accomplished and dreaded ruler died in 210 B.C., he was buried in an immense tomb surrounded by the bodies of slaves sacrificed for the occasion. Arrayed within the tomb were also thousands of lifelike soldiers molded of clay with great artistry, an army that would never tire. A FIERCE WARRIOR, one among an estimated 8,000, stands guard in the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi near Xi'an, China. The entire underground terra-cotta army was not discovered until the I970s. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF ANCESTORS, FAMILY & KINSHIP see The Human Family. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 222-3 + '.c..METALLURGY DURING THE BRONZE AGE see Prehistory 10.000 '.c.-3500 CHAPTER 7, PAGE 265

co n 500 B.C., Greeks living along the eastern shore of the a:: Aegean Sea rebelled against their Persian masters, setting w at odds two of the world's most accomplished societies. Greek civilization went back more than a thousand years ~ to the time when Mycenaeans swept down from the north and occupied mainland Greece and islands such as Crete, home zV> to the Minoans, maritime traders who built splendid palaces. « Heirs to Mycenaean and Minoan tra- the Indus River to the Nile and the CIRCA 1600 B.C. ditions, Greeks established powerful Black Sea. Emperor Darius, who took Mycenaeans occupy Crete city-states like Athens and Sparta and power in 522 B.C., divided this realm planted colonies on distant shores. into provinces and appointed men to 558 S.c. govern and collect taxes, which paid for Cyrus becomes king of Persia The Persians rose to glory under a grand capital at Persepolis and a road Cyrus the Great and his successors, to Ephesus on the Aegean Sea. 480-479 S.c. who forged an immense empire from Greeks defeat Persians; Greco-Persian Wars end FAST FACT In the Athenian democracy, only free adult males born in Athens 404 S.c. voted. Neither women, nor slaves, nor foreigners could vote. Sparta defeats Athens; Pelo ponnesian War ends 336 S.c. Alexander takes power 323 S.c. Death of Al exander the Great FOR MORE FACTS ON THE COUNTRIES OF GREECE & IRAN TODAY see Europe, CHAPTER 9, PAGE 405, & Asia, CHAPTER 9, PAGE 386 + HOW THE ANCIENT GREEKS MEASURED THE EARTH see Dividing Unes, CHAPTER I, PAGE 31

When Greek cities rebelled against O\"\"\"\",:::ii:jm§jiiii:= -_3 0 0 THRACIANS Black. Sea Darius, Athens came to their aid and HITTITES repulsed Persian forces at Marathon o km 300 275 in 490 B.C. Darius's successor, Xerxes, then raised a huge army, but Athenians, .c~~./'1> ;·'~· »z united with Spartans and other Greeks, shattered the Persian fleet in 480 and Thapsos. Ul defeated Xerxes' army a year later- the end of Persian expansion and the Sicily ~ dawn of a golden age for Greece. Ath- ens fostered democracy by granting all Mediterranean •l>-~aS''s m adult male citizens the right to vote, and Sea the works of its artists, playwrights, po- EG'i\\,'1:1f\\N'P ;;D ets, and philosophers formed the basis ---t~~ Minoan and of classical Western culture. Mycenaean ooOJ trade routes Macedonians led by King Philip II A conquered Greece in 338 B.C. and went on to attack Persia under the C'I king's ambitious son, Alexander the Great. Schooled in Greek like other ;;D noble Macedonians, Alexander made the Persian Empire his own. m m After his death at age 32, Alex- ander's empire was divided among () his top generals, and Greek learning m FROM GREECE AND NEARBY ISLANDS, passages of trade and conquest spread out in all directions. First the Minoans and then the Mycenaeans dominated Mediterranean trade routes. Eventually the Phoenicians, living on the coast of today's Lebanon, gained dominance in the region. became part of the cultural heritage of in the fifth century A.D., leaving the the Middle East. That legacy outlasted Byzantine Empire in control around the Roman Empire, which crumbled the eastern Mediterranean. ALEXANDER THE GREAT I HERO OF ANCIENT GREECE Tutored in his youth by the philosopher Aristotle, Alexander the Great (356 B.c.-323 B.C.) loved Greek culture and considered himself a Greek hero, claiming descent from the Homeric hero Achilles, legendary leader of the assault on Troy. Some Greeks, however, viewed the Macedonian-born Alexander as a foreign despot. Soon after he took the throne, he faced a rebellion from the Greek city of Thebes and razed it to the ground, slaughtering thousands and enslaving others. Not until he waged war on the Persians, archenemies of the Greeks, did he become their champion. Greeks liv- ing under Persian rule hailed him as a liberator. After conquering the Persian Empire, he founded cities on the Greek model. Chief among them was Alexandria, in Egypt. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON EARLY METHODS OF MAPMAKING & NAVIGATION see NaVigation, CHAPTER I, PAGES 38·9 + CULTURAL CENTERS IN THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST see Mesopotamia 3500 B.c.-500 B.C., CHAPTER 7, PAGE 267

509 S.c. no Rome establishes repub lic 0' 264- 146 S.c. Punic W ars with Carthage V> V> 44 S.c. 'c\" 276 Julius Caesar assassinated 3 1;:: fj o 31 S.c. 3 l- Fi rst Ro man emperor, Augustus -'\" V) CT I C o AD. 117 ;'';\"\"l oa--:-:' Empi re reaches peak under Trajan M 5 AD. 330 n Constantine founds Constanti nople '\"::J z .MC., w '< ~ AD. 476 l> V) Ro me fall s to Ge rmanic invaders !=> a:: w I- «0.. I U o'o\" uilt on hills above the Tiber River, Rome began its the general Hannibal, Carthage was co phenomenal ascent to power in 509 S.c. when it ultimately defeated. After burning the city to the ground in 146 B.C., Romans a:: won independence from the Etruscans, who had reportedly plowed its ashes under w 5 long dominated the area. After ousting their Etruscan with salt so that nothing would grow V) «z king, Romans created a republic in which aristocrats there again. By 100 B.C., the Romans had conquered Greece and were called patricians elected two consuls to lead them for a year. masters of the Mediterranean. The wealth and prestige Roman gen- Consuls were guided by aristocrats in were eyeing Sicily. Opponents who erals gained through conquest allowed the senate, leaving the common people, submitted to their authority were them to defy the senate and impose called plebeians, powerless. Plebeians treated generously, and some became their will politically. After defeating the eventually won the right to elect Roman citizens. Those who remained Gauls in France, julius Caesar returned tribunes and one of the two consuls. defiant were crushed. to Rome in 49 B.C., seized power, and Although social tensions persisted, No rival proved more defiant than ruled as dictator. His assassination in 44 plebeians now had a stake in Rome's Carthage, a North African city of B.C. by conspirators who hoped to pre- success, and so they served dutifully in Phoenician origin that controlled Spain serve the republic triggered a bloody Roman legions, often receiving land in and other lands around the west- civil war. This struggle ended in 3 I B.C. areas they conquered. ern Mediterranean and clashed with when Caesar's nephew Gaius Octa- By 265 B.C., Romans had gained Rome over Sicily in the first of three vius defeated Mark Antony and his ally, control of the Italian peninsula and Punic Wars. Despite heroic efforts by Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, and took FAST FACT At its height, Rome had a population of more than one million, making It the largest city In the ancient world. FOR MORE FACTS ON THE CALENDAR USED IN ANCIENT ROME see Telling Time. CHAPTER 8, PAGE 324 + THE GEOGRAPHY & ECONOMICS OF ITALY TODAY see Europe. CHAPTER 9, PAGE 404

