Nehru (Routledge Historical Biographies)

272 N O T E S 17 The amendment to the quote is noted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 1, p. 279. 18 Nehru to Evelyn Wood, June 5, 1942, quoted in Peter Clarke, The Cripps Version: The Life of Sir Stafford Cripps 1889–1952 (Allen Lane, 2002), p. 305. 19 The text of the speech is available in M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works (88 volumes, Navajivan, 1958–), volume 76, pp. 384–96. For a summary see Bipan Chandra et al, India’s Struggle for Independence, (Penguin, 1988) pp. 459–60. 20 Linlithgow, personal telegram to Winston Churchill, August 31, 1942, TOP, volume II, p. 853. 21 Dorothy Norman (ed.), Nehru: The First Sixty Years (2 volumes, Bodley Head, 1965), volume 1, p. ix. 22 Quoted in Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 121. 23 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, India Wins Freedom (Orient Longman, 1959/1988), p. 117 24 Z.A. Ahmad’s talk with Jawaharlal Nehru, June 1945, ‘not to be shown to anyone else without P.C. Joshi’s [General Secretary, CPI] permission’, 1945/9, P.C. Joshi Archive, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. 25 G. Adhikari, National Unity Now! (People’s Publishing House, 1942), pp. 5–6, P.C. Joshi Archive, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. 26 AICC speech, July 7, 1946, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 1, p. 326. 27 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, India Wins Freedom (1959/1988), p. 170. 28 Sulagna Roy, ‘Communal Conflict in Bengal, 1930–1947’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 1999, Chapter Four. 29 Statement to the press on the Great Calcutta Killings, August 26, 1946, JNP, NML, Part III, No. 345. 30 Sulagna Roy, ‘Communal Conflict in Bengal, 1930–1947’, Chapter Four. 31 S. Gopal (ed.), Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Second Series (Delhi 1984–) [hereafter SWJN II], volume 2, pp. 44–5, quote from p. 45. 32 JN to Patel, November 5, 1946, JNP, NML, volume 81, pp. 93–4. 33 Minutes of the 6th Miscellaneous Meeting of the Congress, New Delhi, April 22, 1947, TOP, volume 10, pp. 363–5. 34 Quoted in Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (Hale, 1951; edition cited 1985), entry for June 1, 1947, p. 98. 35 S.L. Poplai (ed.), Select Documents on Asian Affairs: India 1947–1950 (Oxford University Press, 1959; reprint, New York, 1970), volume 1, p. 2. INTERLUDE – ENVISIONING THE NEW INDIA 1 Ram Manohar Lohia’s note (1947) ‘Fifteen-Point Note on Congress and the Socialist Party’, AICC Papers, File 6/1947, pp. 467–77. 2 Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India (Meridian Books, 1946), p. 52.

N O T E S 273 3 JN, Discovery of India, p. 25. 4 JN, Discovery of India, p. 36. 5 JN, Discovery of India, p. 75. 6 JN, Discovery of India, p. 104. 7 JN, Discovery of India, p. 59. 8 JN, Discovery of India, p. 144. 9 JN, Discovery of India, p. 56. 10 JN to Krishna Menon, July 22, 1947, SWJN II, volume 3, p. 344. 11 Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten, entry for Wednesday, April 28, 1948. 12 Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume one: September 1946–May 1949 (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 2nd edition, November 1958), p. 10. 13 JN, Discovery of India, pp. 30–31. 14 Socialist Party programme, copy in AICC Papers, NML, File 27 (Part I)/1947, pp. 127–45; quotes from p. 127. 15 P. Thakurdas papers, NML, File 291 Part II: Post-War Economic Development Committee, pp. 265–6. 16 JN, Discovery of India, p. 398. 17 Speech at the AICC, New Delhi, September 24, 1946. SWJN II, volume 1, p. 6. 18 Speech in Assembly, October 28, 1946, SWJN II, volume 1, p. 533. 19 Speech broadcast from New Delhi, September 7, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume one, p. 2. This was his first speech as a member of the Interim Government. 20 He described non-aligned countries as ‘the proverbial clever calves that suck two cows’. Michal Kalecki, ‘Observations on Social and Economic Aspects of “Intermediate Regimes”’ (1964), reprinted in Collected Works of Michal Kalecki, Volume V: Developing Economies (Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 6–12; the quote is from p. 10. 21 Speech in Constituent Assembly, January 22, 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume one, p. 22. 22 JN to Vijayalakshmi Pandit, November 14, 1946, SWJN II, volume 1, p. 539. 23 Nehru to Asaf Ali, Member for Communications, October 11, 1946, SWJN II, volume 1, pp. 516–18, p. 518. 24 Nehru to Asaf Ali in Washington, December 21, 1946, SWJN II, volume 1, pp. 556–7. 25 Nehru’s note to Asaf Ali and KPS Menon, Ambassadors to the USA and China respectively, dated January 22, 1947, SWJN II, volume 1, pp. 575–577. 26 Press statement, January 20, 1947, SWJN II, volume 1, pp. 572–3. 27 JNP, NML, Part III, Sl No. 85, 28/10/40. 28 SWJN, volume 10, p. 87. 29 Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume one, p. 35.

274 N O T E S 30 JN to Asaf Ali, May 14, 1947, SWJN II, volume 2, pp. 148–50, quote from p. 149. 31 JN to Asaf Ali, May 14, 1947, SWJN II, volume 2, pp. 148–50, quote from p. 149. 32 SWJN II, volume 2, pp. 73–5 33 Note dated May 11, 1942, Lahore, to Colonel Louis Johnson, JNP, NML, volume 37, pp. 13–24, esp. pp. 22–3. 34 Quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 2 (Jonathan Cape, 1979), p. 53. 35 Nehru to Cripps, May 8, 1949, quoted in Peter Clarke, The Cripps Version (Allen Lane, 2002), p. 476 fn. 74. 36 Speech in the Constituent Assembly, May 16, 1949, quoted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–50: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 2, p. 71. 37 Pablo Neruda, Memoirs (Penguin, 1978), pp. 202–3. 5 CONSOLIDATING THE STATE, c. 1947–55 1 Press statement, August 15, 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume one, p. 27. 2 Figures are from Penderel Moon, Divide and Quit: An Eyewitness Account of the Partition of India (new edition, Chatto and Windus, 1998), Appendix; G.D. Khosla, Stern Reckoning: a Survey of the Events Leading up to and Following the Partition of India (Oxford University Press; new edition, 1989, 1950), p. 299; H.V. Hodson, The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan (Hutchinson, 1969), p. 418; Mushirul Hasan, ‘Introduc- tion’, The Partition Omnibus, (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. xxiv. 3 JN to Mountbatten, August 27, 1947, SWJN II, volume 4, pp. 25–6. 4 JN to Mountbatten, Lahore, August 31, 1947, SWJN II, volume 4, pp. 44–5. 5 JN to Rajendra Prasad, August 7, 1947, SWJN II, volume 3, p. 191. 6 Note to Cabinet ministers, September 12, 1947, SWJN II, volume 4, p. 65. 7 JN to Patel, September 30, 1947, SWJN II, volume 4, p. 114. 8 MK Gandhi, speech on January 12, 1948, Delhi Diary (Navajivan, 1948), pp. 330–3, reprinted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–50: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 1, p. 418. 9 Incident outside Birla House, January 24, 1948, SWJN II, volume 5, p. 31, note. 10 Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume one, p. 37. 11 Quoted in Bipan Chandra et al., India’s Struggle for Independence, p. 454. 12 Speech in the Constituent Assembly on February 2, 1948, reprinted in SWJN II, volume 5, p. 40. 13 Nehru to Mountbatten, December 26, 1947, cited in H.V. Hodson, The Great Divide, pp. 467–8.

