Science!_ Knowledge Encyclopedia

90 percent of plant species are flowering plants. The Most species on Earth still await discovery. It’s possible 199 remainder are spore-producing plants, such as mosses. that less than 20 percent have been classified so far. Organisms are Currently, almost Fungi were once classified in the same group Plants and algae are classified in one million as plants, but scientists now know they are closely related—both a multilevel species have been more closely related to animals. system of groups. identified within groups make food the animal by photosynthesis. kingdom. Animals Fungi Algae Plants KINGDOMS Nematodes Arthropods Echinoderms PHYLA All vertebrates (backboned animals) are in the chordate phyla. Chordates Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals CLASS Shrews and Bats Carnivores Horses, Deer, pigs, Whales and ORDER moles rhinos, and and relatives dolphins relatives Marmosets and Gibbons Squirrel Howler Old world Apes and FAMILIES tamarins monkeys and monkeys monkeys humans GENERA and relatives SPECIES capuchins Humans Homo Four genera of apes and humans Orangutans Gorillas Chimpanzees Pongo Gorilla Pan Latinized scientific names often Classifying humans Modern humans describe an aspect of the species: Homo sapiens Every species, including our own, has its own place Homo sapiens in biological classification. This chart shows the means “wise man.” position of humans within the animal kingdom, next to our closest relatives—the great apes. There is only one species of human alive today, but other species of the genus Homo lived in the prehistoric past.

200 reference Modern humans appeared just over a quarter of a million years ago—a fraction of the timeline for life on Earth. Elasmosaurus The largest reptiles in the 65 MYA oceans included predatory, long-necked plesiosaurs. Paleogene Period Mammals replaced dinosaurs as the dominant large animals, and many of them grazed on a new kind of plant that grew on open land: grass. CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE EXTINCTION Comet impact PALEOGENE A decline in sea levels CRETACEOUS followed by a comet strike brought an end to the dinosaurs. Tyrannosaurus Dinosaurs, including formidable predators, became the largest ever land-living animals. 145 MYA Cretaceous Period Flowering plants grew on lands ruled by reptiles until an asteroid impact wiped out half of all species, Pteranodon Archaeopteryx Sternopterygius The first birds—evolving Dolphin-shaped ichthyosaurs Winged reptiles including all the dinosaurs from dinosaur ancestors— swimming in the Jurassic seas took to the air. preyed on fish. included the largest and other giant reptiles— animals ever to fly. paving the way for mammals. 305 MYA Timeline of life Carboniferous coal forest Eryops Half a billion years ago the only living things Trees grew tall in the warm were small and simple. Over time, evolution has Carboniferous swamps. Their Amphibian descendants produced a spectacular world of plants and animals. remains left the coal deposits of fishes became large, vertebrate animals. The timeline of life is divided into periods that were we know today. dominated by particular kinds of organisms—such as invertebrates, fishes, or reptiles. As the surface of Earth Meganeura 359 MYA changed, some organisms succeeded, while others died away. Insects such as this crow- Continents shifted, seas rose and fell, and luxuriant forests turned sized dragonfly were the CARBONIFEROUS into parched deserts and back again. Catastrophes, such as asteroid first animals to fly. strikes or ice ages, even drove some major groups to extinction. Such events all made their mark on living things. However, throughout Carboniferous Period the history of Earth, life went on as descendants after descendants Warm, rich swamp forests eventually led to the natural world we know today. provided the perfect habitat for giant amphibians and insects, while the first hard-shelled eggs were laid by the earliest reptiles. CAMBRIAN 541 MYA EXPLOSION 488 MYA Cambrian Period Halkoulchthys Anomalocaris ORDOVICIAN Once multicelled animals With two eyes and simple fins, Early animals, such as appeared they evolved into an this small animal was related this aquatic invertebrate, explosion of many different to our vertebrate ancestors. were unlike any alive today. body forms—producing the first representatives of all the major groups alive today.

The earliest evidence of single-celled fossil life Billions of years ago, algae produced 201 exists in rocks that are 3.5 billion years old. much of the oxygen in the air today. 23 MYA 2.6 MYA Megacerops NEOGENE Neogene Period Thylacosmilus QUATERNARY Quaternary Period Tiny ancestors evolved into Many familiar groups of Predatory mammals, Mammals and birds large mammals that replaced mammals, such as rodents, including saber-toothed survived Quaternary the dinosaurs. primates, antelopes, and cats, hunted grazers on ice ages, but one cats, evolved in the the open grassland. species— humans— Neogene, while flying drove many others birds diversified in to extinction by the skies. hunting and habitat destruction, causing the biggest mass extinction of modern times. 201 MYA Red lines indicate Periods of time mass extinctions. Jurassic Period Earth’s prehistory is marked The peak of the TRIASSIC-JURASSIC Age of Dinosaurs EXTINCTION saw the evolution of JURASSIC giant reptiles on land by a timescale divided up and in the seas, which included the largest into geological periods. land animals of all time. Asteroid impact Eoraptor Each period represents a A space rock colliding The first dinosaurs, some length of time that has with Earth wiped out a two-legged, evolved left its mark in rocks quarter of all species. from small reptiles that with fossils and survived the Permian- other evidence. Triassic extinction. 299 MYA PERMIAN-TRIASSIC EXTINCTION PERMIAN TRIASSIC Triassic Period Permian Period New kinds of forests Continents dried containing conifers and up to favor scaly cycads were inhabited by reptiles over amphibians. the first dinosaurs until a Thvecioaopluefesnraitnilolgedmrtuehapnestsdiboeeindgxsgtwiensictthtions.DAimsdseemutcrcloiohnisdetao-dssnkitnhiniasnedcdarireanrmivwpohoreribldtioa, noreskpotivleesr. possible asteroid impact brought about mass extinction. 251 MYA Devonian Period More kinds of fishes evolved in the oceans, while vertebrate animals and trees appeared on land. Climate change near the Elginerpeton end of the Devonian Period Fishes with strong, fleshy fins—such caused mass extinction. LATE DEVONIAN as Elginerpeton—paved the way for EXTINCTION the evolution of walking limbs. DEVONIAN 375–360 MYA 416 MYA Climatius Ordovician Period 433 MYA This fish had a sharklike The oceans of the skeleton of rubbery cartilage, Ordovician teemed but bony, spiny fins. with invertebrates and primitive fishes, but Orthoceras ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN Silurian Period ended with an ice age that This relative of squid EXTINCTION Jawed fishes and coral reefs drained shallow seas and appeared for the first time, while caused a mass extinction. had grasping arms distant relatives of spiders and and a body inside a centipedes started to crawl long, cone-shaped shell. onto land.

