[Dorling_Kindersley]_Encyclopedia

BIOGRAPHIES CHARLES WHITNEY STEPHEN JAY GOULD ERNST HAECKEL GILMORE 1941–2002 1834–1919 1874–1945 American paleontologist, biologist, and German biologist and American paleontologist who science writer, whose popular books trace outstanding field naturalist who studied North American and various controversies in the history of was the first prominent German Asian dinosaurs, and worked evolutionary biology and paleontology. to support Darwin’s theories of extensively in the Gobi Desert. evolution, which he promoted Gilmore named several Gould’s early work at Harvard University focused enthusiastically in Germany. dinosaur genera, including on the evolution of West Indian land snails. He later Haeckel was the first to draw Alamosaurus and Bactrosaurus. developed the theory of punctuated equilibria with up a genealogical tree laying The dinosaur Gilmoreosaurus, Niles Eldredge, which proposes that new species are out the relationship between found in China in 1979, was created from a series of rapid bursts interposed with the various orders of animals. named in his honor. long periods of little change. Gould wrote many He coined the word “phylum” for the major group to which MARTIN GLAESSNER popular works, including Time’s Arrow, Time’s all related classes of organisms 1906–89 Cycle (1990), which examines the belong. He traced the descent measurement of Earth history. Australian geologist who of humans from single- produced the first detailed Gould explored celled organisms descriptions of the Ediacaran the reasons for through fossils from the Flinders the extinction of chimpanzees Range mountains of southern and so-called Australia. Glaessner was the dinosaurs in his Pithecanthropus first to make major inroads book Bully for erectus, which toward understanding the Brontosaurus he saw as the link Precambrian record of (1991). between apes and multicellular life. In 1961, he human beings. recognized that the Ediacaran fossils were the oldest-known multicelled organisms. WALTER GRANGER 1872–1941 One of the first paleontologists at the American Museum of Natural History. Granger was chief paleontologist on the museum’s Central Asiatic expeditions of the 1920s. In 1898, Granger led the expedition that discovered the Apatosaurus skeleton that became the first sauropod ever to be mounted for exhibition. JAMES HALL 1811–98 American paleontologist who was an outstanding field geologist, and became geologist for New York state. Hall’s masterwork is the book The Paleontology of New York (1847–94), a comprehensive review of the Paleozoic invertebrate fossils of the state of New York. 349

REFERENCE SECTION GERHARD HEILMANN WILLI HENNIG DOROTHY HILL 1859–1946 1913–76 1907–97 Danish doctor who wrote The A German zoologist and supporter of the Paleontologist from Origin of Birds (1916), which theory of cladistics, which groups organisms Queensland, Australia, examined the similarities according to the historical sequence by which best known for her work between theropod dinosaurs they descended from a common ancestor. on Paleozoic corals. In her and birds. Heilmann thought early fieldwork, Hill outlined that theropods lacked Hennig used his early research on the larvae of the structure of Mesozoic collarbones, and concluded Diptera, an order that includes flies and mosquitoes, sediments in the Brisbane that they could not be birds’ to refine his cladistics theory. In 1949, Hennig became Valley. She became interested ancestors since a feature could head of the systematic entomology department in in corals while working on not vanish and later reappear Leipzig. In 1950, he proposed his cladistics principles a Carboniferous fossil reef during evolution. His theory in the book Phylogenetic Systematics. The erection of at Mundubbera. Hill went was unchallenged by scientists the Berlin Wall in 1961 drove him to West Germany, on to write three volumes until the discovery of dinosaurs where he became director of phylogenetic research of The International Treatise with collarbones. at the Museum of Natural History in Stuttgart. on Invertebrates, which won scientific acclaim worldwide. JAMES HUTTON FERDINAND HAYDEN 1726–97 1829–87 EDWARD HITCHCOCK 1793–1864 Scottish geologist who sought American geologist whose bold exploration to understand the history of of the western territories of the US led The first great, modern the Earth by studying the to the first finds of horned dinosaurs. dinosaur tracker, Hitchcock origins of minerals and rocks. described thousands of In his Theory of the Earth (1785), Hayden’s love of exploration began in the early 1850s. dinosaur tracks, many Hutton argued that the present During his geological surveys conducted for the US from his native New England, rocks of the Earth’s surface government, Hayden collected fossils and recorded but he never attributed these were formed from the waste the geological composition of the