N O T E S 275 14 Patel’s broadcast, January 30, 1948, text reprinted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–1950: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 1, p. 433 15 J.B. Kripalani’s speech on November 15, 1947, reprinted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–1950: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 1, pp. 438–42; quote from p. 438. 16 Resolutions of the Socialist Party, March 19–21, 1948, reprinted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–1950: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 1, pp. 450–1. 17 Resolutions of the Socialist Party, March 19–21, 1948, reprinted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–1950: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 1, p. 453. 18 Quoted in SWJN II, volume 3, p. 237. 19 JN to Vijayalakshmi Pandit, March 25, 1948, SWJN II, volume 5, p. 573. 20 JN to J.P. Narayan, August 19, 1948, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 2, p. 67. 21 J.P. Narayan to JN, December 10, 1948, quoted in S. Gopal Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 2, p. 69. 22 B.D. Graham, Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics: the Origins and Development of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (Cambridge University Press, 1990), esp. p. 20 ff. 23 Election figures taken from W.H. Morris-Jones, The Government and Politics of India (Hutchinson, 1964; edition cited 1967), pp. 163–4. 24 Objectives and Economic Programme Committee, text of resolution reprinted in S.L. Poplai (ed.), India 1947–1950: Select Documents on Asian Affairs, volume 1, pp. 445–6. 25 Speech to the Associated Chambers of Commerce, Calcutta, December 15, 1947, SWJN II, volume 4, pp. 563–4. 26 Speech at the All-India Manufacturers’ Conference, April 14, 1947, SWJN II, volume 2, p. 585. 27 Speech to the Central Board of Irrigation, New Delhi, December 5, 1948, Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume 1, p. 90. 28 A.K. Shaha, India on Planning: Planning for Liquidation of Unemployment and Illiteracy (Calcutta, 1948), p. 108. 29 Quoted in Ashok Rudra, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis: a Biography (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 432. 30 Quoted in (among other pieces: this is an oft-quoted statement) Simon R. Charsley and G.K. Karanth, ‘Dalits and State Action: The “SCs”’, in Simon R. Charsley and G.K. Karanth (eds), Challenging Untouchability: Dalit Initiative and Experience from Karnataka (Sage, 1998), p. 32. 31 Government of India, Planning Commission, Gramdan Movement: a Handbook (New Delhi, 1964), p. 2. 32 Jayaprakash Narayan, ‘Letter to PSP Associates’, Towards a New Society (Congress for Cultural Freedom, 1958), pp. 1–48; quotes from pp. 21, 26, 30, 32.

276 N O T E S 33 Ram Manohar Lohia, ‘Preface’ (1963), Marx, Gandhi and Socialism (2nd edition, Hyderabad, 1978, first published 1963), pp. xxxxiii–iv. 34 Foreign policy debate in the Constituent Assembly, December 4, 1947, SWJN II, volume 4, p. 600. 35 Apparently Krishna Menon cited this conversation with JN in his letter to JN of August 7, 1952 (S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 2, p. 59, fn. 77). 36 Talk to journalists, October 15, 1949, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 2, p. 61. 37 William Foster, Administrator of the Economic Cooperation Association, quoted in Anita Inder Singh, The Limits of British Influence, (Pinter, 1993), pp. 92–3. See also George H. Jansen, Afro-Asia and Non- Alignment, (Faber, 1966), p. 105. 38 Quoted in Anita Inder Singh, The Limits of British Influence, pp. 107–8. 39 Girija Shankar Bajpai’s telegram, May 1951, quoted in Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet since 1947 (Penguin, 2000), p. 75. 40 Five Principles is the most commonly-used translation; Nehru him- self translated the term as ‘Five Foundations’. See Tibor Mende, Conversations with Nehru (Secker & Warburg, 1958), p. 73. 41 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (Penguin, 1967), pp. 195–6. Many Indian writers in CCF-funded publications, in contrast to those outside India, found the mysticism of the bhoodan movement not to their taste. 42 Quoted in Selig S. Harrison, India: The Most Dangerous Decades (Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 8. 43 Statement, August 12, 1947, SWJN II, volume 3, pp. 193–4. 44 JN to Abdul Huq, December 23, 1939, JNP, NML, volume 1, p. 7. 45 Speech, June 1952, quoted in K.S. Singh (ed.), Jawaharlal Nehru, Tribes and Tribal Policy (Anthropological Survey of India, 1989), p. 2. 46 Letter to Naga National Council, reprinted in the National Herald, October 2, SWJN II, volume 2, p. 604. 47 Speech, June 1952, quoted in K.S. Singh (ed.), Jawaharlal Nehru, Tribes and Tribal Policy, pp. 2–3. 6 HIGH NEHRUVIANISM AND ITS DECLINE, c. 1955–63 1 Nehru to K.M. Panikkar, November 12, 1953, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, volume 2, (Jonathan Cape, 1979), p. 185. 2 Quoted in G.H. Jansen, Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment, (Faber, 1966), pp. 150, 159. 3 Quoted in G.H. Jansen, Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment, p. 117. 4 Quoted in G.H. Jansen, Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment, p. 120. 5 S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, volume 2, pp. 285–6.

N O T E S 277 6 Pranab Bardhan, The Political Economy of Development in India (Basil Blackwell, 1988). 7 Election figures taken from W.H. Morris-Jones, The Government and Politics of India, (Hutchinson, 1969), pp. 163–4. 8 Quoted in Francine Frankel, India’s Political Economy 1947–1977: the Gradual Revolution (Princeton University Press, 1978), p. 160. 9 E.M.S. Namboodiripad, ‘A Democrat in the Dock’, in Rafiq Zakaria (ed.), A Study of Nehru (Times of India, 1959; 2nd edition, 1960), p. 223. 10 Krishna Menon, quoted in Michael Brecher, Nehru’s Mantle: the Politics of Succession in India (Praeger, 1966), pp. 96–7. 11 S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography, volume 3 (Jonathan Cape, 1984), p. 122. 12 Quoted in G.H. Jansen, Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment, p. 298. 13 Nehru’s memorandum, quoted in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (Jonathan Cape, 1970), pp. 80, 83. 14 Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows (Penguin, 2000), p. 207. 15 Director of the Land Reforms Division of the Planning Commission, interview quoted from Francine Frankel, India’s Political Economy, p. 167. 16 Quoted in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 166. 17 Quoted in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 169. 18 Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, Report of the Officials of the Governments of India and the People’s Republic of China on the Boundary Question (New Delhi, 1961), p. 5. 19 Quoted in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, pp. 171, 174, 175. 20 Michael Brecher, India and World Politics: Krishna Menon’s View of the World (Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 131. 21 Election figures taken from W.H. Morris-Jones, The Government and Politics of India, pp. 163–4. 22 Quoted in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 250. 23 Hiren Mukerjee in the Lok Sabha, November 8, 1962, in Forward to the Defence of the Motherland under the Banner of Jawaharlal Nehru: Speeches by Communist Members in Parliament (New Delhi: CPI, November 1962), p. 27. 24 Renu Chakrabarty in the Lok Sabha, November 10, 1962, in Forward to the Defence of the Motherland under the Banner of Jawaharlal Nehru: Speeches by Communist Members in Parliament, p. 35. 25 Details of the incident are in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 410; S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, volume 3, pp. 228–9. 26 Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows, p. 286. 27 Cited in Bertrand Russell, Unarmed Victory (Penguin, 1963), p. 105. 28 Speech in the Lok Sabha, intervening in the debate on the Official Languages Bill on April 24, 1963, reprinted in Jawaharlal Nehru’s

278 N O T E S Speeches, volume 5: 1963–64 (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1965), p. 29. 29 Speech in the Lok Sabha, intervening in the debate on the Official Languages Bill on April 24, 1963, reprinted in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume 5: 1963–64, p. 31. CONCLUSION: DEATH, SUCCESSION, LEGACY 1 Speech in the Lok Sabha on the No-Confidence Motion, August 22, 1963, reprinted in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume 5: 1963–64, p. 76. 2 Quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, volume 3, p. 263. 3 JN to Ghulam Muhammad, March 4, 1962, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, volume 3, p. 262. 4 Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, volume 5, p. 228. 5 JNP, NML, Part V, Sl No. 58, p. 84. 6 Nehru’s will, dated June 21, 1954, text published in R.K. Karanjia’s newspaper Blitz, quoted in Michael Brecher, Nehru’s Mantle, (Praeger, 1966), p. 40. 7 Nehru’s will, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, volume 3, p. 269. 8 Hiren Mukerjee, The Gentle Colossus: a Study of Jawaharlal Nehru (Oxford University Press, 1986, 1st edition, 1964), pp. 5–6. 9 J.D. Bernal, quoted in Deepak Kumar, ‘Reconstructing India: Disunity in the Science and Technology for Development Discourse, 1900–1947’, Osiris 2001, p. 257 10 Tibor Mende, Conversations with Nehru, (Secker & Warburg, 1958), pp. 33–4.