202 reference GLOSSARY Glossary ACID BUOYANCY CONDUCTOR EXCRETION A substance with a pH lower than 7. The tendency of a solid A substance through which heat The process by which living organisms to float or sink in liquids. or electric current flows easily. expel or get rid of waste produced by ALGAE cells of the body. CARBOHYDRATE COVALENT BOND Plantlike organisms that can make FERTILIZATION food using energy from sunlight. An energy-rich substance, A type of chemical bond in a such as sugar or starch. molecule where atoms share The joining of male and female sex ALKALI one or more electrons. cells so they develop into new life. CATALYST See Base DNA FISSION A substance that makes a chemical ALLOY reaction occur much more rapidly, A material found in the cells of A splitting apart; nuclear fission is the but is not changed by the reaction. all organisms that carries instructions splitting of the nucleus of an atom. A mixture of two or more metals, for how a living thing will look or of a metal and a non-metal. CELL and function. FOSSIL ANALOG The smallest unit of life. DRAG The preserved remains or impressions of life from an earlier time. Relating to signals or information CHEMICAL BOND The resistance force formed when represented by a continuously an object pushes through a fluid, FOSSIL FUEL varying value, such as a wave. An attraction between particles, such as air or water. such as atoms or ions. A substance formed from the remains ATMOSPHERE ECOSYSTEM of ancient organisms that burns easily CHEMICAL REACTION to release energy. The layer of breathable gases, A community of organisms and the such as oxygen and nitrogen, A process that changes substances nonliving environment around them. FRICTION that surrounds Earth. into new substances by breaking and making chemical bonds. ELECTRIC CHARGE The dragging force that occurs when ATOM one object moves over another. CHEMISTRY How positive or negative a particle is. The smallest unit of an element. FUSION The science of matter and elements. ELECTRON BACTERIA A joining together; nuclear fusion is CHROMOSOME One of the tiny particles inside an the joining of two atomic nuclei. Microscopic organisms with atom. It has a negative electric charge. a simple, single-celled form. A threadlike structure, found in the GAS nucleus of cells, that is made up of ELEMENT BASE coiled strands of DNA. Humans have A state of matter that flows to fill a 46 chromosomes per body cell. A simple substance made of container, and can be compressed. A substance with pH higher than 7. atoms that are all the same kind. Bases that are soluble in water CLIMATE GENE are called alkalis. Also: one of the ENERGY four chemicals that make up the The most common weather conditions One of the tiny units carried on DNA \"rungs\" of a DNA double helix. in an area over a long period of time. What enables work to be done. Energy that determine what a living thing exists in many different forms and looks like and how it functions. BIOLOGY COMBUSTION cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred. GLUCOSE The science of living things. A chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, ENZYME A simple carbohydrate, or sugar, made releasing heat and flames. by photosynthesis and then used by A substance produced in living cells as a source of energy. COMPOUND organisms that acts as a catalyst and speeds up chemical reactions. GRAVITY A chemical substance in which two or more elements have bonded together. EROSION The force that attracts one object to another and prevents things on CONCENTRATION A process by which Earth's surface Earth from floating off into space. rocks and soil are worn away by The amount of one substance mixed wind, water, or ice. HABITAT in a known volume of the other. EVAPORATION The area where an animal CONDENSATION naturally makes its home. A process by which a liquid A process whereby a gas changes into a gas. INHERITANCE changes into a liquid. EVOLUTION The range of natural characteristics passed on to offspring by parents. The process by which Earth's species gradually change over long periods of INSULATOR time, such as millions of years, to produce new species. A material that stops heat moving from a warm object to a colder one.

203 ION MOLECULE POLLEN SEX ORGANS An atom that has lost or gained one A particle formed by two Tiny grains produced by flowers, The organs of an organism that or more electrons and as a result or more atoms joined by which contain the male cells allow it to reproduce. They usually has either a positive or negative covalent bonds. needed to fertilize eggs. produce sex cells: sperm in males, electric charge. and eggs in females. MONOMER POLYMER IONIC BOND SOLID A molecule that can be bonded A long, chainlike molecule made up of A type of chemical bond where one to other similar molecules smaller molecules connected together. A state of matter in which or more electrons are passed from to form a polymer. an element's atoms are joined one atom to another, creating two PRESSURE together in a rigid structure. ions of opposite charge that NERVE attract each other. The amount of force that is applied SOLUTE A fiber that carries electrical to a surface per unit of area. ISOTOPE messages (nerve impulses) from A substance that becomes one part of the body to another. PRODUCT dissolved in another. One of two or more atoms of a chemical element that have different NEUTRON A substance produced by SOLVENT numbers of neutrons compared to a chemical reaction. other atoms of the element. One of the tiny particles in an A substance that can have other atom. It has no electric charge. PROTEIN substances dissolved in it. LIFT NUCLEUS A type of complex chemical SYNTHETIC found in all living things, used The upward force produced by an The control center inside the cells of as enzymes and in muscles. Man-made chemical. aircraft's wings that keeps it airborne. most living organisms. It contains genetic material, in the form of DNA. PROTON TISSUE LIQUID Also: the central part of an atom, made of protons and neutrons. One of the tiny particles inside an A group of similar cells that carry A state of matter that flows and takes atom. It has a positive electric charge. out the same function, such as muscle the shape of a container, and cannot NUTRIENT tissue, which can contract. be compressed. A substance essential for TOXIC MAGMA life to exist and grow. Causing harm, such as a poison. Hot, liquid rock that is found ORBIT beneath Earth's surface. RADIATION ULTRASOUND The path taken by an object, for MAGNET example, a planet, that is Waves of energy that travel through Sound with a frequency above that circling around another. space. Radiation includes visible light, which the human ear can detect. An object that has a magnetic heat, X-rays, and radio waves. Nuclear field and attracts or repels ORGAN radiation includes subatomic particles ULTRAVIOLET other magnetic objects. and fragments of atoms. A group of tissues that makes up a A type of electromagnetic radiation MASS part of the body with a special RADIOACTIVE with a wavelength shorter than function. Important organs include visible light. A measure of the amount the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys. Describing a material that is unstable of matter in an object. because the nuclei of its atoms split UNIVERSE to release nuclear radiation. MATERIAL ORGANISM The whole of space and REACTANT everything it contains. A chemical substance out of A living thing. which things can be made. A substance that is changed VOLCANO PARTICLE in a chemical reaction. METAL An opening in Earth's crust that A tiny speck of matter. REACTIVE provides an outlet for magma Any of many elements that are when it rises to the surface. usually shiny solids and good PHOTOSYNTHESIS A substance that is likely to become conductors of electricity. involved in a chemical reaction. WAVE The process by which green plants MICROORGANISM use the sun's energy to make RESPIRATION Vibration that transfers energy from carbohydrates from carbon place to place, without transferring A tiny organism which can only dioxide and water. The process occurring in all living the matter that it is flowing through. be seen with the aid of a microscope. cells that releases energy from Also known as a microbe. PHYSICS glucose to power life. WAVELENGTH MINERAL The science of matter, ROOM TEMPERATURE The distance between wave crests, energy, forces, and motion. usually when referring to sound A solid, nonliving material A standard scientific term for waves or electromagnetic waves. occurring naturally and PIGMENT comfortable conditions (for made up of a particular kind humans), usually a temperature WEIGHT of chemical compound. A chemical substance of around 68°F (20°C). that colors an object. The force applied to a mass by gravity.