western territories. tracks to dinosaurs. Instead, of older rocks. He traced the Hitchcock theorized that the dynamic processes that shape His geological survey of the tracks belonged to large extinct the land and the processes Upper Missouri in 1855 birds. In the late 20th century, of erosion that flatten it. produced the first finds of it was argued that birds are the direct descendants of a group Troodon and Palaeoscincus. of carnivorous dinosaurs known as coelurosaurs. Hitchcock had Hayden at stumbled onto a connection – camp during his tracks were in fact made by the ancient theropod relatives a survey, of birds. In his work Hitchcock c. 1874 accumulated an impressive collection of Early Jurassic tracks, many of which are still on display at Amherst College in Massachusetts. 350

BIOGRAPHIES JAMES HOPSON THOMAS HUXLEY DONALD JOHANSON BORN 1935 1825–95 BORN 1943 Vertebrate paleontologist and English biologist who supported the ideas Physical anthropologist who professor in the department of Charles Darwin, and recognized the discovered the first known of organismal biology and anatomical links between birds and reptiles. skeleton of Australopithecus anatomy at the University afarensis. In 1973, Johanson of Chicago, Hopson has The young Huxley voyaged to the Torres Strait where found the knee-joint of an researched the evolutionary he studied ocean life. Darwin’s theories enthused him, australopithecine in Ethiopia. history of the synapsids, a major and he rebuffed many of Darwin’s critics in a series He was able to demonstrate branch of the vertebrates. He of papers and lectures. Huxley studied fossil reptiles that these hominids walked is interested in tracing the and birds, and in 1867 he linked them in an order in an upright fashion, like structural changes that that he called Sauropsida to demonstrate their close humans. The following occurred during the evolution relationship. He listed several characteristics that are year, he discovered from Late Paleozoic synapsids shared between typical dinosaurs and modern birds. “Lucy”, the to the more modern mammals oldest fossil of the Late Mesozoic. In his hominid work, Hopson has estimated ever found. dinosaur brain size and has Johanson proposed theories on the holds the skull function of hadrosaurid crests. of “Lucy”, a 3.1-million- JOHN HORNER year-old BORN 1946 hominid. American paleontologist CHARLES KNIGHT and Curator of Paleontology 1874–1953 at the Museum of the Rockies in Montana. In 1978, Horner Famous dinosaur illustrator discovered the fossilized who worked at the American skeleton of a duck-billed Museum of Natural History’s baby Maiasaura dinosaur department of vertebrate in Montana. He also excavated paleontology during the 1920s a cache of dinosaur nests and 1930s. Knight’s interest in found at Egg Mountain, drawing wild animals eventually Montana. Horner has proposed led to his association with the a number of new theories museum, where he studied and about dinosaurs, most notably reconstructed the appearance the idea that some dinosaur of extinct animals. His most parents nurture their famous murals are Life in an hatchlings. He has also argued Ice Age (1911–21) and The Age that Tyrannosaurus rex was not a of Mammals in North America, deadly hunter, but was, in fact, which was completed in 1930. a scavenger that ate carrion. LAWRENCE LAMBE ZOFIA JEAN-BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK 1863–1919 KIELAN-JAWOROWSKA 1744–1829 Pioneering Canadian BORN 1925 French naturalist who developed ideas on paleontologist and fossil invertebrates and the diversity of animal life. hunter who investigated Polish paleontologist dinosaur fossils in the Alberta who was the first woman to As botanist to the king of France, Lamarck produced region for the Canadian organize and lead fossil-hunting comprehensive botanical works. He was the first to Geographical Survey. Lambe expeditions to the Gobi Desert, use the presence of a vertebral column to distinguish named Euoplocephalus (1910), conducted from 1963 to 1971. between vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Chasmosaurus (1914), and In Mongolia, Kielan-Jaworowska Lamarck was also a pioneer in evolutionary theory. He Edmontosaurus (1917). The discovered Cretaceous promoted the idea that species were not unalterable, dinosaur Lambeosaurus lambei, dinosaurs and rare finds of and that more complex forms developed from pre- which was discovered by Mesozoic mammals. Her book existent, simpler forms. Lamarck also developed a Charles H. Sternberg in 1913, Hunting for Dinosaurs (1969) theory on the inheritance of acquired characteristics. was named in Lambe’s honour. popularized the paleontology of the Gobi region. She has published more than 200 scientific papers, as well as many books and articles. 351