FURTHER READING There are innumerable books on Jawaharlal Nehru. Many are too hagio- graphic, or dominated by concerns with his personal life or his personality, to be useful. Most of them do not stand up to academic scrutiny. There are also several published memoirs of persons associated with Nehru at various points in his or their careers – of uneven quality and varying levels of usefulness. Much hard work has to be done on cross-checking sources used and finding out what level of access the writer had to Nehru or his circles, what axes he or she had to grind, and so on, before these works yield anything useful. The three-volume official biography of Nehru by the late S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: a Biography (3 volumes, Jonathan Cape, 1975–84), is still the standard work, though it fails to be adequately critical. Gopal, son of the Sanskritist and later president of India, S. Radhakrishnan, was allowed privileged access to the Nehru papers, which are closed to ordinary researchers for the period after 1946. Gopal is also our main intermediary for the post-1946 period, having edited the published selections from the Nehru papers, the Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, two series of which have appeared to date (Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, 1972–82; 1984–). It does not take a specialist to find that even these selectively published works are often at variance with the views expressed in Gopal’s official biography – which does him credit as a scholar when he takes off his official hat. (Gopal has worn many official hats in his time – for instance, he was the head of the team of historians appointed to find archival evidence backing India’s case on the Indo-Chinese border question that eventually led to the Indo-Chinese border war of 1962.) The first volume, dealing with the pre-1946 period, is the most reliable; thereafter, his narrative is sometimes clumsily partisan. Gopal’s is, despite these defects, still the best account in existence. There is a considerable body of work by B.R. Nanda, relating to Nehru himself, his father Motilal, the Nehru years, Gandhi, and the relation- ship between Gandhi and Nehru, which is generally reliable, if within a centrist and nationalist paradigm: see in particular The Nehrus: Motilal and Jawaharlal (Allen & Unwin, 1962) and Jawaharlal Nehru: Rebel and Statesman (Oxford University Press, 1995). Two older critical biographies still worth reading are those of Michael Brecher, Nehru: A Political Biography (Oxford University Press, 1959, recently reprinted) and Michael Edwardes, Nehru: A Political Biography (Allen Lane, 1971), although they are naturally not

280 F U R T H E R R E A D I N G informed by the large amounts of recent research on India both in the late colonial and early post-independence period. A more recent biography, Stanley Wolpert’s Nehru: Tryst with Destiny (Oxford University Press, 1996), is often anecdotal and involved in some speculations on the details of Nehru’s sex life; it is an entertaining read, written by a man who met several of the main protagonists of his story. The most recent, Judith Brown’s Nehru: a Political Life (Yale University Press, 2003), is good on personal details, especially on Nehru’s life in prison and his relations with family members, but lacks an understanding of the wider political context or a knowledge of related new research, although the author has had privileged access to some of the post-1947 Nehru papers. Other projects now underway have as yet failed to produce any major surprises. As to documentary sources, the Nehru papers for the period before 1946 are open to the public (with the requisite research permission; though even these have been ruthlessly culled – one may compare an earlier, published, index of the papers with the current hand-list to get a sense of the sorts of things the public is no longer allowed to see). The papers of the Indian National Congress and various of its committees and dependent bodies, and of Nehru’s father Motilal, at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi are also open to the public. Further material is available at the National Archives of India, New Delhi, and in the India Office Records at the British Library, London, but a directed research question is necessary in order for these archives to yield information. For the period after 1946, as mentioned before, the Nehru papers are closed to researchers without the requisite connections; those with the requisite connections have tended either to be official biographers whose work has consequently been suspect, or whose work has been suspected of being inaccurate by virtue of their having had such privileged access: Catch 22. Until the custodians of Nehru’s reputation release him from their tenacious hold, many aspects of Nehru’s life and politics will not be properly open to debate. Nonetheless, the Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru provides much material of value. Moreover, Nehru was a prolific letter writer and many of his letters have been published, continue to be published or can be traced in the papers of his corre- spondents. It is of course important not to get too involved in the merely biographical details, and consequently to engage with the wider world in which Nehru lived and worked. General narratives of Indian history can be found in Sumit Sarkar, Modern India (Macmillan, 1983), still relevant reading although now twenty years old, and Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia (Routledge, 1998). For the post-1947 period, see also Paul Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge University Press, 1990). A general

281F U R T H E R R E A D I N G narrative of the economic history of India is available in Dietmar Rothermund, An Economic History of India (2nd edition, Routledge, 1993). Published documents contained in the Transfer of Power series published by Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, or the Towards Freedom volumes currently being published by the Indian Council for Historical Research (the present Government of India’s attempts to censor some volumes of these collections, awaiting publication, will hopefully not be successful) are important sources for their respective periods. Contemporary news- papers are also useful. Works on specific themes and periods are dealt with below. On British imperial durbars and the invented traditions of colonial rule in India, see Bernard Cohn, ‘Representing Authority in Victorian India’, in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge University Press, 1983). On the question of the formation of ‘Indian’ identities, see Bernard Cohn, ‘The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia’, in An Anthropologist among the Historians and other essays (Oxford University Press, 1986); and Nicholas Dirks, Castes of Mind (Princeton University Press, 2001). On Indian nationalism, see Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (Zed Books, 1986); Sudipta Kaviraj, ‘The Imaginary Institution of India’, in Partha Chatterjee and Gyanendra Pandey (eds), Subaltern Studies VII (Oxford University Press, 1992); Sudipta Kaviraj, ‘On the Structure of Nationalist Discourse’, in T.V. Sathyamurthy (ed.), Social Change and Political Discourse in India, Volume 1: State and Nation in the Context of Social Change (Oxford University Press, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton University Press, 1993). For a different view, see Peter van der Veer, Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India (University of California Press, 1994). On the period of Gandhi’s ascendancy, the ideological context is best provided by Gandhi’s own writings: see his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Penguin, 1982), first published in two volumes in 1927 and 1929; and Anthony Parel (ed.), Hind Swaraj and other writings (Cambridge University Press, 1997). For work on the period, see Ravinder Kumar (ed.), Essays on Gandhian Politics: the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 (Clarendon Press, 1971); Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement (Columbia University Press, 1982); Shahid Amin, ‘Gandhi as Mahatma’, in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies III (Oxford University Press, 1984); Sumit Sarkar, ‘The Logic of Gandhian Nationalism: Civil Disobedience and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1930–31)’, Indian Historical Review III 1, 1976. See also Judith Brown, Gandhi, Prisoner of Hope (Yale University Press, 1989), the culmination of a career spent studying Gandhi. (Bizarre omissions include

282 F U R T H E R R E A D I N G a proper discussion of the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre and Gandhi’s role in the enquiry.) Basudev Chatterji, Trade, Tariffs and Empire: Lancashire and British Politics in India 1919–1939 (Oxford University Press, 1992), deals with the political economy of the period between the two world wars, and Dietmar Rothermund, India in the Great Depression 1929–1939 (Manohar, 1992), is on the political economy and social history of that period. A good history of the internal workings of the left, to my mind, remains to be written. Some of this can be followed in the political journals and pamphlets of the time. For the period from the formation of the Congress Socialist Party to 1939 (when the journal collapsed due to financial difficulties) see The Congress Socialist. A line closer to Nehru was followed by the National Herald from 1938 – he was involved in its founding, and wrote regularly for it himself. Reba Som, Differences within Consensus: The Left and Right in the Congress, 1929–1939 (Sangam, 1995), addresses the question of how the Congress left and right wings co-existed, to my mind not altogether satisfactorily. Leonard Gordon, Brothers against the Raj (Columbia University Press, 1990) provides a sympathetic perspective on the Bose brothers, Subhas and Sarat. There are now many documents in the public domain on the early history of the communist movement in India. M.N. Roy’s works have appeared in print, and documentary histories of the Communist Party of India have been published by the original CPI and the breakaway (and now more successful) Communist Party of India (Marxist). There is a huge literature on communalism, partition and independence: see Asim Roy, ‘The High Politics of India’s Partition: the Revisionist Perspective’, Modern Asian Studies 24(2), 1990; Ayesha Jalal, ‘Secularists, Subalterns and the Stigma of “Communalism”: Partition Historiography Revisited’, Modern Asian Studies 30(3), 1996; and David Gilmartin, ‘Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian History: in Search of a Narrative’, Journal of Asian Studies 57(4), 1998, for a helpful route through some of it. Alan Campbell- Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (Hale, 1951); Penderel Moon, Divide and Quit (Chatto and Windus, 1961); and H.V. Hodson, The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan (Hutchinson, 1969), are accounts by contemporaries; as is Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, India Wins Freedom (Orient Longman, 1988, first published with omissions, 1959). Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge University Press, 1985) is a crucial work. Among the regional studies are David Gilmartin, Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (University of California Press, 1988); Ian Talbot, Provincial Politics and the Pakistan Movement: The Growth of the Muslim League in the North West and North East India 1937–1947 (Oxford University Press, 1989); Ian Talbot, Freedom’s Cry: The Popular Dimension in the Pakistan Movement and Partition