204 index Index Page numbers in bold type movement 170, 171, 172–173 bears 139 carbohydrates 146, 152 coins 62–63 refer to main entries. nervous system 164–165 bees 174 carbon 9, 23, 36–37 colloids 11, 20 nutrition 146–147 beetles, Colorado 150 color spectrum 80, 84–85, 87 A and plant reproduction 174–175 bending 97 atoms 12, 13, 194 color vision 81, 169 reproduction 176–177 beryllium 13 emissions 57 combination alloys 62 acceleration 98, 99 senses 166–167 beta radiation 74–75 carbon cycle 187 combustion 39, 50–51, 99 accretion disks 115 threatened species 190–191 biceps 170–171 carbon dioxide 42, 43, 44 comets 120, 200 acids 46–47 vision 168–169 Big Bang 68, 112–113, 194 breathing 158, 159 communications satellites 83 actinides 28, 32 anions 52 bile 152 climate change 9, 128, 129 communities 182, 183 action and reaction 99 anodes 53, 92 binary code 83, 95 combustion 50, 51 compasses, magnetic 68, 88, 89 active galaxies 115 antennae 134 binary systems 195 as dry ice 19 competition 183 adaptation 139 Antennae Galaxies 115 binocular vision 169 photosynthesis 134, 146, 148, 149 composite materials 56 aerobic respiration 158-159 antibiotics 133 biology timeline 132–133 respiration 187 compound telescopes 86 aerodynamics 110–111 antimony 35 bioluminescence 84 carbon fiber 37, 64, 65 compounds 10, 14, 15, 28, 44–45 aerogels 57 antiseptics 132 biomass 71, 189 carbon monoxide 42 air anus 153 biomes 184–185 carbonates 23 mineral 23 aorta 156 birds Carboniferous Period 200 compression 77, 97 breathing 160–161 aphids 134–135 Carina Nebula 118–119 computers 69, 94, 95 composition of 18, 20, 38, 39, 50 aqueous humor 169 at high altitudes 161 carnivores 150, 152–153, 189 concave lenses 86 convection currents 73 Arab scholars 9, 68 breathing 160–161 cartilage 171 concave mirrors 87 floating in 109 archaea 135, 140 classifying 198 Cartwheel Galaxy 115 concrete 56 pressure 9, 104–105, 111, 109, 126 Archaeopteryx 136, 137 eggs 176 catalysts 42 condensation 21 air resistance 101, 110 Archimedes 68, 109 flight 173 catalytic converters 42 conduction air sacs 160–161 argon 41 origin of 136–137 caterpillars 178, 179 Airbus A380 110–111 Ariane 5 rocket 98–99 seed dispersal 175 cathode ray tube 8 heat 72–73 aircraft 104, 110–111 arms 170–171 vision 169 cathodes 53, 92 electrical 92 airfoils 111, 173 arsenic 35 birth 176, 177 cations 52 conductors 17, 92 Al-Razi 9 arteries 156–157 bismuth 33 cell membranes 23, 142 cones 169 albumin 15 arthropods 172 black holes 117 cell phones 82, 83, 94–95 Confuciusornis 137 alchemy 9 artificial body parts 132, 133 bladder 163 cells 133, 142–143, 145 conservation 190–191 algae 135, 140, 148, 151, 188, 189 asexual reproduction 135, 175 blazars 115 DNA 180–181 conservation of energy 69, 70 alkali metals 32 asteroids 137 blood replication 181 consumers 189 alkaline earth metals 32 asthenosphere 124, 125 circulation 133, 156–157 telecommunications 82 continental convergence 125 alkalis 46–47 astronomy 68 filtering 163 cellular respiration 159 continental crust 122, 125 allantois 176 atmosphere respiration 158, 161 cellulose 9, 13, 50, 51, 58 continental drift 124 alleles 181 Earth 38, 39, 41, 122, 128, 149, blood vessels 156, 161 centrioles 142 continental rift 122, 125 allotropes 36–37 blue whales 156–157 centripetal forces 97 convection 72–73 alloys 17, 58, 62–63, 65 186, 187 blueshift 113 cerebellum 165 convergent boundaries 125 Alpha Centauri 195 storm clouds 126–127 Bluetooth 83 cerebrum 165 convex lenses 86, 87 alpha radiation 74–75 atmospheric pressure 69, 104–105 bobcats 152–153 chain reactions 74 convex mirrors 87 alternating current (AC) 92 atomic mass 9, 13, 28 body systems 144–145 cheetahs 172 Copernicus, Nicolaus 69 altitudes, high 104, 161 atomic number 12, 28 Bohr, Niels 8 chemical energy 70, 92 copper 8, 23, 53, 56, 73 aluminum 33, 54 atomic structure 12 bonds 12, 14, 16–17, 43, 44 chemical equations 42 corals 129, 177 alloys 63 atoms 8, 9, 10, 12–13 covalent 14, 15, 16, 17, 43 chemical formulas 44 core, Earth’s 122–123 alveoli 158 alloys 62 ionic 16 chemical reactions 14, 15, 42–43, corneas 169 amino acids 146–147, 152–153, 186 bonding 16–17 metallic 17 corrosive power 46 ammonia 17 chemical reactions 42, 43 bones 144, 170, 171 49, 54, 186 cosmic background radiation 113 amphibians 178, 179 electrical charge 92 boron 35 in compounds 44–45 cotton 58–59 amplitude 77 periodic table 28–29 boundaries, plate 124–125 acids and bases 46–47 covalent bonds 14, 15, 16, 17, 43 anaerobic respiration 159 atria 156 brain 162 combustion 50–51 covalent compounds 44 anesthetics 132 attraction 88 nervous system 164–165 in electrochemistry 52–53 crabs, coconut 150 analog signals 83, 95 auroras 88 and senses 166 chemistry timeline 8–9 craters, lunar 123 anatomy 132 aurora australis 91 and vision 169 Cherenkov radiation 75 Cretaceous Period 200 ancestral species 139 aurora borealis 19, 90–91 brakes 101 Chinese scholars 9, 68 Crick, Francis 132 Andromeda 115, 194 auxin 171 brass 62 chlorine 16, 17, 40 