REFERENCE SECTION JOSEPH LEIDY MARY AND LOUIS WILLARD LIBBY 1823–91 LEAKEY 1908–80 American scientist who was A husband and wife team whose fossil finds American chemist whose professor of anatomy at the proved that human evolution was centered method of radiocarbon University of Pennsylvania. A dating proved an invaluable well-respected anatomist and a on Africa, and that the human tool for paleontologists and specialist on intestinal parasites, species was older than had archeologists. As part of the Leidy became famous as a been thought. Manhattan Project (1941–45), vertebrate paleontologist. Libby helped to develop a He examined many of the The Leakeys hold method for separating uranium newly discovered fossil finds a 600,000-year- isotopes. In 1947, he discovered from the western states and, in old skull found in the isotope Carbon-14. Its a series of important books and Tanzania, Central decay within living organisms is papers, laid the foundations of Africa. used to date organic materials, American paleontology. His such as shell and bone. Libby Extinct Fauna of Dakota and was awarded the Nobel Prize Nebraska (1869) contained for Chemistry in 1980. many species unknown to science and some that were MARTIN LOCKLEY previously unknown on the BORN 1950 American continent. Louis Leakey (1903–72) was born in Kenya of English Leading expert on dinosaur parents. In 1931, he began work in the Olduvai Gorge, trackways, professor of geology Tanzania, aided by his second wife, Mary (1913–98), at the University of Colorado, an English paleoanthropologist. In 1959, Mary and curator of the Denver discovered a 1.7-million-year-old fossil hominid, now Fossil Footprint Collection. thought to be a form of australopithecine. Between Lockley’s primary research 1960 and 1963, the Leakeys discovered remains interests include fossil of Homo habilis, and Louis theorized that their footprints, dinosaur trackways, find was a direct ancestor of humans. and paleontological history. His research has taken him from his home bases of Colorado and Utah to Europe, and Central and East Asia. GIUSEPPE LEONARDI CAROLUS LINNAEUS Carolus 1707–78 Linnaeus DATES UNAVAILABLE Swedish botanist whose Systema naturae An Italian dinosaur expert (1735) laid the foundations for the who became a paleontologist classification of organisms. while studying to become a priest. Leonardi traveled to Linnaeus was the first to formulate the Brazil in the 1970s in search of principles for defining genera and meteorites, and later returned species. He based a system there to live. He has traveled of classification on his close to the most remote terrain in examination of flowers. The South America in search of publication of this system dinosaur tracks from different in 1735 was followed by periods. He also discovered the appearance of Genera what may be one of the world’s Plantarum (1736), a work oldest tetrapod tracks, dating that is considered the starting from the Late Devonian. He point of modern botany. has mapped remote sites in inaccessible locations, and has synthesized information about fossilized footprints on a continental scale. 352

BIOGRAPHIES RICHARD LYDEKKER STANLEY MILLER OTHNIEL CHARLES 1849–1915 1930–2007 MARSH 1831–99 English naturalist and geologist American chemist who conducted American paleontologist and who catalogued the fossil experiments in the 1950s to demonstrate pioneer of dinosaur studies. mammals, reptiles, and birds in the possible origins of life on Earth. Marsh described 25 new genera the British Museum. Lydekker’s of dinosaurs and built up one magnificent 10-volume set of While working in Chicago in 1953, the 23-year-old of the most extensive fossil Catalogues was published in Miller passed electrical discharges – equivalent to a collections in the world. 1891. In 1889, he published small thunderstorm – through a mixture of hydrogen, After studying geology and the two-volume A Manual of methane, ammonia, and water, which he believed paleontology in Germany, Palaeontology together with H.A. represented the constituents of Earth’s early Marsh returned to America Nicholson. Lydekker was also atmosphere. After some days, his analysis showed and was appointed professor of responsible for naming the the presence of organic substances, such as amino paleontology at Yale University dinosaur Titanosaurus (1877). acids and urea. Miller’s experiments revolutionized in 1860. He persuaded his scientific understanding of the origins of life on Earth. uncle, George Peabody, to CHARLES LYELL establish the Peabody Museum 1797–1875 Stanley Miller with of Natural History at Yale. On the glass apparatus scientific expeditions to the Scottish barrister and geologist used to recreate the western United States, Marsh’s who studied the geology of conditions found teams made a number of France and Scotland, and in on primitive Earth. discoveries. In 1871, they found 1827 gave up a career in law for the first American pterosaur a life spent studying geology. In fossils. They also found the his work The Principles of Geology