the title Augustus (\"revered one\"). As ROMULUS AND 277 Rome's first emperor, he wielded ab- REMUS, fabled solute power. His successors likewise founders of the city »z expanded the empire, which by the of Rome, were said second century A.D. stretched from to have been raised Vl Mesopotamia to Britain. by a she-wolf. ~ This huge realm came under stress JEWS, CHRISTIANS, AND ROME in the third century as invaders began m pouring across Roman frontiers. As Duringthefirstcentury A.D.,Jews inJudea, aRoman province, chafed under Roman the crisis deepened, Christianity- rule. The emperor was hailed as a god, but Jews, who worshipped one supreme ;;D whose adherents rejected the cult of God, were forbidden to serve idols. Some hoped for a messiah, or savior, to free the divine emperor and worshipped a them from Roman rule. Jesus of Nazareth offered no resistance to Rome but ooOJ higher authority-won greater accep- foretold a kingdom of God surpassing any empire on earth. After his death, both tance. When the emperorConstantine Christians, who believed he was the Messiah, and Jews faced persecution. After A embraced Christianity and moved his a Jewish revolt, Romans sacked Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and destroyed its temple. capital in A.D. 330 to Constantinople, o;;D a more defensible place, Rome lost its • aura of invincibility. In the fifth century, ::5: Huns advancing from Central Asia into eastern Europe displaced Vandals, m Visigoths, and other Germanic tribes, who then overwhelmed Italy. Rome fell in 476, leaving what remained of the Roman world to Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. , No one is so brave that he is not disturbed by something unexpected. \" ' - JULIUS CAESAR, CIRCA 55 B.C. JULIUS CAESAR I ROMAN GENERAL & DICTATOR Julius Caesar (100 B.c.-44 B.C.) rose to power by subduing the Gauls, a Celtic people living on either side of the Alps. Celtic culture originated around 1000 B.C. along the upper Danube Riverand spread across France to northern Italy and Spain and the Brit- ish Isles. Celts mastered ironworking and were formidable warriors but lacked unity. Caesar recruited Gauls in northern Italy to bolster his legions, and then he crushed defiant Gauls in France led by Vercingetorix, who was hauled off to Rome in chains and eventually executed. Caesar captured an estimated one million Gauls and sold them as slaves, amassing a huge fortune, which he used to purchase the loyalty of troops and maintain power. From Gaul, he went on to military victories in Britain and Egypt. He became dictator in 46 B.C. but was assassinated two years later. \":OR MORE\"\"ACTS ON JUDAISM & CHRISTIANITY see Religion: Monotheism. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 236·7 + THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AFTER THE FALL OF ROME see Middle Ages 500-1000. CHAPTER 7, PAGES 278-9

.'M\" :cc::lr 278 he Middle Ages began with the collapse of the Roman Empire around 500 and ended around 1;:: 1500 with exploration of the New World . The early Middle Ages have been called the Dark o Ages-an era when Germanic tribes overran Roman provinces, leaving few written records to shed light on l- events. The Byzantine Empire, however, based in Constan- tinople, flourished and expanded under Emperor Justinian. V) His realm nearly encircled the Medi- Byzantine patriarch as their spiritual I terranean by the time he died in 565. father, or pope-and lost ground to Thereafter, Byzantine power slowly Muslim rulers who were forging their o declined as his successors lost control own empire. of Italy-where Christians recognized oc--r-:' the bishop of Rome rather than the Islam arose in Mecca, where the 5 Arab prophet Muhammad was born z w >w V) cr: w I- \"«- I U 'oo\" co cr: w 5 V) z « 630 Muhammad and followers take Mecca 661 A li ki lled; Umayyad dynasty founded 732 Martel defeats Muslims at Battle of Tours 750 Abbasid dynast y founded in Baghdad 800 Charlemagne crowned emperor in Rome 962 Otto I becomes Holy Roman Emperor FOR MORE FACTS ON THE ANCIENT CITY OF ROME & THE ROMAN EMPIRE see Rome 500 6.C.·A.D. 500, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 276-7 + ROMAN & BYZANTINE ART & LITERATURE IN THE RENAISSANCE see Rena;ssance & Reformat;on 1500·1650. CHAPTER 7, PAGE 294

around 570. Traveling widely as a mer- By the eighth century, the Islamic domain beyond France and Germany 279 chant, he came in contact with Jews world extended across North Africa to Italy and northern Spain, where and Christians. When he was around to Spain. In 750, Abu ai-Abbas over- Roman Catholic Franks halted the »z 40, he experienced a revelation in threw the Umayyad dynasty, whose advance of Islam. Charlemagne was which he recognized Allah (God) caliphs ruled from Damascus, and crowned emperor in Rome in 800 by Vl as supreme and all-encompassing founded the Abbasid dynasty, based Pope Leo III, but his empire fractured and embraced Islam, which means in Baghdad. Scholars flocked there after he died. Europe remained a feu- ~ submission to Allah. \"There is no God from many lands to study the Koran dal society in which serfs owed du- but Allah,\" Muslims declared ever af- as well as classical works by Persian, ties to their lords, who in turn served m ter, \"and Muhammad is his prophet.\" Greek, and Indian sages, including as vassals to higher nobility. In some In 630, he and his followers returned treatises on medicine and mathemat- places, kings arose: For example, Al- ;;D from exile and conquered Mecca, ics. Arabic numerals and algebra were fred of Wessex reclaimed part of Brit- whose holiest shrine, the Kaaba, be- among the gifts of Muslim scholars to ain from invading Vikings-adventur- ooOJ came the required pilgrimage of de- modern science. ers from Scandinavia who ranged far vout Muslims. in their longships, raiding, trading, and A Western Europe was divided among colonizing places such as Iceland and After Muhammad died in 632, various Germanic tribes until the rise Normandy, named for the Norsemen 3: rulers called caliphs united Arabia of Charlemagne, who became king of who settled there. under Islam and spread their faith the Franks in 768 and extended his o through conquest and conversion. o r m » CI m Vl ~~';:_'...7,r\"}\">J . - J'~,~\"J:'1&_.:..~;,U\\I~\", •J• SHIITE AND SUNNI MUSLIMS After the death of Muhammad, disputes arose among his followers as to who should become the leader of the religion of Islam. Some supported his cousin and son-in-law, Ali , as caliph, or religiOUS leader. Others-including Aisha, Muhammad's last wife-favored other candidates. Ali became the fourth caliph in 656 and ruled the Islamic world until he was assassinated in 661. Muslims known as Shiites (from shiat-u-Afi, the party of Ali) believed that only a descendant of Ali should be caliph and opposed the Umayyad dynasty that took power after he died . Sunni Muslims- named for the sunnah, or practice, of Muhammad himself -accepted as legitimate caliphs those who were just and devout, whether or not they descended from Muhammad. The two groups differed in ritual and doctrine and perpetuated a lasting division within the world of Islam. MOSES AND MUHAMMAD converse with the archangel Gabriel in this 16th-century Turkish illuminated manuscript. Muhammad, the rightmost of the central three figures, wears a veil over his face. According to Islamic law, no portrayal may reveal the face of the Prophet Muhammad. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE HISTORY & BELIEFS OF ISLAM see Religion: Monotheism. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 236-7 + VIKING EXPEDITIONS TO THE NEW WORLD see World Navigation 1492-1522. CHAPTER 7, PAGE 293