283F U R T H E R R E A D I N G Experience in North-West India (Oxford University Press, 1996); Shila Sen, Muslim Politics in Bengal, 1937–47 (Impex India, 1976). Sulagna Roy, ‘Communal Conflict in Bengal, 1930–1947’, unpublished PhD dissertation (University of Cambridge, 1999), combines archival material and interviews to problematise the connections usually claimed between elite and popular politics. See also the essays in Mushirul Hasan (ed.), Inventing Boundaries: Gender, Politics and the Partition of India (Oxford University Press, 2000). The work of R.J. Moore is useful on British imperial policy in the last years of empire: see his Churchill, Cripps and India 1939–1945 (Clarendon Press, 1979); Escape from Empire (Clarendon Press, 1983); Endgames of Empire (Oxford University Press, 1988). On the Cripps-Nehru relationship, crucial to transfer of power negotiations, told from Cripps’ point of view, see the relevant sections of Peter Clarke, The Cripps Version: the Life of Sir Stafford Cripps 1889–1952 (Allen Lane, 2002). (No nuanced understanding of Indian politics should be expected from this book.) See also Ian Copland, The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire 1917–1947 (Cambridge University Press, 1997). Some useful work on the transition from colonial rule to independence is now available. On the end of empire and the beginning of the Cold War, an overview of the imperial context is available in P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstruction 1914–1990 (Longman, 1993). On Indo-British relations, the Cold War and US and British concerns regarding regional politics in South and South-East Asia, see R.J. Moore, Making the New Commonwealth (Clarendon Press, 1987); Anita Inder Singh, The Limits of British Influence: South Asia and the Anglo-American Relationship 1947–56 (Pinter Publishers, 1993); Philip Joseph Charrier, ‘Britain, India and the Genesis of the Colombo Plan, 1945–1951’, unpublished PhD dissertation (University of Cambridge, 1995). On Kashmir, accounts of 1947–8 can be found in H.V. Hodson, The Great Divide, R.J. Moore, Making the New Commonwealth and, more recently, C. Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir, 1947–48 (Sage, 2002). There is much material on Kashmir in general and on later events: a useful short account, arguing that Kashmir’s autonomy within the Indian Union should have been respected and ought to be restored, can be found in Balraj Puri, Kashmir: Towards Insurgency (Sangam, 1993); and in a comparative and historical framework, although addressing current concerns, Suranjan Das, Kashmir and Sindh: Nation-Building, Ethnicity and Regional Politics in South Asia (Anthem, 2001). For the post-independence period, not nearly enough historical research has been done, largely because of the problems of availability of archival evidence. Nehru’s analyses and commentaries on Indian affairs in his

284 F U R T H E R R E A D I N G published Letters to Chief Ministers 1947–1964 (five volumes, Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, 1984–9) are usually quite insightful. On the foreign policy side, new evidence has now been drawn upon by some studies (see above). Some earlier work is still extremely useful: see for instance G.H. Jansen, Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment (Faber, 1966), which contains much material on India and on Nehru; Michael Brecher, India and World Politics: Krishna Menon’s View of the World (Oxford University Press, 1968), provides extremely useful material in a series of interviews with Nehru’s main ally and confidant in foreign policy matters. For domestic politics, some general narratives exist; but newspaper reports, partisan political polemics or contemporary writings are often the best way into it. There is some material on the organisation of the Congress and the state machinery after independence: see for instance, Myron Weiner, Party-Building in a New Nation: The Indian National Congress (University of Chicago Press, 1967); Stanley Kochanek, The Congress Party of India: the Dynamics of One-Party Democracy (Princeton University Press, 1968); David C. Potter, India’s Political Administrators 1919–1983 (Clarendon Press, 1986); Suhit Sen, ‘The Transitional State: Congress and Government in UP, c.1946–57’, unpublished PhD thesis (School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1998). On the question of language, see Robert D. King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India (Oxford University Press, 1997); on the Hindu Code, Reba Som, ‘Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code Bill: A Victory of Symbol over Substance?’ Modern Asian Studies 28(1), 1994. On the prime minister’s role, see the essays in James Manor (ed.), Nehru to the Nineties: the Changing Office of Prime Minister in India (Hurst, 1994). Surveys of the reasons why India would eventually fall apart, outlining regional, linguistic, caste and communal tensions, appeared periodically: see Selig S. Harrison, India: The Most Dangerous Decades (Princeton University Press, 1960). The central theme for post-independence India is development: it has generated much technical literature and much work in the political economy mode. On the corresponding social and intellectual history, see Benjamin Zachariah, ‘British and Indian Ideas of “Development”: Decoding Political Conventions in the Late Colonial State’, Itinerario 3–4, 1999; Benjamin Zachariah, ‘The Development of Professor Mahalanobis’, review article, Economy and Society 26(3), 1997. Post-independence, A.H. Hanson, The Process of Planning: A Study of India’s Five-Year Plans, 1950–64 (Oxford University Press, 1966) and Francine R. Frankel, India’s Political Economy 1947–1977: The Gradual Revolution (Princeton University Press, 1978) are detailed narrative accounts. Pranab Bardhan, The Political Economy of Development in India (Basil Blackwell, 1984); Sukhamoy Chakravarty,

285F U R T H E R R E A D I N G Development Planning: The Indian Experience (Clarendon Press, 1987); Terence J. Byres (ed.), The State and Development Planning in India (Oxford University Press, 1994); Terence J. Byres (ed.), The Indian Economy: Major Debates since Independence (Oxford University Press, 1998), read together, provide a good sense of the debates. On opposition parties and non-Congress politics, the largest literature relates to the main opposition party for most of the Nehruvian period, the Communist Party of India. The early narrative histories of the CPI, centrally concerned with its origins and development, were written in the 1950s at the height of Cold War paranoia and a lingering McCarthyism – funded by the American establishment, whose need for ‘area studies’ brought several academic departments into being. G.D. Overstreet and M. Windmiller’s Communism in India (University of California Press, 1959) is a comprehensive account – but a serious left-winger reading this book might well have developed an over-optimistic picture of the communists’ and the left’s strengths in India. A companion piece, by David M. Druhe, Soviet Russia and Indian Communism 1917–1947, with an Epilogue Covering the Situation Today (Bookman Associates, 1959), attributes too much to Soviet conspiracy, but covers necessary ground for the pre-independence period. Early members of the Party, foreign organisers and breast-beating recanters have all written their memoirs. For the post-independence period, Party resolutions were routinely published and publicised, as were changes of line and reassessments. A history of the CPI in the Nehru years needs to be written. For other parties: the socialists (of various description) were often their own publicists, most prominent among them being Jayaprakash Narayan and Rammanohar Lohia. On the continued importance of Hindu nationalism in the Nehruvian period, see B.D. Graham, Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics (Cambridge University Press, 1990). See also Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India (Hurst, 1996); B.D. Basu et al, Khaki Shorts, Saffron Flags (Orient Longman, 1993); and Peter van der Veer, Religious Nationalism. The Swatantra Party is interesting in that it has been arguably the only secular (that is, non-sectarian or non-religious nationalist) right-wing party of any note in India. See H.L. Erdman, The Swatantra Party and Indian Conservatism (Cambridge University Press, 1967). Minoo Masani’s Congress Misrule and the Swatantra Alternative (Manaktalas, 1966), a collection of his speeches and writings as a Swatantra member, is useful to get a sense of their own arguments. On the Congress for Cultural Freedom and CIA funding in India, see the second volume of Minoo Masani’s memoirs, Against the Tide (Vikas, 1981), in which he openly acknowledges receiving CIA funding, but denies it

286 F U R T H E R R E A D I N G influenced anyone’s political opinions. See also Margery Sabin, Dissenters and Mavericks (Oxford University Press, 2002), Chapter 6: ‘The Politics of Cultural Freedom: India in the 1950s’. On the more directly political activities of the CIA in India, and on Tibet and Indo-Chinese relations, see Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows (Penguin, 2000) and Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (Cape, 1970). See also Bertrand Russell, Unarmed Victory (Penguin, 1963). A number of the above works do not deal centrally with Nehru at all; but since Nehru was so central to the period under discussion, they have a strong bearing on understanding Nehru and Nehruvianism. They are also not necessarily in accord with the views expressed in this book, and are merely a representative sample drawn from a complex and extremely voluminous literature that in many of its aspects appears now to be in urgent need of revision.