remains of early horses in (1830–33), Lyell devised the the US. Marsh described names for geological epochs the remains of Cretaceous that are now in universal usage, toothed birds and flying including Eocene and Pliocene. reptiles, and Cretaceous and His Elements of Geology, which Jurassic dinosaurs, including was published in 1838, became Apatosaurus and Allosaurus. a standard work on stratigraphy and paleontology. In Lyell’s HERMANN VON MEYER third great work, The Antiquity 1801–69 of Man (1863), he surveyed the arguments for humans’ early German paleontologist appearance on Earth, discussed who named and described the deposits of the last Ice Archaeopteryx (1861), Age, and lent his support to Rhamphorhynchus (1847), Darwin’s theory of evolution. and Plateosaurus (1837). Meyer was one of the first to view WILLIAM DILLER dinosaurs as a separate group, MATTHEW which he called “saurians” 1871–1930 in 1832. Meyer started publication of the journal American paleontologist who Paleontographica in 1846, and worked extensively on the fossil used it to publish much of his record of mammals. Matthew research on fossil vertebrates. was curator of the American Museum of Natural History from the mid-1890s to 1927. One of his key theories, that waves of faunal migration repeatedly moved from the northern continents southward, mistakenly relied on the notion that the continents themselves were stable. Matthew also did early work on Allosaurus and Albertosaurus, and on the early bird Diatryma. He named Dromaeosaurus in 1922. He was one of the first to study the effect of climate on evolution. 353

REFERENCE SECTION MARK NORELL HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN RICHARD OWEN BORN 1957 1857–1935 1804–92 American paleontologist American paleontologist who greatly English anatomist and who is chairman and curator of influenced the art of museum display paleontologist who coined vertebrate paleontology at the and made important contributions the word “dinosaur” in American Museum of Natural to the study of dinosaurs. 1842. Owen was responsible History, who has carried out for the foundation of the extensive fieldwork in Osborn was president of the American Museum Museum of Natural History Mongolia. In 1993, Norell and of Natural History (AMNH) from 1908 to 1935, and in South Kensington, London. Michael Novacek discovered a was also professor of zoology at Columbia University Trained as a doctor, he went site in the Gobi Desert called from 1896 to 1935. During his tenure at the AMNH, on to become an expert in Ukhaa Tolgod, he accumulated one of the finest fossil collections comparative anatomy. In 1856, a basin rich in fossils. There in the world and was a celebrated popularizer of he became superintendent of they found an 80-million-year- palaeontology. In 1905, he described and named the natural history department old fossil oviraptorid embryo Tyrannosaurus rex. Osborn proposed the concept of of the British Museum. He still cloaked in shattered adaptive radiation – that primitive plants or animals supervised the removal of the eggshell, as well as a mature might evolve into several species by spreading over a collections to a new building oviraptorid that had been large area and adapting to different ecological niches. in South Kensington. A pioneer buried while sitting on a nest in vertebrate paleontology, he of eggs. In 1995, Norell found RODERICK MURCHISON conducted extensive research a dromaeosaur nest containing 1792–1871 on extinct reptiles, mammals, eggs, which had been buried by and birds. His most important a prehistoric sandflow. He has Scottish geologist who pioneered the work in this field is his four- worked with Chinese colleagues mapping and study of Paleozoic rocks. volume History of British Fossil to describe feathered dinosaurs He also defined and named the Silurian Reptiles (1849–84). Owen was from Liaoning, China. and Devonian systems. responsible for the first full- scale dinosaur reconstructions, ALEXANDER OPARIN Originally a soldier, Murchison prepared his first which were displayed in Crystal 1894–1980 paper for the Royal Geological Society in 1825. With Palace Gardens, London. Charles Lyell and Adam Sedgwick as his companions, Russian biochemist who studied he explored France, Italy, and the Alps to study their KEVIN PADIAN the origins of life from organic geology. Investigations into the geology of the Welsh BORN 1951 matter. Oparin theorized borders led, in 1839, to his establishment of the that simple organic and Silurian system – a series of rock formations, each Professor of integrative inorganic materials might have biology who is curator in combined into complex organic containing distinctive the Museum of Paleontology compounds, which, in turn, organic remains, at the University of California. formed primordial organisms. which can be found Padian is one of the world’s His most important work is The all over the