crocodiles, Nile 150 angle of attack 111 axis 97 breathing 158–161 chlorophyll 148 crust, Earth’s 23, 59, 122, 124–125 animals axles 106 breeding 176–177 chloroplasts 143, 148, 149 crustaceans 171 behavior 132 bromine 40 choroid 168 crystal systems 24–25 breathing 158–161 B bronze 8, 62 chromatic aberration 87 crystals 24–25, 26–27 cells 142–143, 145 buckminsterfullerene 9, 36, 37 chromatography 21 bonding 16, 17 circulation 133, 156–157 babies 135, 176–177 buoyancy 68, 108–109, 173 chromium 62 metal displacement 48–49 classification 198–199 bacteria 135, 140, 142, 143, 147, burrowing 173 chromosomes 133, 180 cumulonimbus 126 digestive system 152–153 butterflies 179 ciliary muscles 168 Curie, Marie 8, 35 evolution 136–137, 138–139, 152, 186, 187 circuits, electric 93, 94, 95 and Pierre Curie 8 baking powder 43, 47 C circulatory system 133, 144, 156–157 current electricity 52, 92, 93, 94, 196 200–201 balance 167 classes 199 cytoplasm 142 excretion 162–163 balanced forces 96–97, 98 cadmium 31 classical mechanics 98 feeding strategies 150–151 ball bearings 100 caecum 153 classification, biological 133, 198–199 D food chains 188–189 barred galaxies 114 calcium 16, 32 clay 59 habitats and biomes 183–185 barred spiral galaxies 114 calcium carbonate 44 cleaning products 47 Dalton, John 9 homeostasis 162–163 bases cambium 155 climate Darwin, Charles 133 inheritance 181 Cambrian Period 200 climate change 128–129, 137 dead organisms 37, 147, 187, 188 kingdom 135, 198–199 chemistry 46–47 cameras, digital 94, 95 habitats and biomes 182, 184–185 decay, radioactive 74 materials from 58 genetics 180, 181 capacitors 94 clones 132 decibels 77 metamorphosis 178–179 basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) 63 capillaries 157, 158, 159, 161 clouds 126–127 deciduous trees 149 microorganisms 140–141 bats, vampire 150 coal 37, 71, 128, 129, 187 decomposers 147, 189 batteries 52, 53, 92, 93 cobalt 31, 88

205 decomposition reactions 42 electrolysis 52 F genera 198–199 humerus 170 deforestation 128 electrolytes 52, 53, 92 generators, electric 74, 93 hummingbirds 137 deforming forces 97 electromagnetic fields 88, 93 falling bodies, law of 69, 102 genes 133, 180, 181 Huygens, Christiaan 68 Democritos 8 electromagnetic radiation 74, 80–81, 84 families 198–199 hydraulics 106 denitrification 186 electromagnetic spectrum 80–81 fats 146, 152 evolution 138 hydrocarbons 37 density 108–109 electromagnetic waves 81 feces 153 genetic modification 133 hydrogen 38 deserts 34, 185 electromagnetism 69, 93 feeding strategies 150–151 genetics 180–181 detritivores 147 electronics 94–95 feldspars 34 geothermal energy 71 atoms 10, 14, 15 deuterium 75 electrons fermentation 43 germanium 35 ions 46 Devonian Period 201 ferns 175 germination 174, 175 isotopes 75 diamond 10, 36, 56 atoms 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 fertilization 174, 175, 176 Giant Crystal Cave (Mexico) 26–27 stars 116 diaphragm 160 bonding 16–17 fertilizers 38, 47 giardia 140 hydropower 71 diatoms 140 chemical reactions 43 fiber glass 56 gills 156, 157, 158 hydroskeleton 171 diffraction 85 electricity 92–93 fiber-optic cables 83 glands 162 diffusion 158 electrochemistry 52–53 filter feeders 151 glass 56, 59, 85 I digestion 134, 142–143, 144, 152–153 electronics 94 filtration 21 global warming 128–129 digital electronics 95 periodic table 28, 29 fins 173 glucose 149, 159, 187 ice caps, melting 129 digital signals 83, 95 plasma 19 fire 8, 39, 50–51 gold 9, 10, 23, 30, 62 ice crystals 25 dimers 45 electroplating 53 fire detection 167 Golgi apparatus 142 Ichthyornis 137 dinosaurs 133, 136, 200–201 electroreception 167 fireworks 51 Gondwana 124 igneous rock 22 diodes 94 electrorefining 53 fish Goodall, Jane 132 illness 132, 133 direct current (DC) 92 elements 10, 28–29 gorillas 164–165 immune system 145 direction, changing 96 alloys 62–63 breathing 158 graphene 9 implantation 176 displacement 68 atoms 12 circulation 157 graphite 36 impulses, nerve 164, 165 displacement reactions 42, 48-49 compounds 15, 44–45 swimming 109, 173 grasslands 184, 185 incandescence 84 distillation 21 discovery of 8, 9 young 177 gravitational potential energy 70 indium 33 divergent boundaries 124 in Earth’s crust 23 flamingos, lesser 151 gravity 68, 96, 98, 99, 102–103, Industrial Revolution 8, 9, 63, 69 diving 105 halogens and noble gases 40–41 Fleming, Alexander 133 inertia 98 DNA 38, 142, 180–181, 186 hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 38–39 flexor muscles 171, 172 110, 113 infection 132, 133 metalloids 34–35 flight Greeks, ancient 8, 12, 68, 109, infrared radiation 80, 84, 128, 129 replication 181 molecules 14, 15 aircraft 110–111 Ingenhousz, Jan 133 structure of 132 other metals 32–33 birds 173 132, 133 inhalation 160 Dolly the sheep 132 solid non-metals 36–37 floating 108–109 greenhouse gases 128, 129 inheritance 132, 133, 181 domains 88 transition metals 30–31 flowers 174 grip 101 insectivorous plants 147 drag 101, 110, 173 elliptical galaxies 114 fluids growth 