INDEX Abdullah, Sheikh Muhammad 178–9, All-India Muslim League 19, 31–2, 180, 211–12, 232, 255–6 40, 43, 118, 128, 144, 156, 175; and 1937 elections 88–9; and Acheson, Dean 201–2 ‘atrocities’ of Congress ministries agriculture: cooperatives in 227, 242; 92–4; and Bose’s presidency of Congress 98–9; and Cripps failure of redistributive agenda and Mission 114–15; and Junagadh ‘betting on the strong’ 263; fall 176; League supporters and in prices 69; and Five-Year Tebhaga movement 154; and Plans 193–4, 224–5; limited Nehru Report 61–2; opportunity income-generation potential of of the Second World War: 105–6; 152; Minister ‘Kamarajed’ 255 ‘Pakistan,’ partition negotiations ahimsa 41, 45, 68 and violence 121–4, 129–35, 138; Ahmad, Z.A. 123–5 zamindari base 84 Aksai Chin 239–42 Ali, Mohammad (Prime Minister of All-India Radio 180, 200, 209 Pakistan) 216–17 All-India Trade Union Congress Ali, Mubarak 13 Ali brothers (Muhammad and (AITUC) 47, 65–6, 75, 189 Shaukat) 33, 39, 40, 42 Ambedkar, Dr B.R. 73, 132, 148, All-India Hindu (Maha) Sabha 23, 62, 74, 90, 128, 172, 184, 187, 229; 150, 195 and concurrent membership of Amery, Leo 106, 114, 117, 163 Congress 91, 124; members Andrews, C.F. 41 instigating riots 134; offices Arab states 179, 200, 203, 217 attacked after Gandhi’s murder Arya Samaj 15, 23, 63 174; opposes independent Bengal Aryan 9, 14 proposals 136; suspends explicitly Asaf Ali 157, 162 political activities 175; and Asian Relations Conference (1947) upper-caste Hindu opinion 148 159–60, 172, 238 Ataturk, Mustapha Kemal 209

288 I N D E X Atlantic Charter (1941) 113–14 Boy Scouts 17, 53 Attlee, Clement 76, 134, 148 boycott and burning of British-made Auchinleck, Lord 120 Auden, W.H. 103 goods 19–20, 41, 47, 51, 68 authenticity 7–10, 23, 195 Bradley, Ben 76 Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam 101, 113, Brailsford, H.N. 4 Brockway, Fenner 4, 58–9 122, 129, 130, 235 Brooks, Ferdinand 13–15, 103 Buddhism 14 Baba Ramchandra 48–9 Bulganin, Nikolai 221 Backward Castes see Scheduled Castes Burma: and borders with China 240, Baghdad Pact 211, 216, 218, 222 Bandung Conference 216, 217, 244; independence of 200; and Japanese invasion 112; loss of rice 219–22, 239, 247, 264 imports from 119; and Nehru’s Bengal 26, 32, 62, 66, 126, 173, 184; foreign policy 158, 159; Nehru’s visit to, 94; and non-alignment annulment of partition of 29; 203, 216; separation from British Calcutta and Noakhali violence India 209–10 130–1; communist electoral gains in West Bengal 229; and East Cabinet Mission (1946) 129–30, 133, India Company 11; and Muslim 135 League 22, 124, 129; and partition 133, 136–7; provincial autonomy, Cambodia 203, 218 Muslim politics and agrarian Cambridge 4, 17–26, 58, 135, 190 relations 88, 91–2, 121; Swadeshi Cambridge Indian Majlis 23, 25 movement 19–22; Tebhaga Caroe, Sir Olaf 177 movement in 154; terrorist Casement, Roger 32, 51 movement in 30–1, 41, 69–70, 78 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Bengal Famine 119–20, 127 Benthall, Sir Edward 77, 111 205–6, 231, 235–6, 241, 249, Bernal, J.D. 260 260–1 Besant, Annie 14–15, 24, 31–2, 36 Central Treaty Organisation Bevin, Ernest 165, 179 (CENTO) 218 bhadralok 19, 91, 92, 209 Ceylon 159, 200, 203, 216, 219 Bhave, Vinoba 109, 195–6 Chattopadhyay, Virendranath 43, 60, bhoodan 195–6, 206 104 Birla, G.D. 68, 84–5, 174, 228 Chetty, Shanmukham 163 Bogor Conference 216 Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) 59, Bolsheviks 42–3, 55, 67 113, 158 Bose, Sarat Chandra 136 China 59, 60, 66, 70, 95, 104, Bose, Subhas Chandra 66, 78–9, 151, 158–60, 203–5, 222, 259, 260; 159, 184, death 126; activities in ancient civilisation of 145, 146; Germany and Japan 110; appoints anti-Japanese war 113; and National Planning Committee 96; Bandung 217–21; and border death 126; ‘Tripuri crisis’ 97–101 dispute 237–46; India as base for Boundary Commission (Radcliffe airlifts to 112; Indian admiration Commission) 136–7 for revolutionary China 197, 208; and Korean War 201–2; Nehru

I N D E X 289 recognises People’s Republic 158, Tebhaga 129, 154; Telengana 154, 166, 199–200; Nehru’s loss of 185–6, 207; working with Nehru authority after China war 255, and within Nehruvian project 125, 264; war with 246–50 see also 182, 192, 219, 226, 260 Tibet Community Development 194–5, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 109, 197, 225 146, 197, 199 Congress, Indian National: ‘atrocities’ Christians 84, 91, 93, 131–2, 146 against Muslims 92–3; Avadi Churchill, Winston 109, 114–15, Resolution on ‘socialistic pattern 117, 120, 123, 162, 165, 256 of society’ 198; and battle for the Civil Disobedience 33, 36, 67–72, succession 254–9; beginnings of 109 Gandhian politics 39–44; Council Cold War see Bandung Conference, entry 52–3; internal equations China, non-alignment, USA, after independence 17, 166–7, USSR 175–6, 183–6; internal equations Colombo Conference (1950) 165, 199 at independence 125, 141–3; Colombo Conference (1954) 216 internal equations in the 1930s Colombo Plan 165 79–86, 97–101; Moderates and Commonwealth 114, 150, 160–5, Extremists 20–3, 30–1; Nehru’s 198–9, 222, 246 position in, 3–7; opposition to Communal Award (1932) 73 Nehru from within 248, 251–2; Communist Information Bureau Purna Swaraj resolution (1929) (Cominform) 182, 221 64–5; running governments under Communist International (Comintern) ‘Provincial autonomy’ 86–94; 12, 43, 79 Tripuri session and crisis 99–101 Communist Party of Great Britain Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF) (CPGB) 25, 76, 230 205–6, 246 Communist Party of India (CPI): and Congress Socialist Party (CSP) 76, AITUC 189; on Bose and INA 79–81, 83, 86–7, 93, 104; and 126–8; CPI artists and Bengal Bengal 91–2; boycotts Constituent Famine 120; and CSP 79, 87, 101, Assembly 147; and CPI 101, 107, 107, 117, 124, 180–1, 234; early 117, 124–5, 182, 229–30; years 30, 43, 56; imperialist war political trajectories of former line 107; and India as members 148, 205–6, 234; and multinational state 124, 147, 207; Quit India Movement 115, 117, Kerala government 33, 229–31; 124; secedes from Congress 125, links with USSR 219, 221; as 142; and Subhas Bose 98, 100 main opposition party 142, 187, Congress Volunteer Corps 66 196, 229, 246; Meerut Conspiracy Conservative Party 12, 77, 113–14, Case 67; and Pakistan 123–5, 154; 163 People’s War line 112, 126; and Constituent Assembly 95, 132, 133, Popular Front 79–80, 90; and 140; and Commonwealth Quit India Movement 115, 117, membership 165, 198; and foreign 123; and Sino-Indian border policy 156–7, 160, 198; key dispute 242, 247–50, 260; debates 147–51

290 I N D E X Constitution of India 147–51, 232; Khan’s Budget 132; as solvent for Directive Principles 150–1; communalism 144; and Soviet aid Fundamental Rights 150–1 221; sterling balances and Cold War pressures on 160–5; tariffs constructive programme 66, 79 and market-sharing 56; and cooperative farming 153, 194–5, ‘village communities’ 194–8; wartime inadvertent import 224–5, 227, 234, 242, 263 substitution 34 Cripps, Stafford, 4, 95, 108–9, economic nationalism 14, 18, 152, 234 113–16, 129, 163–4 Eighth Route Army, Indian medical Cripps Mission (1942) 113–16, 164 mission to 108–9 Cuban Missile Crisis 247 Einstein, Albert 59 Curzon, Lord 34 Eisenhower, Dwight 235, 243 elections: of 1937 86, 88–9, 105, Dalai Lama 241 121–2; of 1945–46 106, 123, Dange, S.A. 4 3 124, 127, 129, 132, 136, 176; Das, Chittaranjan (C.R.) 41, 52–3 boycott of 1920 elections 41–2; Defence of India Act (1915) 31 by-elections 253; and communists Defence of India Rules (1939) 109, in Kerala 229, 232, 233; Congress presidential 1939 96, 99, 101; 110 Congress presidential 1950 184; Delhi Durbar (1911) 22, 29 general elections of 1952 186–7, Depressed Classes see Scheduled Castes 207; general elections of 1957 Desai, Bhulabhai 85, 128 229–30; general elections of 1962 Desai, Morarji 251, 254, 257–8 245, 251; general elections of Dhebar, U.N. 186 1967 234; implications of Direct Action Day 130 sectarian, ethnic or linguistic Disraeli, Benjamin 12, 48 loyalties for 208; Labour victory in divide and rule 19, 57, 67, 101 Britain 123; rigged in Kashmir dominion status 61–2, 64–5, 104, 256; Shastri elected Nehru’s successor 258; and Swaraj Party 52 109, 114, 164; and Kashmir electorates: under 1935 Act 77–8, 85; conflict 178; temporary 137, 139, Nehru Report’s recommendations 142, 147–8, 176 62; Nehru’s popularity before 142, Dover, Cedric 76–7 183, 215, 261; separate Dulles, John Foster 158–9, 218–19 (communal) electorates 5–6, 22, Dutt, Clemens 25, 58 35, 73, 147 Dutt, Ellie 25 Elwin, Verrier 239 Dutt, Rajani Palme 25, 58, 76, 98 equality before the law 1, 144, 150 Dutt, Upendra Krishna 25 eugenics 70, 146, 191 duumvirate 169, 173, 180 Dyer, General 37–9 Fabians, Fabianism, Fabian socialism 4, 14, 24, 25, 81, 190, 226 economic development 1, 2, 10, 82, 140–1, 151–4, 212–14, 223–9, fascists, fascism 14, 79–80, 87–8, 94, 233; achievements and failures 261, 262–3; and ‘Colombo Plan’ 200; and intellectuals 190–4; and Jewish technicians 97; Liaquat Ali