world. leading authorities on the Origin of Life on Earth (1957). In Investigations events that took place during 1935, Oparin helped to found a in southwestern the transition from the Triassic biochemical institute in honor England and period to the Jurassic period, of his mentor, the botanist A.N. the Rhineland a time that signalled the rise Bakh. He remained director led to the of the dinosaurs. He has written of the institute until his death. definition of extensively on the relationship the Devonian of birds to dinosaurs, and JOHN OSTROM system. Further studies pterosaurs to see what 1928–2005 geological their anatomy illustrates about expeditions took the origins of flight. Padian American vertebrate him to Russia and also studies fossil footprints, paleontologist who became the Scottish highlands. and is interested in the professor emeritus of geology history of paleontology. at Yale University. Ostrom was a specialist in the evolution of birds, and argued that birds evolved from warm-blooded dinosaurs. He made a revolutionary study of the dinosaur Deinonychus, which he and others discovered in 1964. Ostrom named the dinosaurs Microvenator, Tenontosaurus, and Sauropelta. 354

BIOGRAPHIES ADAM SEDGWICK ALFRED SHERWOOD ROMER HARRY GOVIER SEELEY 1785–1873 1894–1973 1839–1909 English clergyman and American paleontologist who is known Seeley was the pioneer, in geologist who became for his theories about vertebrate evolution. 1887, of a radical new dinosaur the Woodwardian professor classification scheme. He of geology at Cambridge Romer saw anatomical adaptations to environmental noticed that all dinosaurs University. Sedgwick carried change as the key to evolutionary progress. In 1933, possessed a pelvis that followed out extensive fieldwork in he became professor of biology at Harvard University one of two distinctive designs – southwestern England, the and published Vertebrate Paleontology, an important birdlike or reptilelike. He Isle of Wight, and Yorkshire. work that shaped academic thinking for decades. divided the dinosaurs into Following fieldwork in Wales two orders, Ornithischia in 1831, he applied the name PAUL SERENO (“bird-hipped”) and Saurischia Cambrian to the oldest group BORN 1957 (“reptile-hipped”). In his book of fossiliferous strata. In 1836, Dragons of the Air (1901), Seeley while working with Roderick An American paleontologist known for his assessed early research and Murchison, Sedgwick fieldwork and research on early dinosaurs. opinion on pterosaurs. demonstrated that the fossils of the Devon limestones Attached to the University of Chicago, Sereno has ARMAND DE RICQLÈS were of an intermediate type, worked extensively in South America, Asia, and Africa. BORN 1938 between those of the Silurian He named one of the earliest dinosaurs, Eoraptor, and and Carboniferous systems. found the first complete skull of Herrerasaurus. In French professor of They introduced the name comparative anatomy who Devonian for the slates and 1994, Sereno found and named the is known for his research on limestone of southwestern predatory African dinosaur dinosaur bone structure. Using England, and jointly Afrovenator. He has also the link between bone structure published On the Physical rearranged dinosaur and rate of bone growth, Structure of Devonshire, cladograms – in particular, Ricqlès examined the structure a memoir. the ornithischian groupings. of fossil bones. His findings led him to suggest that certain groups of dinosaurs might have been warm-blooded, a theory that is a popular topic of debate among paleontologists. Paul Sereno studies dinosaur skeletons from around the world to learn more about dinosaur evolution.

REFERENCE SECTION GEORGE GAYLORD WILLIAM SMITH NIELS STENSEN SIMPSON 1769–1839 1638–86 1902–84 An important paleontologist English geologist who is known as the “father A Danish scientist and and the author of hundreds of of English geology.” He was a pioneer of physician to Ferdinand II technical papers and popular geological mapping and stratigraphic geology. who recognized the organic books, Simpson was curator of processes that fossilize the department of geology and Smith was a canal engineer who studied rocks while bone, and contributed to the paleontology at the American carrying out engineering surveys around England. creation of laws on the dating Museum of Natural History He realised that particular rock layers (strata) could of sedimentary rock strata. from 1945 to 1959. An expert In 1666, Stensen examined a on the Mesozoic era and the be identified by the fossils they shark’s skull and observed that Paleocene epoch, Simpson was contained. By taking vertical organic processes had turned one of the first paleontologists sections and identifying rock the teeth – which he called to make use of genetics and outcrops at the surface, Smith “tongue stones” – to stone. statistical analysis. He studied was able to produce three- From