134–135 insects dragonflies 178–179 embryos 174, 176, 177 pressure 108 guitars, acoustic 76–77 droppings 153 Empedocles 8 resistance 101 gunpowder 9 breathing 158 endangered species 190–191 fluorine 40 gypsum 26 metamorphosis 178–179 E endocrine system 144 focus 169 reproduction 177 endoplasmic reticulum 143 food H insulation 72, 73 ears 77, 167 endoskeleton 171 digestive system 152–153 insulators 92 Earth 120, 121, 122–123 endothermic reactions 42, 43 nutrition 146–147 habitats 183–185 integumentary system 144 energy 70–71 food chains 146, 148, 182, 188–189 evolution 138–139 interference 85 climate change 128–129 conservation of 69, 70 food vacuoles 142 threatened species 190 internal combustion engines 68 distance from sun 195 ecological pyramids 189 forces 96–111 International Space Station 104 gravity 102–103 electricity 92–93 equal and opposite 99 hagfish 150 interstellar cloud 116 life on 38, 39, 122 electromagnetic radiation 80–81 flight 110–111 halides 23 interstitial alloys 62 magnetic field 88–89 fuel efficiency 51 floating 108–109 halogens 40–41 invertebrates 159, 171, 177 materials from crust 59 heat 72–73 friction 100–101 Harvey, William 133 iodine 40 and the moon 123 light 78–79, 84–85 gravity 102–103 hatching 176, 177 ionic bonding 16 orbit around sun 102–103, 122 measuring 70, 197 laws of motion 98–99 hearing 77, 167 ionic compounds 16, 44, 52 rotation 89, 122 nuclear 74–75 magnetism 88–89 heart 133, 156, 157 ionosphere 83 and space 112–113 sound 76–77 measuring 197 heat 70, 72–73 ions 10, 11, 83 storm clouds 126–127 sources 71 pressure 104–105 electrochemistry 52–53 tectonic plates 124–125 timeline 68–69 simple machines 106–107 chemical reactions 43 hydrogen 46, 47 earthquakes 124, 125 types of 78 timeline 68–69 combustion 50–51 iris 169 earthworms 173 energy efficiency 70 forests 184, 185 conduction 17 iron 16, 17, 23, 54, 88 echolocation 167 engines fossil fuels 37, 50, 71, 128, 187 friction 100, 101 alloys 62, 63 eclipses 68 internal combustion 68 fossils 132, 133, 136–137 states of matter 19 iron sulfide 44 ecological pyramids 189 jet 110–111 fovea 168 transfer 72 irregular galaxies 114 ecology 133 steam 69 free electrons 83, 92 helium 13, 41, 75, 116 irreversible reactions 42, 43 effectors 164, 165 environment freezing 19 hemoglobin 161 islands eggs fuel efficiency and 51 frequency 76, 77, 82, 83, 197 herbivores 150, 152, 189 evolution on 139 animals 176–177, 178, 179 and genes 181 friction 100–101 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram 117 volcanic 124 plants 174, 175 enzymes 143, 148 frogs 178, 179 heterogeneous mixtures 11, 20 isotopes 13, 74, 75 Einstein, Albert 68, 103 erosion 22 fruit 150, 174 Higgs boson particle 69 elastic potential energy 70 esophagus 152 fuel 50–51 Himalayas 125, 161 J electric arc furnaces (EAF) 63 evaporation 21, 187 fulcrums 107 Hochenheim, Theophrastus von 9 electric charge 92 Everest, Mount 104–105, 195 fungi 134, 135, 140, 146, 147 homeostasis 162–163 Jacobson’s organ 166, 167 atoms 12 evergreen trees 149 Homo sapiens 199 jellyfish 171, 172 ions 16, 47, 52 evolution 132, 133, 136–137, 138–139, G homogeneous mixtures 10, 20 Jenner, Edward 133 measuring 197 Hooke, Robert 133 jet engines 110–111 electric circuits 93 200–201 galaxies 112, 114–115, 194, 195 hormones 144, 162 Jupiter 120 electric generators 93 excretion 135, 162–163 Galilei, Galileo 69, 102 hot spots 124 Jurassic Period 201 electric motors 93 exhalation 160 gallium 33 hot-air balloons 9, 109 electrical energy 70 exoskeleton 135, 171 galvanization 53 Hubble, Edwin 113 K electrical grid 71 exosphere 122 gamma radiation 74–75, 80 Hubble Space Telescope 112 electricity 92–93, 128, 129 exothermic reactions 42, 43 gases 11, 18–19, 38–41 human body Keeling, Charles David 9 conduction 17 extensor muscles 170, 172 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis 9 body systems 144–145 Kelvin, Lord 68 nuclear energy 74–75 extinction 190, 191 gears 107 breathing 158, 160 Kevlar® 56, 64, 65 electrochemistry 52–53 gems 24 inheritance 181 kidneys 156, 162, 163 electrodes 52 mass 137, 200, 201 movement 170–171 eyes 68, 164, 165, 166, 168–169 urinary system 163 vision 169 bionic 133 humans, classifying 199

206 index kinetic energy 70, 72 luminescence 84 microorganisms 140–141 nutrients 146, 152 plants kingdoms 135, 198–199 lungs 156, 157, 158, 160–161 microscopes 132, 133 nutrition 134, 146–147 carbon cycle 187 Kuiper Belt 120 lymphatic system 144 microtubules 143 cells 143 lysosomes 142, 143 microwaves 81, 83 digestive system 152–153 classification 198–199 L mid-ocean ridges 124 food chains 188–189 cycles of matter 186–187 M Milky Way 114, 194 nylon 9, 56, 65 digesting 153 lanthanides 28, 32, 88 minerals 22–23, 186 nymphs 178, 179 evolution 200–201 large intestine 153 machines, simple 106–107 excretion 135 larvae 177, 178, 179 macromolecules 15 crystals 24–25 O food chains 188–189 lasers 84 magma 22, 26 plants 146, 154, 155 habitats and biomes 183–185 latex 58–59 magnesium 23, 32, 