I N D E X 291 112–13, 116–18, 182; Hindu 105, 107, 109; and transfer of groups influenced by 90; and power negotiations 122, 135–6; imperialism 79, 107, 230; and and Tripuri Crisis 97–100 over-centralised state 181; Sikh Gandhians, Gandhism 57, 61, 65, 76, and Hindu fascism 172; and 79, 99, 111; after Gandhi’s death Subhas Bose 98, 126 196–7, 226, 254, 265; and Indian feudal–imperial alliance 1 2, 56, 153 Constitution 148–9 see also village finance 35, 77, 108, 111, 132; communities, bhoodan division between India and Garibaldi, Giuseppe 17 Pakistan 173; sterling balances General Assembly (United Nations) and continued British control of, 157, 202 160–3 Geneva Conference on Indo-China First World War 30–34, 36, 40 (1954) 203, 218 Five-Year Plans see plans, planning Germany 76, 98, 112; West Germany food aid 186, 202 248 franchise: property 5–6, 71, 73, 87, Ghadr 30, 31 95, 147, 148; universal adult 140, Ghosh, Aurobindo 41 144, 148 see also elections, Goa 156, 221, 245, 248 electorates Gopal, Sarvepalli 242 Freemasons 30 Government of India Act (1935) Frost, Robert 256 77–8, 85–6, 131, 149, 232 Great Calcutta Killings (1946) 130–1 Gandhi, Feroze 113, 183, 233 Great Depression 69, 74, 77, 81 Gandhi (Nehru), Indira 54, 74–5, Green Revolution 263 Guomindang (GMD) (Kuomintang) 183, 186, 232–3, 257–8 59, 66, 109, 238 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand 3, 7, Harrow 4, 16–19, 27, 58, 256; anti- 10, 15, 17, 19–20, 32; Semitism at 18 assassination 174–5, 180, 184; Civil Disobedience Movement Hatta, Mohammed 200 67–72; Communal Award and Heidelberg 26 Poona Pact 73; early campaigns Hind Swaraj 20, 41, 61 32–3, 36–7; fasts 73, 118, 138, Hindi 13, 18, 50–1, 53–4, 196, 204, 173–4; Gandhi–Irwin Pact and consequences 72–3; and Hunter 208–9, 252, 258 see also Commission 38–9; and Hindustani, Urdu Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Hindu Code Bill 185, 261, 263–4 Movement 40–2; popular Hindu law 5 interpretations of 45–6; and Hindu–Mohammedan Conference post-Partition violence 170, 175; (1911) 22–3 and Quit India Movement Hindu–Muslim relations 22, 33, 54, 115–16, 118; relations with 57, 62–3, 91, 108, 140 Nehru 33, 54, 65, 78–9, 83, 113, Hindu revivalism 15, 33, 93, 171, 174, 181; relations with rightists 257 and businessmen 57, 68, 71–2, Hindustani 13, 46, 49, 54, 126, 175, 84–5; and Second World War 208–9

292 I N D E X Hitler, Adolf 87, 105 Indo-British trade relations 4, 76, 95, Ho Chi Minh 158 123 Home Rule Leagues 31–2 Hungary, Soviet invasion of 222–3 Indo-China 158, 160, 189, 201, 203, Hunter Commission (Committee) 216, 218 38–9 Indonesia 156, 158, 160, 200, 203, Huq, Fazlul 106 215–16, 220 Hyderabad 139, 154, 156, 176–7, Industrial Policy Resolution: of 1948 178, 207 153, 225; of 1956 225 Independence for India League 95, industrialisation: Community 155 Development and small-scale industry 194–5; desirability of 55, Independent Labour Party (ILP) 4, 81–2, 96, 99, 125, 152–3, 159; 58–9 and economic nationalism 14, 152; Gandhians’ opposition to 81, 125, Indian Administrative Service (IAS) 181; as inadvertent effect of First 143 World War 34; and Indian development planning 192–4, Indian businessmen, industrialists 3, 224–9, 262; and Nehru’s appeal 47, 55–7, 81–7, 152–3, 162, 205, for industrial peace 188–9; during 251, 263; and development Second World War 161 188–90; influence on Congress 85, 125; influence on Gandhi 66, 68, Industries Disputes Act 189 71–2; wartime profiteering 127, intellectuals, intelligentsia 8, 32, 132 50, 59, 70, 87, 187; and class Indian Civil Service (ICS) 18–19, 22, base of independent Indian state 26, 143, 234 228; and Gandhi 33, 45, 191; and the Nehruvian project 190–2, Indian merchants, traders 51, 55, 119, 206, 226; and radical politics 43, 234 56 Interim Government 128, 129, Indian ‘middle classes’ 3, 9, 11–14, 131–3, 137, 156, 200, 209 18, 19–20, 23, 31; after International Congress against independence 228–9; superficial Colonial Oppression and modernism of 146; and Imperialism (Brussels, 1927) trade-union leadership 47 58–60 Iqbal, Muhammad 53–4 Indian National Army (INA) 110, Iran 159, 218 126–30; INA trials 126–8 Irish nationalism, Irish Home Rule 14, 21, 31 Indian National Trade Union Irwin, Lord 65, 72 Congress (INTUC) 189 Israel 23, 179, 217, 222 indigenous values, ‘indigenism’ 7–10, Jallianwalla Bagh massacre 37–9 12, 15; and attacks on secularism Jammu 177, 211, 255 265; and the Cold War, CIA and Jan Sangh 175, 187, 211, 229, 242, CCF 206, 234; community development and bhoodan 195–7; 245, 248 as legitimating principle 141; proclaimed by Gandhians and Hindu sectarians 81; and swadeshi movement 20–1

I N D E X 293 Japan 56, 72, 98, 109–10, 112–13, Kripalani, J.B. 181, 184, 186, 253 115–16, 118–19, 126–7, 159 Krishak Praja Party (KPP) 88–9, Jews 96–7, 179 91–3 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali 43, 62, 99, krishak samities 69 105–6, 118, 122–3, 129–30; and labour, workers 5, 41, 46, 48, 66, 67, final transfer of power negotiations 82, 85, 152, 188, 194, 224, 225 134–8; and Interim Government see also strikes 132; and Kashmir dispute 177, 179–80 Labour governments in Britain 65, Johnson, Colonel Louis 114, 164 76, 77, 116, 123 Johnson, Lyndon 263 Joliot-Curie, F. 167 Labour Party 4, 58, 76, 95, 108, 113, Junagadh 156, 176, 178, 185 116, 123, 125, 165 Kalimpong 241 Ladakh 241, 246 Kamaraj Plan 254, 255, 258 Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Kashmir 139, 156, 173, 176–80, 199; Resolution) 106 and Cold War politics 202, 216, land reforms 87, 92, 153, 185, 189, 218, 221, 223; disregard of constitutional status and erosion of 195, 223–4, 227, 231 see also autonomy 211–12, 232, 255–6; zamindari abolition Pakistan-occupied (‘Azad’) landlords, landowners: and bhoodan Kashmir 245; Tibetan and Chinese 195; and class base of independent borders with 237, 239, 240 Indian state 228–31, 234, 244; Kashmiri Brahmins 11, 27–8 and communal violence 134; and Kerala, Communist government in Congress 66, 85, 86–9, 91; and 229, 231–4 Depression 69; and land reforms Khaksars 175 189–90; as ‘natural leaders’ 12; Khan, Ayub 243 and Non-Cooperation Movement Khan, Khan Abdul Ghaffar 26 45–6, 48–9 see also zamindars, Khan, Liaquat Ali 132, 170, 184 taluqdars Khan Saheb, Dr 26 Laos 203, 218 Khilafat Movement 33, 40–50, 54, Laski, Harold 4, 75, 95 57, 69, 88 see also Non- League against Imperialism (LAI) Cooperation-Khilafat Movement 58–9, 66 Khrushchev, Nikita 60, 204, 221, Lend-Lease Agreement 161 231, 235 Lenin, Vladimir Ilich 43, 74, 151 Khudai Khidmatgar 26, 88 Leninists, Leninism 4 3, 74, 80, 191 Kidwai, Rafi Ahmed 186 Linlithgow, Lord 101, 105–6, 108–9, Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP) 1 114–15, 117, 120, 128 86–7 List, Friedrich 34 Kisan Sabhas 69, 80, 87, 92, 129, 182, Lohia, Ram Manohar 142, 197, 226, 234 245, 253 Kitchlew, Dr Saifuddin 26 London School of Economics 26 Korean War 1, 186, 201–4 Lucknow Pact (December 1916) 31–2 McGhee, George 201–2