these observations, the extinct mammals of South dimensional geological maps. Stensen developed an America, and contributed In 1794, he produced his first understanding of the much to the understanding geological map, of the region processes of fossilization. of transcontinental migration. around Bath. In 1815, he Stensen also drew stratigraphic published a 15-sheet sections of the rocks in the REG SPRIGG geological map of Tuscany region. He has 1919–94 England, Wales, and therefore been seen as part of Scotland. the father of both modern Australian geologist who paleontology and geology. discovered the then oldest- MARIE STOPES known fossils in 1946. Sprigg 1880–1958 LEIGH VAN VALEN stumbled across the 560- BORN 1935 million-year-old Precambrian English paleobotanist, fossils in the Ediacaran Hills suffragette, and pioneer American paleontologist of the Flinders Range in South of birth control. and professor in the Australia. Since their discovery, department of ecology “Ediacaran” fossils have been In 1905, Stopes became and evolution at found all over the world. the first female science the University of Sprigg continued to pursue lecturer at Manchester his geological career, and led University. She was an expert Chicago, Van Valen oil exploration in Australia. on fossil plants and has pointed out the He mapped the Mount Painter primitive cycads, similarities between the uranium field for the South and demonstrated mesonychid mammals Australian Geological Survey how plant remains of the Paleocene epoch in 1944. alter to become and the early whales coal. Stopes’s called protocetids. He THE STERNBERG later career has also proposed an FAMILY was ruled by ecological succession her interest model for the extinction Led by their father, Charles H. in women’s of the dinosaurs. (1850–1943), the Sternberg health issues. family made many spectacular dinosaur discoveries in North Marie Stopes America. In the 1860s, Charles studied botany H. discovered thousands in England of fossils, and developed and Germany. techniques for “jacketing” fossil bones in a protective cast. Charles M. (1885–1981) was famous for his ability to “read” the ground for dinosaur bones. George (1883–1959) discovered the duck-billed Edmontosaurus (1909). Levi (1894–1976) developed a latex casting technique that was used to duplicate fossils. 356

BIOGRAPHIES CHARLES D. WALCOTT ALFRED WEGENER ABRAHAM GOTTLOB 1850–1927 1880–1930 WERNER 1750–1817 American geologist who German meteorologist and geologist who discovered the Burgess developed the theory of continental drift, The father of German geology, Shale fossils. Walcott joined which revolutionized the scientific study who proposed a “Neptunist” the US Geological Survey, and of the Earth in the theory of geology – that the became its director in 1894. 20th century. minerals present in the ancient He described and interpreted ocean that once covered the the great Paleozoic region of Wegener died, aged 50, Earth were gradually deposited central Nevada, and examined on his third expedition to as rock. Werner’s belief in a the Cambrian formations of the the Greenland ice sheet. primeval ocean as the origin Appalachian Mountains. Later, of all of Earth’s rocks was he worked on the Cambrian highly influential. His followers formations of the Rocky were called Neptunists, while Mountains. In 1909, Walcott opponents, who recognized made his most famous find the importance of subterranean when he discovered the deposit heat in the formation of the of Cambrian fossils known Earth’s crust, were known as as the Burgess Shale in British Vulcanists. A mineralogist and Columbia, Canada. Walcott had teacher, Werner examined the unearthed the largest find of rocks of Saxony to demonstrate perfectly preserved fossils from geological succession – the idea any era. He excavated some that the rocks of the Earth are 70,000 specimens and passed laid down in layers that reveal them on to the Smithsonian the Earth’s history. Although Institute, of which he had his Neptunist ideas have been become head in 1907. disproven, his work on the chronological succession of rocks is still widely respected. JAMES WATSON SAMUEL WENDELL BORN 1928 WILLISTON 1852–1918 American molecular biologist and discoverer, with James American biologist, Crick and Maurice Wilkins, paleontologist, and of the molecular structure of entomologist, who is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). chiefly remembered for his For this discovery Watson contributions to vertebrate was awarded the Nobel Prize paleontology, in particular for Physiology and Medicine his monumental research in 1962. He wrote about his on Cretaceous and Permian research in The Double Helix reptiles and amphibians. (1968). From 1989 to 1992, Williston found the first Watson was director of the Diplodocus remains in 1877, US National Center for and formulated a theory on the Human Genome Research. evolution of flight. He