54 mirrors 85, 87 ocean trenches 124 kingdom 135 lava 22 magnetic fields 88, 93 mitochondria 143, 159 oceanic crust 122 materials from 58–59 Lavoisier, Antoine 8 mixtures 10–11, 20–21 oceanic zones 184 movement 134, 170, 171 LCD (liquid crystal display) 25 Earth’s 122 separating 21 oceans nitrogen cycle 186 leaf eaters 150 magnetic induction 88 molecules 10, 14–15, 17 nutrition 146–147 leather 56 magnetism 21, 69, 88–89, 93, 96 moment 97 acidification 129 photosynthesis 133, 148–149 leaves magnetoreception 167 momentum 99 water pressure 105 reproduction 174–175 magnetosphere 88–89 monomers 45, 51 oil 37, 71, 128, 129 threatened species 190–191 cycles of matter 186, 187 main sequence stars 116, 117 monotremes 176 omnivores 150 transport 154–155 as food 134–135, 150 malaria 133 montane grassland 185 Oort Cloud 120 photosynthesis 148–149 mammals moon 123 opaque 84 plasma 11, 18–19 transpiration 154, 155 minerals 34 optic nerve 165 plastics 9, 45, 57 LED (light emitting diode) 84 circulation 157 phases 123 orbits 97 plate tectonics 124–125 Leeuwenhoek, Antony van 133 reproduction 176, 177 and tides 103 elliptical 102 Plimsoll line 108 legs, arthropods 172 see also animals Morgan, Thomas Hunt 133 planets 120 plutonium 74 length 196 mammatus clouds 127 mosses 175 orders 198–199 poles, north and south 88, 89 lenses mantle, Earth’s 123, 124 motherboards 94 Ordovician Period 200–201 pollination 174 eyes 169 marble 56 motion organ systems 145 pollution telescopes 86–87 Marianas Trench 105 and forces 96 organs 144, 145 levers 106, 107 marine iguanas 162–163 laws of 98–99 osmium 30 climate change 128 life 130–191 Mars 120, 121 motor neurons 164, 165 osmosis 155 light 78–79 breathing 158–161 mass 96, 103 motorbikes 100–101 other metals 32, 33 polonium 8, 35 characteristics of 134–135 and weight 103 motors, electric 93 ovaries 176 polyester 65 classifying 198–199 atomic mass 9, 13, 28 molting 135 ovules 174 polyethylene 45 cycles of matter 186–187 law of conservation of 42 mountain ranges 125, 195 oxidation 42, 43, 52, 53 polymers 45, 51 on Earth 38, 39, 122 laws of motion 98, 99 movement oxides 23 polypropylene 45 evolution 138–139, 200–201 measuring 96, 196 and friction 100–101 oxygen 23, 39 polystyrene 45 feeding 150–153 mass extinctions 137, 200, 201 and life 134, 170–173 atoms 10, 14, 15, 17 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 45 food chains 188–189 materials 56–65 muscle fibers 170 breathing 158, 159, 161 populations 183 fossil record 136–137 natural 56, 58–59 muscles 164, 165, 170–171, 172, 173 combustion 50–51 potassium 32, 43 habitats and biomes 184–185 properties 56 muscular system 144 discovery of 8 potential difference 197 homeostasis 162–163 recycling 57, 186–187 mutations 138 molecules 14, 15, 17 potential energy 70 metamorphosis 178–179 synthetic 8, 9, 56, 64–65 mutualism 183 photosynthesis 149, 188 pottery 59 miniature 140–141 technology 57, 64–65 redox reactions 43 power, measuring 197 movement 170–173 mating 176, 178 N respiration 135 power stations 50, 71, 128 nervous system 164–165 matter 8–55, 112 nuclear 74–75 nutrition 146–147 atoms 12–13 nanotechnology 57 P precipitation 127, 187 reproduction 174–177 bonding 16–17 NASA 95, 113 predators 146, 150, 183, 189 threatened species 190–191 cycles of 186–187 natural gas 37, 71, 128, 129 Pacific Ring of Fire 125 pregnancy 177 timelines 132–133, 200–201 mixtures 20–21 natural materials 58–59 Paleogene Period 200–201 prehistory 136–137 lift 110, 111 molecules 14–15 natural selection 133, 138, 139 palisade cells 148 Priestley, Joseph 8 light 84–85 nature of 10–11 nebulae 116, 118–119 pancreas 144, 152, 163 pressure 104–105 aurora borealis 90–91 states of 11, 18–19 Neogene Period 201 Pangaea 124 in fluids 108 combustion 50–51 timeline 8–9 neon 16, 41 paper 58 measuring 197 diffraction and interference 85 measurement, units of 196–197 Neptune 120, 121 parallel circuits 93 prey 183, 189 electromagnetic radiation 80–81 mechanical energy 70 nerve cells 164, 165 parasites 147, 150, 183 printed circuit boards (PCB) 94 and matter 84 medicine 132, 133 nerve fibers 164 parental care 177 prisms 80 pollution 78–79 Mediterranean zones 185 nervous system 145, 164–165, particles 10, 12 proboscis 134 reflection and refraction 85 Megalosaurus 136 producers 189 sources of 84 melting 19 171 and heat 72 products 42, 50 speed of 81, 112, 115, 195 memory alloys 63 neutralization reactions 47 states of matter 18, 19 proteins 143, 146, 152, 180, 186 vision 68, 168, 169 Mendel, Gregor 132 neutron stars 117 Pasteur, Louis 133 protons 10, 12, 13, 75, 194 waves 68, 84, 85 Mendeleev, Dmitri 9, 28 neutrons 10, 12, 13, 74, 75, 194 pecten 168 protostars 116 light energy 70 mercury 31, 120, 121 Newton, Isaac 68, 86, 96, 97, penicillin 133, 140 protozoa 135, 140 light intensity 196 mesocyclones 126 penicillum 140 pseudopodium 142 light scattering 81 mesosphere 122 102 periodic table 9, 28–29 pulleys 107 lightning 11, 74, 92, 126, 127, 186 Messier 87 115 laws of motion 98–99 Permian