294 I N D E X McMahon Line 238–41, 243–4, 246, 148, 150, 164, 170–1, 177, 179, 249 183 Mughal Empire 11, 12, 20, 29, 127, Mahabharata 13, 146 176 Mahalanobis, Prasanta Chandra (P.C.) Muhammad, Bakshi Ghulam 211, 255 191–2, 193, 224–6 Mukerjee, Hiren 250 Mahmud, Syed 26, 93 Mukherjee, Shyamaprasad (S.P.) 136, Malaviya, K.D. 258 148, 175, 187, 211 Malaviya, Madan Mohan 23, 90 Mullik, Bhola Nath (B.N.) 235–6 Malaya 94, 112, 159–60, 165–6, 200, Munich Pact (1938) and Czechoslovakia 94–5, 155 215 Münzenberg, Willi 58 Mao Zedong 2 04, 241 Muslim law 5, 263 Marshall Plan 161 Muslim National Guards 175 Marwaris 55, 134 Mussolini, Benito 78, 87, 98 Marx, Karl: Marxists, Marxism 43, Nagas, Nagaland 209–10, 237, 239 79–80, 107, 151, 196 Naidu, Sarojini 60, 159 Masani, Minoo 148, 205–6, 234, 246, Namboodiripad, E.M.S. 229, 231–3 Nanda, Gulzarilal 258 253 Narayan, Jayaprakash (J.P.) 80, 97, Mass Contact Programme 87, 90–2 Mathai, M.O. 235 183–4, 196–7, 206 Matthai, John 132, 190 Narayan, Shriman 230 Maxton, James 58 Nasser, G.A. 217, 222 Maxwell, Sir Reginald 109 nation-building 35, 188, 206–12, Mazzini, Giuseppe 17 Menon, K.P.S. 158 237 Menon, Krishna 95, 108, 133, National Conference (Kashmir) 147, 158, 255; and China war 178–9, 180 244–6, 249; and Indo-China national discipline 66, 87, 98, 141, 203; joins Cabinet 235; and Korean War 202; and 143, 188 non-alignment 155, 198; Suez and National Planning Committee 96, 98, Hungary 222–3 modern, modernism, modernity 7–10, 111, 151, 191, 192, 263 33, 81, 96, 125, 141, 188, 192, national self-sufficiency 20, 69, 81, 204, 209, 266 Molotov, Vyacheslav 158, 219 125, 152, 160, 192, 224, 250 Montagu, Sir Edwin 34, 37 nationalisation of industries 152, 222 Montagu–Chelmsford reforms (1919) Nazi Party 95, 96, 110, 126, 175 36 Nazi–Soviet Pact 107, 112 Morley, Sir John 22; sets quotas for Nehru, Bansidhar 11, 17 Indians at Cambridge 24 Nehru, Brijlal 17, 21 Morley–Minto reforms (1909) 22–3, Nehru, Gangadhar 11 30–1 Nehru, Jawaharlal: AITUC President Mountbatten, Lady Edwina 1 34–5, 171, 183 65–6; battles with Patel and Mountbatten, Lord Louis 128, 134–6, Congress right 180–6; on boycotting elections 42, 86;

I N D E X 295 Brussels and Moscow 58–61; spokesman for the left 74, 81–4, Chairman of Allahabad Municipal 86; and Subhas Bose 78–9, 96–7, Board 53–4; China border dispute 100; ‘tryst with destiny’ speech 237, 239, 241–3, 247–9; and 138 Commonwealth membership Nehru (Kaul), Kamala 28, 54, 58, 70, 164–5, 198–9; as Congress 74–8 negotiator during and after the Nehru (Hutheesing), Krishna Kumari War 104, 113, 129–30, 133–7; (‘Betty’) 18 Congress President 65–6, 83, 176; Nehru, Motilal 3, 11–16, 18, 21–3, death and succession 255–8; 25–30, 32; Civil Disobedience, defining non-alignment 154–60; death of 71; after Jallianwalla defining the ‘nation’ and ‘Indian Bagh 36–7, 39–40; and Nehru culture’ 143–7; development Report 61–3; and Non- 151–4, 223–9; discovering the Cooperation-Khilafat Movement peasantry 47–9; early childhood 40–1, 49–51; and Swaraj Party and education 11, 13–17; early 52–3; visits USSR 60 political opinions 19, 21; in Nehru, Nandlal 11, 17 Europe (1935–6) 76–9; Europe Nehru, Shridhar 17 (1938) 94–7; and father’s death Nehru, Swarup Rani 11, 13, 16–17, 71–2; foreign policy 198–205, 18, 27–8, 74 215–23, 236; in Gandhian politics Nehru Report (1928) 61–4 37, 39, 41–2, 44, 54–5; after Nepal 159, 203, 239, 240, 244 Gandhi’s murder 174; as Gandhi’s Neruda, Pablo 167–8 successor 113, 186, 252; Goa 245; New Deal 193 Harrow and Trinity 17–26; Nkrumah, Kwame 236 imprisonments 50–2, 70–1, 74–6, Noakhali 131 109–12, 118–20; and INA trials non-alignment 2, 154–60, 167, 199, 126, 128; and Kashmir 178–9, 203–4; and Bandung 215, 211–12, 232, 255–6; Kerala 217–21; Belgrade Conference 236; 231–3; leadership 4–10, 259–62; and China border dispute 242, leftward move 57; marriage 27–8; 243, 247–50, 253, 260, 262, and ‘mass contact’ 87–94; meets 264 Gandhi 33; nation-building Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement 206–12; on nationalism and 40–50, 52, 54, 57, 69 internationalism 145–6; and North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) ‘Nehruvian’ politics 166–7, 239, 243, 248 264–5; and the Nehruvians north-eastern India 62, 147, 209–11, 187–93; relations with his 237, 238, 243 daughter 74–5, 232–3; relations North-West Frontier Province with the Mountbattens 134–5, (NWFP) 62, 136, 177 170–1, 183; relationship with Gandhi 54, 65, 78–9, 83, 113, Official Languages Act (1963) 252 174, 181; and secularism 143–5, Orientalists, Orientalism 9, 144, 169–74; as spokesman for ‘modern’ trends 81–2; as 194 Oxford 17, 24, 26, 75, 232