sacred to Christians as well as Muslims. 1000-1500 In 1095, he called for a crusade against the Turks. The turmoil in the Middle East had made it unsafe for Christians to make pilgrimages there, and many Catholics blamed the Turks and an- D280 uring the late Middle Ages, capturing Syria and Palestine from the swered the pope's call. 1;:: Christian Europeans clashed Fatimids-a rival Muslim dynasty- The First Crusade began badly when o with Muslims in the Middle and advancing into Anatolia (Turkey), a zealot named Peter the Hermit led an l- V) I East. The Crusades that led to war in where they defeated Byzantine forces. undisciplined army to a disastrous de- o the Holy Land resulted from divisions In response, the Byzantine emperor feat. Meanwhile, nobles in France were oc--r:' within both worlds. sought help from western Europe. The assembling a stronger fighting force that 5 By 1000, Seljuk Turks from Central Eastern Orthodox Church had recent- succeeded in capturing Jerusalem in Asia were pouring into the Middle ly broken with the Roman Catholic 1099. Bands of crusaders then carved z East and converting to Islam. In 1055, Church, and Pope Urban II in Rome out states along the eastern Mediterra- w >w a Turk named Tughril Beg became sul- hoped to regain authority in the east- nean. The capture of one such state by V) cr: tan (chieftain) in Baghdad. He and his ern Mediterranean by securing Jerusa- Turks prompted the Second Crusade w I- successors embarked on conquests, lem and other sites in the Holy Land in I 147, which made no gains. In I 171 \"«- the sultan Saladin wrested Egypt from I u the Fatimids and went on to reclaim Jerusalem for Muslims in I 187. Later o'o\" Catholic crusaders were unable to win the Holy Land back and turned against CO cr: Orthodox Christians in Constantino- w 5 ple, sacking that city in 1204 and leav- V) «z ing the Byzantine Empire vulnerable to future assaults by Turks. Although the Crusades failed militar- ily, they introduced Europeans to allur- ing goods from Asia and opened trade routes. Italian city-states such as Venice and Florence prospered through trade with Asia, and Marco Polo and other merchants journeyed to China. In 1453, Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and tightened their grip on overland trade with Asia. Seeking maritime routes to the Far East, Euro- THIRTEENTH-CENTURY CRUSADERS, shown crossing the Bosporus in this painting, peans sailed around Africa and crossed believed that they were fighting a holy war in their quest to conquer the Islamic Middle East. the Atlantic to the New World. FAST FACT By the time the Crusades began in 1095. Muslim conquests in the Middle East. North Africa. and Spain had reduced the scope of the Christian world by two-thirds. FOR MORE FACTS ON MAPMAKING IN THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES see The History of Mapping, CHAPTER I, PAGES 20-1 + THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES see Middle Ages 500-1000, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 278-9

WHAT WAS THE BUBONIC PLAGUE? MEDIEVAL PHYSICIANS wore protective The bubonic plague is a fatal disease some places, Christians blamed Jews 281 clothing to try to save their own health while carried by fleas that infested rodents. for the plague and attacked them. treating victims of the plague. In 1347, it reached Europe from Asia »z and wreaked havoc. The characteristic In the long run, Europe proved symptom was swelling of the lymph remarkably resilient. Those who sur- Vl nodes, also called buboes (hence the vived the Black Death lived to seek a name). The disease was also known better existence. The primary method ~ as the \"black death,\" referring to the of treatment for the plague was isola- dark sores that covered the bodies of tion, and these measures that evolved m victims before they died . into higher quality hospitals and medi- cal treatments. The ensuing labor ;;D The Black Death of Europe, one shortage meant workers could com- of the most widespread outbreaks mand higher wages, and their standard ooOJ of plague in history, decimated popu- of living rose. By 1450, kingdoms such lations during the 14th century. This as France, England, and Spain- where A fearful pandemic killed more than 20 Islam gave way to Christianity- were million people in Europe and reduced gaining strength politically and eco- 3: the population there by at least one- nomically and would soon wield power fourth . Outbreaks caused hysteria. In around the globe. o o r m » C'I m Vl •; Pandemic: Fro m Greek pan + demos, \"all people.\" A disease affecting a wide area and a large percentage of that area's population. I Chivalry: From French cheval, \" horse.\" The knightly class of feudal times; knights or fully armed and mounted fighting men, hence the gallantry and honor expected of knights. \" To sacrifice what you are and to live without belief-that is a fate more\" terrible than dying. - JOAN OF ARC, 1431 JOAN OF ARC I MYSTIC, MILITARY HERO & MARTYR No hero loomed larger during the Hundred Years' War than the young woman known as Joan of Arc (1412-1431), a farmer's daughter who inspired French re- sistance to English forces occupying northern France in the early 1400s. A mystic who heard the voices of saints, she sometimes wore men's clothing and believed that God had ordered her to expel the English from France. She urged on French troops, who defeated the English at Orleans in 1429, advancing the cause of young King Charles VII. A year later she was captured at Compiegne, in northern France, while leading troops against the Duke of Burgundy, a French ally of the English, and was tried as a heretic. In 1431, at the age of 19, she was burned at the stake. She remained a hero to foes of the English, who were ultimately forced out of France. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY & ISLAM see Monotheism. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 236·7 + THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE & ITS BATTLE AGAINST DISEASE see Medicol Science. CHAPTER 8, PAGES 338·9

CIRCA 800 Muslim caravans cross Sahara CIRCA 900 Muslims reach Mogadishu in East Africa 282 1235 Mali ruler Sundiata starts empire in 1;:: W est Africa, absorbi ng Ghana o 1324 l- Mali's Mansa Musa treks to Mecca V) 1441 I Portuguese begin taking slaves o from W est Africa o-a-::' 5 z 1464 w >w Songhai ruler Sunni Ali starts empire in V) W est Africa, absorbing Mali a:: w I- «0.. I U o'o\" frica underwent rapid economic and political crafting masks and other ritual objects co development during the Middle Ages as trade honoring those spirits. Contact with the Islamic world a:: developed by caravan between the Mediter- brought prosperityand powerto Ghana, w 5 ranean coast and West Africa and by ship be- which expanded before coming under V) «z tween lands around the Indian Ocean and East attack by nomads sweeping down from the Sahara around 1200. Those disrup- Africa. By 750, Egypt and other North African countries that tive raids allowed the Mali Empire to were once part of the Roman or Byzantine Empires had come absorb Ghana and surrounding areas. under Muslim rule. Some people there adhered to other faiths, The Mali emperor Mansa Musa, who took power in I3 I2 and reigned for a notably Ethiopians in isolated areas who remained Christian. quarter century, was a devout Muslim and helped make his capital, Timbuktu, By the ninth century, Muslim mer- in exchange for gold, ivory, and a great center of Islamic culture. In the chants were crossing the Sahara by slaves. (Africa was just one source of mid-1400s, Mali was in turn absorbed camel from the Mediterranean coast slaves-a word derived from Slavs, by the Songhai Empire, which domi- to trade with people living in West Af- many of whom were seized in eastern nated West Africa for more than a rica along the Senegal and Niger Riv- Europe and enslaved.) The rulers of century before suffering a devastating ers, a fertile area that gave rise to pow- Ghana converted to Islam but were defeat by troops from Morocco and erful states. That trade benefited the slow to abandon such traditional re- collapsing. emerging kingdom of Ghana, which ligious practices as praying to images In East Africa, Muslim merchants ar- obtained cloth, salt, weapons, and of ancestral spirits or nature gods. riving by sea at ports like Mogadishu other goods from Muslim merchants Great artistry and devotion went into and Mombasa encountered Swahilis, or FOR MORE FACTS ON THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA see Africa. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 360·1 + THE COUNTRIES OF AFRICA TODAY, INCLUDING GHANA see Africa. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 362·77