also conducted extensive research From 1924 Wegener held the chair in meteorology into the Diptera – an order and geophysics at the University of Graz, Austria. of insects that includes flies, He began to develop his theory of continental drift mosquitoes, and midges. from 1910, but it was not fully articulated until the publication of his Origin of Continents and Oceans in JOHN WOODWARD 1929. In that book he argued that India, Africa, South 1655–1728 America, Australia, and Antarctica were once united in a supercontinent, which he named Pangea. This English professor who built an landmass broke up and drifted apart 200 million years extensive collection of fossils ago. Wegener’s evidence for this theory was the jigsaw and minerals, and devised one “fit” of separated continents, as well as matching of the earliest classifications of finds of rocks and fossils. His ideas were initially fossils. Woodward’s collection met with hostility, and only gained support with was left to the University of the development of plate tectonics theory. Cambridge, and is currently on display in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, England. 357

REFERENCE SECTION THE PAST ON DISPLAY MILLIONS OF FOSSILS are displayed around the world in museums of natural history. In some countries, amateur enthusiasts can also visit sites where fossils are being excavated. Alternatively, travel back in time by exploring websites about prehistoric life. DISPLAYS IN THE UK NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM SEDGWICK MUSEUM Fossil bear at the American Museum of Natural History Cromwell Road, London SW7 Downing Street, Cambridge You will immediately be face- Huge ammonites, giant marine DISPLAYS IN THE USA to-face with a huge 85-ft (26-m) reptiles, and a prehistoric long skeleton of Diplodocus as you hippopotamus found in a local AMERICAN MUSEUM FIELD MUSEUM OF enter the Life Galleries at this gravel pit are among the million superb museum. Use the touch- fossils that have been collected OF NATURAL HISTORY NATURAL screens, videos, and interactive by this museum. exhibits to learn about prehistoric Central Park West, New York HISTORY life and the theory of evolution. HUNTERIAN MUSEUM The displays include saurischian Don’t miss the amazing robotic and ornithischian dinosaurs, 1400 dinosaurs, especially the anima- University Avenue, Glasgow and extinct mammals. “Ology” S.Lake tronic T-rex with its terrifyingly Come here to see the first and on the museum’s website is Shore Dr, sharp teeth. The museum’s second dinosaur fossils ever to especially for children, with great Chicago website includes virtual reality be found – a tooth each from quizzes, games, and activities. Exhibits fossils and a Dino Directory, Iguanodon and Megalosaurus. Plus cover 3.8 which you can search by time, view finds from the Gobi Desert DENVER MUSEUM OF NATURE billion years of life on country, and body shape. in Mongolia, and lots more. Earth from single cells to AND SCIENCE dinosaurs and humans. Be OXFORD UNIVERSITY MUSEUM DINOSAUR ISLE sure to visit “Sue,” the world’s Denver, Colorado largest and best preserved OF NATURAL HISTORY Sandown, Isle of Wight Travel through 3.5 billion years Tyrannosaurus rex, found in 1990 An animatronic Neovenator – a of time in the Prehistoric in the badlands of South Dakota. Parks Road, Oxford meat-eating dinosaur that once Journey exhibit, and learn more Dinosaurs and other Mesozoic roamed the Isle of Wight – is about prehistoric creatures, LOS ANGELES COUNTY MUSEUM OF reptiles found locally, dinosaur just one of the exciting displays. including the dinosaurs. This eggs from China, and a dodo are Also go on fossil walks and exhibit features an Allosaurus NATURAL HISTORY among the fantastic sights. watch scientists at work. and Stegosaurus battling a Diplodocus, and continues 900 Exposition Blvd, Los Angeles through the rise of mammals A cast of the complete skeleton and the coming of humans. of the largest-necked dinosaur Museum touch carts hold fossils ever discovered – called that can be examined by hand. Mamenchisaurus – is here, and there are also dramatic models SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM of Allosaurus and Carnotaurus. Activities include fossil rubbings OF NATURAL HISTORY in the Discovery Center. 10th Street and Constitution CARNEGIE MUSEUM Avenue, Washington, DC Amazing dioramas recreate OF NATURAL HISTORY scenes from the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, the last Ice 4400 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh Age, and life in the ancient Brontosaurus, Stegosaurus, and seas. You are also allowed to Camptosaurus are among displays touch and examine fossils in the of the largest land animals ever Discovery Room, and arrange to live. Trace the evolution of to watch scientists at work in the camels and horses, and help Fossil Laboratory. out in the Bonehunters Quarry. Robotic Tyrannosaurus rex at London’s Natural History Museum 358