296 I N D E X Pakistan 1, 53, 89, 114, 119, 121–5, candidacy for Congress president 130–3, 135–9; and Cold War 184–5 politics 200, 216, 218–19, 243; Patel, Vithalbhai 53, 74 and CPI 123–5, 154; and division Patil, S.K. 255 of finances 173; and Hyderabad Patnaik, Biju 2 54, 255 156, 176–7; implications of peasants: and Chinese revolution 197; creation of for defining Indian economic conditions 20, 60, 69, state 43–4, 149, 207, 247; Indian 263; and Gandhian politics 33, harassment of visitors from 167; 45–9, 191; and land reforms 189, and Junagadh 156, 176; and 227; and Nehru 5, 47–9, 187; Kashmir 156, 176–80, 211, 218, Nehru’s views on culture of 240, 245, 256; ‘Pakistan 146–7; politics and organisations Resolution’ 106; and 31–2, 43, 80, 87–9, 91–2, 124, post-partition violence 169–71, 129; in Tebhaga and Telengana 184; war 258 movements 154; and violence 131, 134 Palestine 97, 179 Permanent Settlement 91–2, 189 Palme, Anne 25 Planning Commission 190, 224, 228 Panch Sheel (‘Five Principles’) 204, plans, planning 1, 80, 151–4, 162, 221, 223–8; Bombay Plan (1944) 218, 219–20, 236, 253 205; and centralised state power Pandit, Ranjit 110 130; effects of China conflict on Pandit (Nehru), Vijayalakshmi 16, direction of 242, 248, 250; First Five-Year Plan 193, 224, 262; and 18, 110, 157, 183, 264 the Nehruvian project 188–94, Pant, Govind Ballabh 90, 97, 231 253, 262–3; Second Five-Year Partition of Bengal (1905) 19; Plan 191, 224; Third Five-Year Plan 252, 263 see also National annulled (1911) 22, 29 Planning Committee, Planning Partition of India 1, 6, 89, 102, 106, Commission Pondicherry 221 129, 133, 135–8, 181, 261; and Poona Pact 73 Muslims in post-partition India Popular Front 79, 90, 98, 107, 230 143, 149, 171–2; population praja samities 69, 92 movements 139, 170–1; Praja Socialist Party (PSP) 187, post-Partition violence 140, 167, 196–7, 229, 242, 245–6 169–72, 177 Prasad, Rajendra 148, 171, 181, 185 Patel, Vallabhbhai 53, 129, 134, 137, Princely States 29, 43, 71, 73, 95, 143, 203; anti-communist and 105, 137, 150, 156, 178, 181, 187 anti-Muslim activities 171–2; propaganda 52, 53, 54, 66, 82, 110, death 185; ‘duumvirate’ with 115, 118, 190, 230, 250 Nehru 180–4; after Gandhi’s Punjab: 1937 elections 88; murder 174–5; Hindu nationalist cooperative movement in 195; sentiments 143, 148, 170, 184; as Jallianwalla Bagh massacre and its Home Minister 169, 171–3; consequences 37–41; and Pakistan integration of the Princely States with the Indian Union 150, 169, 178; relations with Congress right wing and Indian capitalists 85, 99, 125, 127, 148; supports Tandon’s

I N D E X 297 demand 122, 124, 129; partition Sanskrit, Sanskritised 12–13, 15, of 129, 133, 136–7, 177; 208–9 terrorism in 70; violence and population transfers 137, 170, sarvodaya 196 173–4; wartime unrest in 30–1 Sastroamidjojo, Ali 216 satyagraha 33, 36–7, 44–5, 49, 68, Quit India Movement 110, 115–18, 123, 127, 172; bombing and 70, 109, 244 machine-gunning civilians from Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar 175 the air 117–18 Sayajirao Gaekwad, ruler of Baroda Radcliffe, Sir Cyril 137, 177 29, 73 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli 242, 246 Scheduled Castes 63, 73, 77, 84, Rai, Lajpat 23, 42, 63 Rajagopalachari, Chakravarty 87, 122, 131–2, 148, 149, 251 Second World War 93, 98, 101–2, 185, 222, 234 Ram, Jagjivan 251, 255 120, 126, 127, 132; and Congress Raman, C.V. 167 ministries’ resignation 105; Ramayana 13, 46, 146 Congress responses 107–10; course Ranga, N.G. 234, 244 of events 112–13, 121 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) Security Council (United Nations) 157, 179, 200, 201, 204, 222 90, 170, 173–6, 184 self-determination 8, 42, 203, 207 Reddy, Sanjiva 245 self-government 5, 8, 21, 34–6, 61, Reserve Bank of India 161 104 Revolt of 1857 11–13, 48, 117–18, self-sufficiency see national self- sufficiency 127 Sengupta, J.M. 26 Rhee, Syngman 202 separate electorates see elections, Riots 31, 128, 131, 169, 170, 208, electorates Shantiniketan 41, 75 261, 265 Shastri, Lal Bahadur 245, 255, 258 Robeson, Paul 76 Shaw, George Bernard 24–5, 70 Rolland, Romain 59 Sikhs 91, 127, 131, 137, 170, 172–3, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano 114 177, 208 Round Table Conferences 72–3, 77, Simla Conference (1946) 121–5 Simon Commission 61–3, 65, 77 84, 111 Singh, Bhagat 63, 72 Rowlatt Act (1919) 36, 37 Singh, Hari (Maharaja of Kashmir) Rowlatt Satyagraha 36–7 177–8 Roy, M.N. 43 Sinn Fein 21, 42 Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny Smedley, Agnes 60 Socialist Party 151, 181–2, 184, 187 (1946) 128 Socialist Party of India 197, 245 rupee–sterling link 51, 163 Somnath Temple 185 Russell, Bertrand 250 Song Meiling (Madame Chiang Russian Revolution (1917) 8, 42–3, Kai-shek) 113, 158 Song Qingling 59, 113 56, 60, 169 South Africa 20, 32, 33, 41, 158, 220 Salt March 68

298 I N D E X South-East Asian Treaty Organisation Tito, Josip Broz 220 (SEATO) 211, 216, 218, 219 tribes, tribals 149, 177–8, 209–12, Soviet Union see Union of Soviet 237–9, 266 Socialist Republics (USSR) Trotsky, Leon 70, 262 Truman, Harry S. 198, 201, 202 Spanish Civil War 94, 155 trusteeship: colonial 8; Gandhian 3, Stalin, Josef: Stalinism 60, 104, 155, 82, 189 193, 203 Turkey 30, 40, 209, 216 States, reorganisation of 207 steel 56, 221 U Nu 210 sterling area 162–3 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics sterling balances 161–3, 224 strikes 47, 56, 67, 128, 189 (USSR): and ‘bi-aligned’ India Suez Crisis 222, 247 251; and CPI 123, 182, 221; and Suhrawardy, H.S. 130, 136 Cuban Missile Crisis 247; and swadeshi 19–22, 29, 31, 38, 47, 63, Hungary 222–3; Indian diplomatic relations with 157–8; 126 and Korean War 201–2; Nehru’s swaraj 41, 42, 44, 49–50, 59, 61 visit to 60–1, 155; and Swaraj Party 52–3 non-alignment 198–201, 204, Swatantra Party 196, 234, 242, 244, 217, 219–20; nuclear testing 236; and post-war world 164, 167, 245, 248, 249, 250, 253, 255 198–202; and Second World War 107, 108, 110, 112, 117; Soviet Tagore, Rabindranath 38, 41, 57, 75, nationalities policy and India 76, 110, 159 124–5; Soviet planning and India 80, 96, 104, 192, 226; supports Taiwan 201, 217, 238 India in border dispute 244, 246; taluqdars 11, 12, 48, 49, 153 trade and technical links with Tandon, Purshotamdas (P.D.) 184–6, India 220–1; wheat for India 186 Unionist Party 88 226 United Nations 113, 217, 222, 223, tariffs 56, 68, 161 264 see also General Assembly, Tatas 132, 190, 205, 228 Security Council Tebhaga Movement 129, 154 United Provinces 32, 40, 48, 50, 74, technocrats, technocracy 81, 140, 190, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 97, 175 United States of America (USA): and 192, 228 Asian pacts and allies 216, 218; technology 20, 81, 96, 104, 140, 152, and ‘bi-aligned’ India 251; blackmail over food aid to India 192, 194, 263 186, 201–2; and CIA and CCF Telengana 154, 182, 186, 207 operations in India 205–6, 235–6; terrorism, terrorists 29, 30, 31, 41, Cold War concerns of 164, 166–7, 200; and ‘Green Revolution’ 263; 52, 63, 69–70, 78 imperialism of 59, 114, 167; and textiles 56, 68, 150, 161, 226, 262 India in the Cold War 198–202; Thailand (Siam) 159, 218 Thakurdas, Sir Purshotamdas 68 Theosophy, Theosophical Society 13–15, 32, 44, 103 Thivy, Dr John 159–60 Tibet 203–4, 236, 238–40, 241, 249 Tilak, Bal Gangadhar 20, 30–2, 44

I N D E X 299 and Indo-Chinese border dispute 120; and fragility of armed forces 241, 243–4, 248–9; and Korean loyalty 126–7; and Interim War 201–2; post-war British Government 131–3; transfer of dependence on 161, 199; post-war power negotiations 221–2; and use politics, economics and India’s of British Indian Army to restore Commonwealth membership imperialist regimes in South-East 157–8, 162, 198; during Second Asia 133–4 World War 112–14; and Tibet Wedderburn, Sir William 22 235–6, 241 Wilson, Woodrow 8 untouchables see Scheduled Castes women 5, 13, 16, 33, 62, 69, 70, 75, Urdu 13, 46, 54, 208–9, 252 see also 136, 137, 212, 220, 263, 264, 265 Hindi, Hindustani Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties 56 Vietnam, North 203, 218 Xinjiang 239, 240 Vietnam, South 203, 218 village communities 61, 125, 194–6, Yugoslavia 199, 203, 220 225 zamindari, zamindars 11, 19, 32, 84, Vishwa Bharati see Shantiniketan 91–2, 131, 153, 168, 189 Wavell, Lord: and British destruction zamindari abolition see land reforms of documents in preparation for Zhou Enlai 204–5, 217, 219–20, 237, departure 133; and famine relief 239, 243–4, 249