\"coasters,\" who embraced Islam and Some inland kingdoms flourished But the slave trade did not become 283 incorporated Arabic and Persian words as a result, notably Zimbabwe, whose a consuming and catastrophic business into their language as their prosper- imposing capital, Great Zimbabwe, in Africa until Europeans began ship- »z ous towns grew into city-states. Swa- was graced with impressive stone ar- ping black Africans across the Atlantic. hili merchants served as middlemen, chitecture and home to nearly 20,000 By the late 1400s, Portuguese traders Vl trading to merchants from abroad people. Like kingdoms in West Africa, were exporting a few thousand slaves goods they obtained from Africans in Zimbabwe flourished by selling slaves each year-a mere trickle compared ~ the interior. as well as gold and ivory. with the massive transports to come. m WHAT IS SWAHILI? CLAY STATUETTES found by archaeol- ogists at Jenne-jeno, an Iron Age city of Mali in ;;D The Swahili language is the most Swahili, an amalgam of many different West Africa, may represent ancestral spirits. widely spoken language in Africa languages. ooOJ today, where it is a first or second language for millions living in East In Swahili, for example, the A and central Africa. It evolved on the numbers six (sita) , seven (saba), and so-called Swahili coast of Africa- the nine (tisa) are borrowed from Arabic, eastern coastline, edging the Indian whereas the other numbers from Ocean, from Tanzania to Kenya. one through ten are of Bantu origin. The Swahili word for tea (chai) is of Along this coast, native Bantu Persian origin . Other terms have been speakers came into contact with acquired from Europeans, including merchants or colonists from Arabia, the words meaning table (meza, from Persia, and other lands. They absorbed Portuguese), bus (basi, from English), words from foreigners and created and school (shu/e, from German). MANSA MUSA I EMPEROR, TRAVELER & TRADER The Mali emperor Mansa Musa became a legendary figure in the Islamic world when he made a spectacular pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, taking with him more than 1,000 followers and 100 camels, each carrying 300 pounds of gold. Accord- ing to one Arab chronicler, he disbursed so much gold in Egypt that he caused the value of that precious metal to plummet. He greatly impressed the Arabs, but their culture made an even deeper impression on him. Returning to his capital Timbuktu, he brought with him an Arabic library and an Arab architect, who built a mosque and palace there. Under Mansa Musa, Timbuktu became to Africa what Baghdad was to the Middle East-a haven for Muslim scholars, artists, and poets. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD see Language. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 228-31 + TRADE & COMMERCE AS AN ELEMENT OF HUMAN SOCIETY see Commerce. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 254-7

cC:P 0. 0. :::r i..n..' oc- m'\" ~ m:n:J .''.\"\".. h1 3 '0 CD -c:, ::J Y' » ~ 6-, ~ n '3\" c- O 0. 0;' co a:: n Asia as in Europe and other regions, faith loomed large during the Middle Ages, but Asian societies held diverse w beliefs. Most people in India, for example, were Hindus, but the Indus Valley region to the north was ruled in the ~ early seventh century by a devout Buddhist, King Harsha, zV> and was later conquered by Muslims, who eventually con- « 606 verted much of what is now Pakistan to Islam. Buddhist King H arsha ru les in India 618 C hina's Tang dynasty begins 794 Japanese imperial court at H eian (Kyoto) 960 Indian merchants brought various there, including the great 12th-century goods, customs, and beliefs to South- Hindu shrine, Angkor Wat. China's Song dynasty arises east Asia. Rulers of Funan, in south- ern Indochina, called themselves rajas, In China, Buddhism coexisted with 1113 worshipped Hindu deities, and ad- Confucianism. Following the short- opted Sanskrit. After Funan collapsed, lived Sui dynasty, emperors of the Khmer king begins Angkor W at Khmers took power in Cambodia and Tang dynasty endorsed Confucian embraced Hinduism and later Bud- ideals and required office-seekers to 1279 dhism. Beginning around 900, Khmer show knowledge of Confucian texts in rulers built monuments to both faiths civil service examinations. China flour- Kublai Khan ends Ch ina's Song dynasty ished under the Tang dynasty and the 1368 Mongol ru le ends in China; M ing dynasty begi ns FOR MORE FACTS ON THE HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN THE INDUS RIVER VALLEY see Ind;a 2500 B.C.-A.D. 500, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 270·1 + THE GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA see As;a, CHAPTER 9, PAGES 378-9

Song dynasty that succeeded it. Chi- A turbulent new age dawned in Asia THE TALE OF GENJI, written in the 11th 285 nese inventors devised the magnetic when Mongols united under Genghis century by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady of the Jap- compass, gunpowder, and porcelain, Khan in 1206, conquering northern anese court, chronicles romantic adventures. »z the country's most prized export. China and lands to the west. Khan's grandson Kublai Khan completed the Vl Korea resisted subjugation by China conquest of China but failed to take but was greatly influenced by Chinese japan. Mongols overran Russia and ~ culture, as was japan. Literature and much of the Middle East before the the arts flourished at japan's imperial Black Death ravaged their realm in the m court at Heian (Kyoto) in the tenth 14th century. In China, Mongol rule century. In later centuries, a feudal gave way to the Ming dynasty. In the ;;D system developed in which samurai Middle East, Turks regained control, warriors served as vassals to provincial first under the conqueror Tamerlane ooOJ lords, who in turn served as vassals to and then under the Ottomans. a military governor called the shogun. A » Vl HOW DID JAPANESE WRITING EVOLVE? The japanese had no written language be acquired without lengthy schooling Genji by Murasaki Shikibu and the Pillow when they first came under China's and was learned by women as well Book of Sei Shonagon-represent the influence, and they readily adopted as men. Used first for private diaries starting point for japanese fiction. the Chinese script. japanese scribes or love notes, kana soon became The authors used their own language and scholars spent years mastering its the preferred language for japanese to describe the society they lived in. complexities by studying and copying poetry and prose. Their artistic efforts helped create Chinese texts. a new literary form in the japanese Two remarkable works written by language: the novel. In the ninth century, however, a much simpler phonetic japanese script women around A.D. IOOO- The Tale of called kana was introduced. It could GENGHIS KHAN I MONGOL CONQUEROR The man known as Genghis Khan-or Universal Ruler-was the son of a Mongol chieftain who was poisoned by a rival band, leaving the boy he named Temujin to fend for himself. Mongols led a hard life, moving frequently on horseback. As Temujin grew up, he continued to be harried by his father's enemies. In time, he crushed that hostile band by killing all the males taller than a cart axle, so it was said, and enslaving the women and children. He united the many Mongol tribes under his authority, killing his own brother for opposing him. In forging an empire, he com- bined terror with diplomacy, killing those who resisted him but sparing foes who yielded without a fight and welcoming to his court talented men of various faiths. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE VARIETIES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD TODAY see Language: Writing. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 230-1 + THE COUNTRIES OF ASIA TODAY INCLUDING KOREA, CHINA & JAPAN see Asia. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 380-93