Period 201 pulmonary artery 156 limestone 22, 194 Mestral, George de 61 niches 183 pH scale 8, 46 pulsating 172 Linnaeus, Carl 133 metal displacement 48–49 nickel 31, 62, 88 phloem 148, 149, 155 pupae 179 Lippershey, Hans 86 metalloids 34–35 night vision 169 phosphorus 36 pupils 169 liquid crystals 25 metals 32–35 nitrogen 17, 38, 186 photons 84 liquid nitrogen 38 alloys 62–63 nitrogen cycle 186 photosynthesis 133, 134, 146, Q liquids 11, 18–19 metallic bonding 17 noble gases 40–41 Lister, Joseph 132 purifying 53 Nomex® 64 148–149, 155, 186, 187, quarks 13, 194 lithium 32 reactivity series 43 non-metals 188, 189 quartz crystals 24–25 lithosphere 124, 125 transition 30–31 gases 38–41 phyla 198–199 quasars 115 litmus test 46 metamorphic rock 22 solids 36–37 physics timeline 68–69 Quaternary Period 201 liver 152, 162 metamorphosis 178–179 North Pole 88, 89 phytoplankton 188 Local Group 94, 114 methane 15, 50, 128 nuclear energy 69, 70, 71, 74–75 pigeons 160–161 R logic gates 95 mice 176 nuclear fission 74, 75 pitch 76, 77, 167 longitudinal waves 77 microbes 133, 146, 152, 153 nuclear fusion 74, 75, 116, 117 pivots 97, 107 rabbits 152, 153 loudness 77 microchips 94 nuclei placenta 176 racing cars 64–65 microfibrils 170 atoms 12, 13, 19, 74–75, 92 planetary nebulae 117 cells 142, 180 planets 116, 120–123

207 radiation 74–75 Scheele, Carl 8 stamen 174 tension 97 vibrations 76, 77, 167 heat 72–73 scientific names 198 stars test tube babies 132 Vikings 57 electromagnetic 80–81 scientific revolution 69 textiles, synthetic 64, 65 villi 152 sclera 168 Big Bang 112–113 thallium 33 viruses 141 radio galaxies 115 sclerotic ring 168 birth 119 thermite reaction 54–55 visible light 80 radio telescopes 86 screws 107 dying 41 thermoplasma 140 vision 68, 81, 166, 168–169 radio waves 68, 81, 83 sea levels, rising 129 galaxies 114–115 thermosphere 122 vitreous humor 168 radioactive elements 8, 28, 32 seashore habitats 182–183 life cycle 116–117 Thomson, J. J. 8 volcanic vents 132 radioactive isotopes 74 seasons 122 stellar neighborhood 195 thrust 99, 110 volcanoes 124–125, 137, 187 radium 8 seawater 18, 20, 21 types 117 thunderstorms 126–127 voltage 92, 93, 197 radon 41 sedimentary rock 22 static electricity 69, 92, 96 tidal power 71 rainbows 68, 69, 87 seeds 150, 174, 175 steam engines 69 tides 103, 123, 182–183 W rainfall 126, 127, 184, 187 selenite 26 steel 56, 62, 63, 73 time rainforests 146–147, 185 selenium 37 stigma 174, 175 waste ramps 106 senses 166–167 stimuli 134 measuring 196 body 135, 157, 163 rare earth metals see lanthanides sensitivity 134 stomach 152, 153 sense of 167 food 188 rarefaction 77 sensory neurons 165 stomata 149, 154 tin 33 reactants 42, 50 series circuits 93 storm clouds 126–127 tires 100, 101 water reactors, nuclear 74 sexual reproduction 135, 174–177 strato volcanoes 124 tissues 145 density 108 receptors 164, 166, 167, 168 Seyfert galaxies 115 stratosphere 104, 122, 127 titanium 13, 31 on Earth 122 recessive alleles 181 shape, changing 17, 96 streamlining 111, 173 tongues 167 as electrolyte 52 recycling shells, electron 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 29, style 175 tornadoes 126 floating 108–109 subatomic particles 112 torsion 97 fresh water 108, 185 materials 57 43, 52 subduction 124, 125 touch 166 levels in body 163 matter 186–187 shield volcanoes 124 sublimation 19 touch screen technology 95 molecules 10, 14–15, 43, 52 plastic polymers 45 ships 108–109 submarines 105 tracheae 159 osmosis 155 red blood cells 158 shoots 175 substances tracheoles 159 photosynthesis 146, 148, 149 red dwarfs 117 SI (Système international) units 196 impure 11 transform boundaries 125 pressure 109 red giants 117 silicates 23, 24, 34 measuring 196 transistors 94 refraction 85 Red List (IUCN) 190 silicon 23, 34 pure 10 transition metals 30–31 saltwater 18, 20, 108 red supergiants 117 silk 58, 65 substitutional alloys 62 translucent 84 states of 18–19 redox reactions 42, 43, 52 silkworms 23, 58 sugars transparent 84 transpiration 154 redshift 113 Silurian Period 201 crystals 25 transpiration 154–155 vapor 50, 126, 187 reduction 42, 43, 52, 53 silver 30, 62 energy from 159 transverse waves 81, 84 reflecting telescopes 86 sinking 108 plants 134, 146, 148, 149, 155 trees water cycle 187 reflection 85 skeletal system 144 sulfates 23 cycles of matter 186–187 water pressure 104, 105 reflex actions 165 skeletons 171 sulfides 23 photosynthesis in winter 149 watermeal 140 refracting telescopes 86–87 skin friction 101 sulfur 15, 23, 37 transpiration 154–155 Watson, James 132 refraction 69, 80, 85 sky, color of 81 sun Triassic Period 201 wave power 71 relative atomic mass 13, 28 skydiving 104, 105 distance of Earth from 195 triceps 170 weather relative density 109 small intestine 152 Earth’s orbit 122 trimers 45 relative velocity 99 Small Magellanic Cloud 115 gravity 102–103 tritium 75 extreme 129 Relativity, General Theory of 68, 103 smallpox 133 life cycle 113, 116 tropical regions 184, 185 storm clouds 126–127 