;C;;l. :J M o3 ~. 'Mo\" :J 0\"'c0\"\" iil J\" .men.:,; CIRCA 700 ong before European navigators fanned out around Polynesians settle New Zealand the globe in about 1500, societies had developed in lands unknown to people of the Old World CIRCA 800 and had achieved significant accomplishments of Hohokam culture develops, knowledge and culture. Between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago, people crossed from Siberia to Alaska on a land American Southwest bridge that formed as sea levels lowered during the Ice Age. CIRCA 1000 By 9000 B.C., humans had reached complex societies whose chiefs were Norse reach Newfoundland; the southern tip of South America. buried surrounded by treasure in Mississippian culture emerges, Throughout the Americas, small bands huge mounds. The first such cultures, of people subsisted by hunting and the Adena and Hopewell, developed North American Midwest gathering until around 3000 B.C., when in the Ohio River Valley between maize, or corn, was domesticated. 500 and 100 B.C., but the greatest of CIRCA 1100 the mound builders were the Missis- Anasazi cu ltu re peaks, The cultivation of corn, beans, sippians, who flourished in the Mis- American Southwest squash, and other crops spread north- sissippi River Valley and parts of the ward over time, allowing some tribes Southeast from around 1000 to 1300. CIRCA 1200 in the present United States to develop Polynesian society, Easter Island CIRCA 1300 Anasazi abandon cliff dwellings; Mississippian culture declines PAlHW AYS OF HUMAN MIGRATION ,ee Human Migration. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 220·1 THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN EARLY HUMAN HISTORY ,eeAgriculture. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 246· 7

Their most imposing settlement was drought may have caused the ancient The Rapa Nui people on Easter Island 287 Cahokia, near modern-day St. Louis. Puebloans to abandon this area and raised huge stone monoliths repre- At its peak, as many as 20,000 peo- move first to cliff dwellings at higher senting gods and godlike chiefs. »z pie lived there around massive burial and wetter areas like Mesa Verde and mounds. Like the rulers of other an- later to permanent water sources like ANCIENT CLIFF DWELLINGS in the Vl cient civilizations, chiefs here were the Rio Grande, where Pueblo society North American Southwest only hint at the honored at death like gods. One ruler arose in the 14th century. sophisticated society of the Puebloan people. ~ received a majestic grave offering of 20,000 shell beads and was buried The most isolated societies were m with at least 60 other people, some of those of the Polynesians, whose an- whom were evidently sacrificed. cestors left Australia and New Guinea ;;D around 2000 B.C. and began colonizing Mississippian society declined at distant Pacific islands such as Samoa ooOJ about the same time that Native and Tahiti. Intrepid seafarers who Americans called Puebloan or Ana- migrated in outrigger canoes, taking A sazi (ancient ones) abandoned their with them dogs and pigs and crops home sites in the Southwest. They like yams and breadfruit, they reached o left behind other remarkable monu- Hawaii around 100 B.C. and may have ments, including an urban complex of reached Easter Island as early as 500 () multistory dwellings and kivas (under- B.C., although recent evidence sug- ground ceremonial chambers) in New gests a date later by centuries. Poly- m»z Mexico's Chaco Canyon. Prolonged nesians were led by hereditary chiefs. » WHAT DO WE KNOW OF EARLY AMERICANS? Qo oZ ~ I » 3: m ;;D () » MARBLE FIGURES found by archaeologists at Etowah, a Mississippian North of present-day Mexico, no great empires developed. site in present-day Georgia, came from mounds that formed part of a Tribes subsisted by hunting buffalo or other game, best burial complex with stairs, walkways, and a plaza. accomplished by small and highly mobile bands whose chiefs had little authority beyond their immediate camp circles. Settled groups like the MiSSissippians living in fertile areas, however, developed a political system resembling feudalism. Local chiefs in outlying villages recognized the ruler at ceremonial centers like Cahokia as their overlord, to whom they owed duties in the form of crops, labor, or military service. Those required to labor on the great burial mounds at Cahokia may have considered it a sacred obligation, for Mississippian rulers were earthly representatives of the sun god-the paramount force on which all life depended. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON POTTERY & OTHER EARLY ART FORMS see Art. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 238·9 + OCEANIA & NORTH AMERICA TODAY see Australia & Oceania. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 408·33, & North America. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 414·23

CIRCA 600 Q Maya civilization reaches peak 3 288 683 n'\" Maya ruler Pacal buried at Palenque 1;:: 8'\" CIRCA 900 o Maya civi lization col lapses :J l- CIRCA 1170 '\":::r Mexico's To ltec Empire ends P.'\",-- V) 1325 ~ I Aztec fou nd Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) :..J.. o !\" oa--:-:' 5 ooo ['\"1 z 1428 w >w lucoatl expands Aztec Empire V) aw:: h-_____________________________ I- \"«- I U uring Europe's Middle Ages, several powerful appealing to the gods, and Maya rul- ers sometimes drew their own blood 'oo\" Native American societies with similar beliefs as offerings. High population densities in Maya cities strained the resources co of outlying areas and caused resent- ments and rebellions that contributed a:: and customs flourished in Mesoamerica, a to the collapse of this civilization around 900. w Among the trading partners of the 5 region extending from the Valley of Mexico, Maya were merchants from Teotihua- can in the fertile Valley of Mexico. By V) the sixth century, this great urban cen- ter was home to more than 150,000 z people, many of them artisans who « embracing what is now Mexico City, to north produced goods for export. Like Maya city-states, populous Teotihua- of the Isthmus of Panama. The cultural foundation for those can strained the resources of the sur- rounding area and eventually collapsed, societies was laid in ancient times by the Olmec people_ coming to a fiery end around 700. The Olmec lived in southern Mexico Maya living around the Yucatan Penin- The Valley of Mexico was later near the Gulf Coast and built great sula. Maya civilization reached its peak dominated by the warlike Toltecs, ceremonial centers at San Lorenzo around A.D. 600 as rival city-states like who sacrificed captives in droves at and La Venta featuring earthen pyra- Palenque, Copan, and Tikal expanded their capital, Tula, and made demands mids, stone temples, and ball courts and vied for supremacy, much as Ath- where a game of ritual significance ens and Sparta did in ancient Greece. was played. Massive stone heads thought to represent Olmec rulers Maya kings and queens looked to were erected there and inscribed with the movements of stars to determine cryptic pictographs called glyphs. when to attack rivals. Captives taken in such \"star wars\" were often sacri- Olmec culture died out with the ficed to honor gods whom the Maya destruction of La Venta around 400 credited for their success. The blood B.C., but it strongly influenced the of royalty was considered especially FOR MORE FACTS ON THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD see Midd/eAges 500- /500. CHAPTER 7, PAGES 278-81 + TODAY'S MESOAMERICA see North America & South America. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 414-23 & 424-9

for tribute that grew onerous for their MEXICO Gulf of Present-day country boundaries subjects when drought struck the area Mexico and names shown in gray. in the 12th century. Around I 170, reb- els destroyed Tula and brought down Tenochtitlan . ..._ _- .. ........ BELIZE 289 the Toltec Empire. Villa Rica »z Following in the Toltec path were (Veracruz) the mighty Aztec, who entered the Vl Valley of Mexico from the north and • Monte Alban forged their own empire in the 15th ~ century based at Tenochtitlan, a ma- Extent of the EL SALVADO jestic capital built where Mexico C ity Aztec World m now stands. Like the Maya, Aztec Pacific studied the heavens, kept intricate Azt ec Empire Ocean ;;D calendars, and preserved their lore in writing. Kings celebrated their coro- Route of Cortes ooOJ nations by waging war and taking 151 8-19 captives, who were sacrificed by the A thousands atop the Great Pyramid in Tenochtitlan to seek divine blessings. 3: Some Aztec rivals became trusted m allies, but other groups were forced to pay heavy tribute, fueling resent- oVl ments that Spanish invaders would later exploit to divide and conquer » the Aztec Empire. 3: m ;;D () » a ml 200 a km 200 THE AZTEC EMPIRE covered much of central and southern Mexico when the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes arrived. Cortes sailed from Cuba south through the Gulf of Mexico and reached Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, in 1519. He and his soldiers remained there and finally conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521. THE MAYA BALL GAME Great ball courts take center stage the earth and renew the bleSSings of in the remains of Maya cities such the maize god and other Maya deities. as Tikal, Copan, and Chichen Itza. Teams of two men each played A ritual ball game played by the game, using a solid rubber sphere the Maya people in these ball about the size of a human head. (In courts evoked a mythic contest legend, the lords of the underworld in which lords of the underworld used a skull as their ball.) Wearing defeated and killed the maize god, protective gear, players struck the who returned to life as a cornstalk, ball with their hips and shoulders. offering people sustenance. Losers in The object may have been to propel the ball game were sacrificed in the the ball through a hoop on the belief that their blood would nourish opposing team's side. CARVED STONE DISK portraying a Maya ..-• • . . ball player and dated A.D. 591 was found among the ruins of Chinkultic, a minor Maya city. \":OR MORE ACTS ON EARLY RELIGIOUS BELIEFS & PRACTICES see Religion, CHAPTER 6, PAGES 232·3 + THE ERA OF EXPLORATION INCLUDING THE CONQUISTADORES see World Navigation 1492-1522, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 292·3

co he most significant historical developments in a:: South America in ancient and medieval times w occurred in what is now Peru. By 500 B.C., the ceremonial center of Chavfn de Huantar, high ~ in the Peruvian Andes, attracted pilgrims from a wide area, who worshipped at shrines to the jaguar god and the zV> spirits of other rain forest animals. Most likely, the Chavfn cult « leaders came from the rain forest and found a following among people living along the western slopes, for whom water flowing CIRCA 500 down from the mountains was a source of wonder and fertility. In Peru, Moche reach peak of power and By A.D. 500, a well-organized state aristocratic elite. Gifted artists pro- Nasca create line drawi ngs had emerged along the Moche River duced glittering masks of gold and in northern Peru, where massive irri- copper that were buried with Moche CIRCA 1400 gation projects increased the amount warlords along with captives sacrificed Inca begin fo rging an em pire of land under cultivation and fed the forthe occasion. Moche potters crafted growth of a complex society with an decorative clay vessels that offered 1438 Inca ruler Pachacuti expands em pire through reforms and conquests 1471 Pachacuti abdicates in favor of his son, who com pl etes conquest of the C hi mu CIRCA 1500 Inca Empire reaches its greatest extent FOR MORE FACTS ON EARLY RELIGIONS & MAGICAL THINKING see Religion. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 232·3 + THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA TODAY see South America. CHAPTER 9, PAGES 424·9

a vivid tableau of their society, includ- above and may have been intended for success to the dynamic ruler Pachacuti, 291 ing scenes of helmeted warriors club- spirits in heaven. or He Who Transforms the Earth. The bing their enemies. Pyramids made of Inca had no script but kept meticulous »z millions of adobe bricks and decorated Around 1000, the promising Moche records by tying knots on strings. All with splendid wall paintings suggest that River Valley gave birth to another ac- people had to serve the state periodi- Vl Moche society was approaching the complished society, the Chimu, whose cally as soldiers, farmers, or laborers, grandeur of Mesoamerican civilizations capital of Chan Chan had nearly 30,000 working on projects like the remark- ~ before it declined around 600, perhaps inhabitants. Around 1300, Chimu rulers able Inca highway system, which had because of drought, floods, or other embarked on conquests that brought two main arteries, one along the coast m natural causes. A similar fate befell the more than 600 miles of the Peruvian and another along the Andes, with way Nasca, who lived south of the Moche coast under their control before they stations a day's journey apart. By 1500, ;;D in an arid region made fruitful by irri- fell to a superior power-the Inca. the well-organized Inca Empire ex- gation. They left behind monumental Those conquerors began their imperial tended for 2,500 miles from present- ooOJ line drawings in the desert that could quest around 1400 when they outgrew day Ecuador southward to Chile and be viewed in their entirety only from the confines of the Cusco Valley high in embraced nearly 100 ethnic groups. A the Andes. They owed much of their oVl WHO DID THE INCA SACRIFICE? C On rare occasions, such as a king's female deities, including Earth -I inauguration, the Inca sacrificed as Mother and Moon Mother, I many as 200 young people to their wife of the sun god. Devo- gods. More often, they sacrificed lla- tees known as Chosen Women » mas or made offerings of food . Every lived in seclusion at shrines and day Inca priests offered cornmeal to temples and wove richly embroi- 3: honor the sun god. \" Eat this, Lord dered fabrics. m Sun,\" they proclaimed, \"so that you will know that we are your children.\" AFTERLIFE RICHES like this gold and cop- ;;D The Inca also worshipped several per mask filled three Moche tombs found at Dos Cabezas, Peru, inhabited from A.D. 150 to 500. n» WHO BUILT MACHU PICCHU? When Pachacuti came to power in the idea that the ruler was immortal. It groups to resettle near the Inca 1438, the Inca were quickly expanding, also forced each new ruler to make his homeland, where they were closely but he did much to enhance and con- own fortune and reputation through watched . Loyal subjects were sent to solidate their empire. All the wealth he conquest. When Pachacuti abdicated colonize newly conquered territory. and future kings acquired during their in favor of his son in 1471, the young Before stepping down as emperor, he reigns, he decreed, would be devoted king did just that, completing the con- built Machu Picchu, a majestic moun- to housing and caring for their mummi- quest of the Chimu begun by his fa- taintop retreat and ceremonial center fied remains. This practice reinforced ther. Pachacuti forced some defeated near the Inca capital , Cusco. FAST FACT Many Nasca geoglyphs- shapes etched In the dry pampa rock- measure more than 1,000 feet tall. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE MANY VARIETIES OF BUILDINGS & SHELTER see Shelter, CHAPTER 6, PAGES 258·9 + GEOGRAPHY & ECONOMY OF PERU TODAY see South America, CHAPTER 9, PAGE 427

1492 3: Co lumbus reaches Caribbean from Spain .(\\) 1497 ri Cabot explores Newfoundland .8.., 292 1498 ::l 0. 1;:: D a Gama pioneers ocean route to Asia 0- o 1502 0o. l- Columbus takes fourth and final voyage n V) 1504 C I Vespucci 's travel accounts pub li shed, nami ng New W orld '\" o oa--:-:' 5 z 1522 w Magellan 's crew reaches Spain: first circumnavigation >w V) aw:: L-________________________ __ ~~ I- \"«- I U he world entered the modern era around I 500 coast. Portuguese mariners traded for slaves and gold there and continued 'oo\" as Europeans sailed around the globe and began around Africa to India, first reached by sea from Portugal by Vasco da Gama in co 1498. This proved to be the best route between Europe and the Far East, but a:: colonizing newly discovered lands. They made efforts to find a shorter path by cross- ing the Atlantic revealed new lands. w In 1492, Italian Christopher Colum- 5 this leap by applying lessons learned during the bus, backed by Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, reached the Ca- V) ribbean, which he believed was the Indies. Another Italian explOring for z Spain, Amerigo Vespucci, concluded « late Middle Ages, when trade with the Middle a decade later that what lay across the Atlantic was in fact a New World, East and Far East gave them incentives to venture abroad eventually called America in his honor. Earth's extent became clear when and improve their navigational techniques. the expedition launched by Ferdinand Magellan in 15 19--and completed after Before 1500, most accomplished Western Europeans, however, could his death--rounded South America, mariners were non-Europeans, such obtain those commodities directly only crossed the Pacific, and reached Europe as Zheng He, a Chinese admiral who by pursuing uncharted paths. That in 1522, circumnavigating the globe. in the early 1400s took seven voyages profit motive and the desire to spread that ranged as far as Africa and the Per- Chrisitianity led rulers to encourage sian Gulf. China's rulers grew isolation- maritime exploration, fostering the ist, though, and their navy dwindled. growth of vast European empires. The Ottoman Empire profited from Leading the way were Portugal and the maritime skill and naval resources Spain, assisted by Italy. In the mid- of the Arab world, but Middle Eastern- 1400s Prince Henry the NaVigator of ers already had access to the Far East Portugal founded a school devoted to by land and sea and did not need new improving navigation and sponsoring routes to acquire prized goods. expeditions along the West African FOR MORE FACTS ON MAPS & INSTRUMENTS USED BY EARLY NAVIGATORS see The History of Mapping & Mapmaking. CHAPTER I, PAGES 20·1,24·5 + THE CHALLENGES OF EARLY NAVIGATION see Navigation. CHAPTER I, PAGES 38·9