relay neurons 165 smartphones 94–95 light and energy from 84, 128, troposphere 122, 127 weathering 22 Renaissance 9 smell 166–167 tubules 163 wedges 106 renal arteries 163 snowflakes 25 188, 189 tundra 184 weight 96, 103, 108, 109 renewable energy 71 sodium 13, 16, 32 photosynthesis 134, 148, 149 turbines 74 atomic weight 9, see also relative reproduction sodium chloride 16, 44 rotation 121 turbofan jet engines 110 animals 135, 176–177 solar cells 92 solar system 120–121 turning forces 97 atomic mass asexual 135, 175 solar power 71 sunsets 81 wheels 100, 106 and inheritance 181 Solar System 69, 113, 120–121, 195 superalloys 63 U Whirlpool Galaxy 115 plant 174–175 solar wind 91 supercell storms 126–127 white dwarfs 117 reproductive system 145 solenoids 93 superclusters 194 ultraviolet (UV) light 80, 128, 169 Wi-Fi 83 reptiles 162–163 solids 11, 18–19 supermassive black holes 15, 114 unbalanced forces 96–97 wind power 71 repulsion 88 solutions 10, 20 supernovae 117 Universal Gravitation, Law of 102 wind shear 127 resistance 197 Sørensen, Søren Peder Lauritz 8 suspensions 11, 20, 21 universal indicator test 46 wings resistors 94 sound 70, 76–77 swim bladders 109, 173 universe respiration 135, 158–159, 186, 187 sound waves 76–77, 95, 167 swimming 173 aircraft 110–111 respiratory system 145 space 112–123 symbiosis 183 Big Bang 112–113 birds 173 retinas 168, 169 synapses 164 expanding 112 wood 50–51, 56, 58–59, 71, 129, reversible reactions 42, 43 Big Bang 112–113 synthesis reactions 42 hydrogen in 38 ribosomes 143 expansion of 112 synthetic materials 8, 9, 64–65 observable 112 154–155 rift valleys 125 galaxies 114–115 scale of 194–195 wool 56, 58 rock cycle 22, 24 solar system 120–121 T updraft 127 rockets 98–99 stars 116–117 upthrust 108, 109 X rocks 21, 22–23, 24, 34 see also Earth taiga 184 uranium 74, 75 Romans 57, 68 spacecraft 104, 113 Tansley, Arthur 133 Uranus 120, 121 X-ray telescopes 86 roots 146, 154, 155, 175, 186 speciation 139 tardigrades 141 ureter 163 X-rays 80 rubber 58–59 species 138–139 taste 166–167 urinary system 144, 163 xylem vessels 148, 149, 154, 155 running 172 classification 133, 198–199 tectonic plates 124–125 urine 163 habitats and biomes 182–185 teeth 152, 153 uterus 176 Y S interaction between 183 telecommunications 82–83 threatened 190–191 telephone network 82–83 V yeast 43 salt 10, 18, 44, 162, 163 speed 99 telescopes 86–87 yolk sac 176 crystals 16, 25 changing 96 television 83, 94 vaccines 133 Young, Thomas 85 of light 81, 112, 115, 195 tellurium 35 valves 157 saltwater 18, 20, 108 of sound 77 temperate zones 184, 185 veins 156–157 Z sand 20, 34, 59 sperm 175, 176, 177 temperature 72 Velcro® 60–61 sap 134, 146 spinal cord 165 velocity 98, 99 zero, absolute 68 saprophytes 147 spiral galaxies 114 body 162, 163 ventricles 156 zinc 62 satellites 83, 98 spirochaetes 140 habitats and biomes 184–185 Venus 120, 121 zooplankton 188 Saturn 120 spores 175 measuring 73, 196 vertebrates 171 scapula 170 stainless steel 62 tendons 170, 171, 173 scavengers 150, 189 tennessine 40

208 acknowledgements Acknowledgments Getty Images: wallacefsk (cr). iStockphoto. The publisher would like to thank the History Images (crb). 35 Dorling Kindersley: TurboSquid: Witalk73. 78-79 Science Photo com: BeholdingEye (fcr). 150 Dorling following people for their assistance in Ruth Jenkinson / RGB Research Limited. 36 Library: NASA (c). 80 Dreamstime.com: Kindersley: Jerry Young (ca). 159 123RF. the preparation of this book: Dorling Kindersley: Natural History Museum, Markus Gann / Magann (c). Getty Images: com: Anastasija Popova / virgonira (br). 161 London (bl); Ruth Jenkinson / RGB Research Digital Vision (tl); Pete Rowbottom (tc). Alamy Stock Photo: FLPA (cb). Getty Images: Ben Morgan for editorial and scientific Limited (c, cl). 37 Dorling Kindersley: Ruth Science Photo Library: Gustoimages (cl); Kiatanan Sugsompian (bc). 162 June advice; Ann Baggaley, Jessica Cawthra, Sarah Jenkinson / RGB Research Limited (cra). Edward Kinsman (cr); Richard Beech Jacobsen: (cl). 166 Dreamstime.com: Edwards, and Laura Sandford for editorial Science Photo Library: Eye of Science (clb). Photography (crb). 81 ESA: The Planck Haveseen (tr); Worldfoto (tl). Getty Images: assistance; Caroline Stamps for proofreading; 38 123RF.com: Konstantin Shaklein (ca); Collaboration (tl). ESO: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/ Visuals Unlimited, Inc. / Ken Catania (c). Helen Peters for the index; Simon Mumford Romolo Tavani (clb). Dreamstime.com: NRAO), F. Kerschbaum https:// iStockphoto.com: lauriek (tc). 167 Alamy for maps; Phil Gamble, KJA-Artists.com, and Markus Gann / Magann (tr); Vit Kovalcik / creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (tc). Stock Photo: blickwinkel (cr). Dorling Simon Tegg for illustrations; avogadro.cc/cite Vkovalcik (crb). Fotolia: VERSUSstudio (bl). Getty Images: William Douglas / EyeEm (bc). Kindersley: Jerry Young (crb/Monkey). 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