ADVANCES IN NAVIGATION In navigating the globe, European mari- that remained to be answered in his mated how far one would have to ners drew on technology and know- day was just how extensive the globe travel west to reach Asia-an error how from other regions and earlier was. Columbus grossly underesti- that led him to great discoveries. times. The magnetic compass and the stern-post rudder, for example, first COLUMBUS'S FLEET, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria, reached the Caribbean from 293 appeared in medieval China and prob- Spain in nine weeks. Expecting to reach Asia, they named their destination the \"West Indies:' ably reached Europe through the »z Middle East, although such inventions sometimes arose independently in var- Vl ious parts of the world. The astrolabe and other devices used to calculate lati- ~ tude by measuring the angle of the sun above the horizon at noon were of an- m cient origin and were refined by Arab navigators, from whom Portuguese ;;D mariners acquired the technology. ooOJ Astute sailors and scholars reck- oned that the Earth was round long A before Christopher Columbus acted on that principle. The crucial question o~ ;;D C- O »z< C'I ~ oz \" Oct. I I, course to west and southwest. Heavier sea than they had known.... \" At two hours after midnight land appeared. - CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1492 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS I EXPLORER & COLONIZER Columbus (1451-1506) made landfall on the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic) in 1492, and launched global European expansion by colonizing the Caribbean. Returning to Hispaniola in 1493, Columbus found sailors he had left behind there dead and the fort they occupied destroyed. Undeterred, he settled the island in earnest and subjugated the Taino Indians who lived there. Tainos who re- fused to pay tribute to Spanish colonists were killed or captured. In 1496 Columbus shipped nearly 500 captives to Spain, where those who survived the voyage were sold as slaves in violation of a royal edict. He and his colonists found little gold in the Caribbean, but their efforts led to further New World conquests that brought enor- mous wealth to Spain and made it the world's greatest power in the 16th century. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON CHANGING WORLDVIEWS BASED ON CHANGES IN KNOWLEDGE see Scientific Worldviews, CHAPTER 8, PAGES 326-7 + COUNTRIES IN THE AMERICAS TODAY see North America & South America, CHAPTER 9, PAGES 414·29

~ n' :m:r Ii> ::> ~ 0' ocOJ .a.::.>, p. <-o,n ...<on 15 17 he Renaissance had its origins in the late Middle Ages. Merchants in 14th-century Florence and Martin Luther issues 95 theses other thriving Italian city-states served as patrons of artists and poets, who drew inspiration from 1534 the past. They took inspiration from classical Greek and Roman literature preserved in Catholic monas- Henry VI II establishes Church of England teries and in the libraries of Byzantium and the Islamic world. 1536 Among those nurtured in Florence Humanists shared the conviction were poet Dante Alighieri, painter that nothing was too mysterious or Calvin begins ministry in Switzerland Giotto di Bondone, and scholar Pe- sacred to be grasped by the human trarch. Their works served as a bridge intellect and imagination. Renaissance 1543 between Europe's age of faith and the scientists questioned ideas such as the humanism of the Renaissance, which cosmology in which Earth was the cen- Copernicus claims Earth orbits the sun reached its peak in the 1500s with the ter of the universe. This marked the achievements of artist Michelangelo beginning of a scientific revolution that 1558 and Leonardo da Vinci-painter, inven- would ultimately refute basic articles of tor, and scientist. faith, like the biblical story of creation. Elizabeth I crowned queen of England 1588 Spanish Armada launched 1648 T hirty Years' W ar ends; Protestants gain freedom of worship THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES see Middle Ages, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 278·81 CHANGING VIEWS OF THE UNIVERSE & EARTH'S POSITION IN IT see Scientific Worldviews. CHAPTER 8, PAGES 326-7

WHAT WAS THE REFORMATION? The Protestant Reformation began English poet and playwright William LONDON'S GLOBE THEATRE, built in 295 in 1517 when Martin Luther, a Ger- Shakespeare. 1598 and home to Shakespeare, burned down man monk, protested practices such in 1613, set afire by a staged cannon shot. »z as the sale of indulgences, pardoning Protestantism flourished in urban people for their sins. Rejecting the areas in northern Europe, where Vl authority of the pope and the priest- many literate people questioned hood, Protestants ordained ministers Catholic doctrine based on their ~ who lived much like their parish- reading of the Bible. Conflict ensued ioners and who preached in their between Catholic Spain and north- m own tongue-instead of Latin- ern Protestant countries. In 1618 using Bibles published on printing German Protestants rebelled against ;;D presses like that devised by Johannes the Habsburg dynasty that ruled both Gutenberg of Germany in the 15th Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. ooOJ century. Printing and the use of na- Their actions launched the Thirty tive languages also fostered the work Years' War, which ended when the A of great Renaissance writers like the Habsburgs granted religious freedom to their German subjects. ;;D • !; m Classical: From the Latin clossicus, \"of the highest class, superior.\" Pertaining to ancient Greece and Rome. 1Puritanism: Movement in the late 16th »Z and 17th centuries that sought to \"purify\" the Church of England, leading to civil war in England and to the founding of colonies in North America. Vl , To be a king and wear a crown is more glorious to them that see it than it is , , V»zl n m Qo ;;D m o\"Tl ;;D 3: ~ oz pleasure to them that bear it. - QUEEN ELIZABETH I, 1601 ' ELIZABETH II QUEEN OF ENGLAND Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603), who ruled England from 1558 until her death, was a product of the Reformation. Her father, King Henry VIII, had broken with Rome in 1533 because he desperately wanted a male heir and the pope would not let him divorce his queen, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn, who later gave birth to Elizabeth. As queen, Elizabeth steered a middle course between Catholicism and Puritanism and upheld a moderate form of Protestantism. Known as the Virgin Queen, she preserved England's sovereignty by rejecting foreign suit- ors, including King Philip II of Spain, who later sent an armada in the hopes of conquering England and restoring Catholic rule. By repelling that fleet, England emerged as a major power, capable of competing with the mighty Spanish Empire. \":OR MORE -ACTS ON THE ORIGINS & HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY see Religion: Monotheism. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 236-7 + THE ROLE OF ART IN HUMAN CULTURE see Art. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 238-9

»...vin...,,..-' no ::J n ...(\\) '0 .,!2, ~ 3 .'(~\".\\). ::J .n~,. co a:: pain took the lead in colonizing the New World, bring- ing vast areas under its authority. Colonization of the w Caribbean, begun by Columbus, devastated Indians there, who were all but wiped out by smallpox and ~ other imported diseases. When there was no more zV> gold to extract, colonists took to raising sugarcane, bringing « 154 1 in so many slaves that the population became largely African. Cartier founds Quebec 1565 Spanish colonists found St. Augustine 1607 English colonists found Jamestown 1620 Spanish conquistadores enriched both co City in its place. Francisco Pizarro themselves and the crown by defeat- used similar tactics in Peru to conquer English Pilgrims found Plymouth ing and plundering the Aztec and Inca the Inca and seize their capital, Cusco, Empires. After helping to colonize in 1533. Vast amounts of silver poured 1664 Cuba, Hernan Cortes sailed for Mex- into Spanish coffers from South Amer- ico in 1519 with 600 men and turned ica and Mexico, but conquistadores English seize port at New Amsterdam, Indians against the Aztec. Attacking who ventured north of Mexico found renaming it New York Tenochtitlan in 1521 during a smallpox no great wealth or native empires. epidemic, Cortes sacked and burned Colonization there was left to Span- 1682 the Aztec capital and founded Mexi- ish monks and settlers who founded La Salle claims Louisiana for France 1763 France surrenders North American ter ritories to Britain FOR MORE FACTS ON CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS & HIS NEW WORLD VOYAGES see World Novigation 1492· 1522. CHAPTER 7, PAGE 293 + COUNTRIES IN THE AMERICAS TODAY see North America & South America, CHAPTER 9, PAGES 414·29

isolated missions and towns. In 1680, GREENLAND ERIC THE RED Pueblo Indians in New Mexico drove 982 the Spaniards out. When colonists returned, they reached an accom- .Godthab modation with Pueblos, who served with them in expeditions against hos- UNEXPLORED HUDSON CABOT 297 tile tribes. Throughout the Spanish- + Mt. St. Elias 1610-11 1497 American Empire, colonists lived »z closely among Indians and depended 5489 STUART LEIF ERICSON CARTIER on their labor. ca 1000 1634--36 Vl UNEXPLORED A different pattern prevailed in 1715 RUPERT'S LAND ~ England's North American colonies. In Virginia, where the first permanent (HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY) m settlement was founded at James- town in 1607, colonists clashed with H udson ;;D Algonquian Indians and held them off. Rather than using Indian laborers to KELSEY \\ork Bay SL ooOJ raise crops like tobacco, colonists used 1690-92 • Factory indentured servants from England or Lawrence A slaves from Africa. The Puritans who • Louisbourg settled Massachusetts also displaced » Indians and encroached on their land, LA VERENDRYE 'iuebee z triggering a fiery uprising in 1675 in which warriors killed some 600 colo- PACIFIC 1731-43 • -Halifax m nists before the English defeated them OCEAN with the help of the powerful Iroquois • Montreal ~ tribe. In time, the Iroquois too would JOLIET & lose out to Anglo-American settlers. N.H. MASS. o~ '. Boston ,;;D Colonists arrived in such large MARQUETTE . N.Y. BRITISH numbers from England that they sup- R.1. o planted not only Indians but also other Europeans, including the Dutch who UNEXPLORED 1673 PA.. N.J. CONN. settled New York before the English took control there in 1664. Their N EW FRANCE WA LKER MD PhHadelph;a ATLANTIC chief rivals in North America were the 1748- 50 . OCEAN French, who began colonizing Canada DEL. in earnest in 1608. • MALLET ; Cahok;a \\ VA. COLONIES French settlers were relatively few 1738-41 .. in number, but they forged alliances Santa Fe Kaskask ia ..... N.C. VERRA2ANO with Indians that gave France a vast .9: S.C. 1524 .. . \".~ GA. • Charleston ~~ New Europe Claims CORONADO .St. Augustine COLUMBUS North America • 1540-42 San Antonio Circa 1750 de Bexar \" .. Orleans 1492-93 land Claims and Exploration Chih~ahua .:.. LA SALLE DE SOH) 1682 1539-42 ... .-Denmark (Vikings) Great Britain VICEROYALTY Gulf of Havana. •Santo OF NEW Mexico France SPAIN Santiag~ Domingo Russia CORTES Spain 1518-19 Disputed area Spanish fort or presidio •Veracruz Caribbean -Acapulco Sea o mi 800 .Cartagena o km 800 VICEROYALTY OF NEW GRENADA EUROPEAN COLONIAL POWERS carved up the New World, claiming land and vying for wealth, resources, and control. Their legacies live on in regional customs and national languages. area of influence extending from in 1709-before surrendering its re- Canada down the Mississippi River to maining claims in North America to New Orleans. the British at the conclusion of the French and Indian War in 1763. For In 1713 France lost Newfound- all its might, Britain could not prevent land, Nova Scotia, and other terri- its American colonies from rebelling in tory to Great Britain-as England was 1775 and winning independence. known after its union with Scotland • • •• • \":OR MORE -ACTS ON NATIVE CULTURES OF MESOAMERICA & SOUTH AMERICA see Mesoamerica Preshi,ory- ISOO & South America Preshi,ory- ISOO, CHAPTER 7, PAGES 288-91 + THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION see Revolution 1600-1800. CHAPTER 7, PAGES 298-9

oCP :o4 ::l 1649 Charles I executed, English Civil War 1688 England's Glorious Revolution ; monarch now subject to Parliament 298 1689 1;:: Locke publishes theory of natural rights o 1762 Rousseau publishes Social Contract l- 1776 V) American colonies declare independence; I Adam Smith publishes Wealth of Nations o ...J oa:: 5 z 1789 >ww French Revolution begins V) aw:: h-________________________ ~~ I- «0.. I U he Enlightenment, an intellectual movement, abuses of serfs, while Prussia's Freder- ick the Great promoted religious toler- o'o\" grew out of the Renaissance and favored rational ance and established a civil service. But such enlightened despots were as in- co tent on maintaining power as absolute monarchs like France's King Louis XIV, a:: inquiry over established dogma. Enlightenment who died after reigning for 71 years. w The rival monarchies of Europe clashed frequently during the 18th cen- 5 thinkers took their cue from the French phi- tury, setting British troops and colonists in North America against the French V) and their Indian allies. To help pay for that costly war, the British imposed the «z losopher and mathematician Rene Descartes, Stamp Act on colonists, one of several measures that led Americans to defY who wrote in 1637 that his first rule was \"never to accept a King George III and declare indepen- dence in 1776. Similar resentments in thing as true until I knew it as such without a single doubt.\" France against King Louis XVI and taxes he imposed to cover debts incurred in The idea of testing hypotheses was es- panies) harmed society. John Locke of past wars triggered a bloody revolu- sential to the scientific method, refined England argued that people owe loyalty tion there and gave birth to a republic in the late I 600s by English physicist to their government only as long as based on the Enlightenment ideals of Isaac Newton. The Enlightenment also their rights are protected. French phi- liberty, equality, and fraternity. spawned political revolutions as free- losopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, au- thinkers toppled old regimes. thor of The Social Contract, argued that Political philosophers of the Enlight- enment analyzed how society worked. only a republic could preserve liberty. Adam Smith of Scotland concluded Despite the threat such ideas posed that self-interest benefited society by fostering economic competition and to the established order, some Euro- that restricting competition (for exam- pean monarchs tried to rule in enlight- ple, granting royal monopolies to com- ened fashion. Catherine the Great of Russia improved education among nobility and ended some of the worst FOR MORE FACTS ON SCIENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT see Physical Science & Chemistry. CHAPTER 8, PAGES 328·9, 334·5 + TRADE & ECONOMIC COMPETITION IN THE 2 1ST CENTURY see World Trade Today. CHAPTER 6, PAGES 256·7