THE PAST ON DISPLAY DISPLAYS AROUND THE WORLD PREHISTORIC LIFE IN CYBERSPACE THE ROYAL TYRRELL MUSEUM MUSÉE PARC DES DINOSAURES American Museum of Natural Palaeos History Fossil Timeline www.palaeos.com/ OF PALEONTOLOGY Béziers, France www.amnh.org/exhibitions/ In-depth information and The largest museum-park permanent/fossilhalls/ images about most of the major Drumheller, Alberta, Canada of fossils in Europe, located Travel through a geological groups of prehistoric animals See what the undersea world within a paleontological site timeline and explore fossils by and the times they lived. was like in the Cambrian in Southern France. Excavation evolutionary relationships in period, with its strange and news is posted on the website, this informative site. Prehistoric Illustrated exotic creatures. Primitive which has an English version. www.prehistoricsillustrated.com plants are grown in the Dino Data Gallery of prehistoric creatures Paleoconservatory, and there ROYAL BELGIAN INSTITUTE OF www.dinodata.net plus the latest news and are great displays of Alberta’s Great site for serious dinosaur research on extinct animals. rich fossil heritage. If you can’t NATURAL SCIENCES enthusiasts, with all the facts visit in person, try the virtual at your fingertips. Sue at the Field Museum tour on the museum’s website, Brussels, Belgium www.fieldmuseum.org/sue/ which also has an A-Z Exhibits include the world’s Dino Russ’s Lair index.html encyclopedia of fossils. largest group of Iguanodon – 30 www.dinoruss.com Uncover the largest, skeletons discovered in a coal Information on dinosaurs, best–preserved Tyrannosaurus CANADIAN MUSEUM OF NATURE mine at Bernissart in 1878. dinosaur eggs, exhibits, digs you rex specimen yet discovered. can join, and sites to visit. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada ZIGONG DINOSAUR MUSEUM University of California Horned, duck-billed, and Dinosauria On-Line Museum of Paleontology “ostrich mimic” dinosaurs Zigong, Sichuan, China www.dinosauria.com www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ feature in the exhibits, which Excellent museum that is built Award-winning site for exhibits/index.php were found in the badlands of over the site of some incredible enthusiasts, with a gallery of Thousands of pages of content Southern Alberta and Saskat- excavations. Twelve dinosaurs images and discussion group. covering the history of life chewan. On the website are in good condition are displayed through time. games presented by the Virtual here, and some bones are still Discovering Dinosaurs Museum of Canada including in situ. The dinosaurs are www.britannica.com/dinosaurs/ Walking with Dinosaurs “Dig This! the Cretaceous sometimes taken out of China dinosaurs/index2.html www.bbc.co.uk/dinosaur Period” and “Palaeo Pursuit.” and displayed at temporary From Encyclopedia Britannica – Discover a wealth of exhibitions round the world. how our ideas about dinosaurs information, galleries, and have changed over the years. animations of prehistoric life. QUEENSLAND MUSEUM ARGENTINE MUSEUM OF Imax: T-Rex Zoom Dinosaurs Brisbane, Queensland, Australia NATURAL SCIENCES www.imax.com/t-rex www.EnchantedLearning.com/ Learn about the weird prehistoric Become a virtual paleontologist subjects/dinosaurs creatures that used to roam Buenos Aires, Argentina and travel back through time to Ask questions and vote for your Queensland. Quizzes to test your Numerous remarkable dinosaur such eras as that of the favorite dinosaur, plus games knowledge about Australian fossils found in Patagonia are legendary Tyrannosaurus rex. and the best dinosaur jokes ever! dinosaurs and a poster to color on show at this center of on the website. paleontological study. The Hall of Saurischian Dinosaurs at the American Museum of Natural History, New York 359

REFERENCE SECTION GLOSSARY giraffes, cattle, and their kin. Brachiopods Marine invertebrates A behind the eye. Besides extinct segmented bodies and a hard forms, anapsids may include (outer) exoskeleton. They form with a two-valved shell. They are Acanthodians (ae-KAN-tho-DEE- turtles and tortoises. the largest phylum (major classified by whether or not the anz: “spiny sharks”) Extinct fish Ancestor An animal or plant from division) in the animal kingdom, valves are hinged. They evolved that had fins supported by which others have evolved. with well over a million living in the Cambrian period but are strong, immovable spines. Their Angiosperms (AN-JEE-o-spermz: species. Extinct arthropods now a minor group. heyday was the Devonian period. “seed vessels”) Flowering plants include trilobites and Bryozoans Marine invertebrates which have seeds enclosed in an eurypterids; living ones include that grow in branching or Acetabulum The hip socket. ovary. The group includes broad- insects and spiders. fan-like colonies measuring a Actinopterygians (ak-tin-op-ter-IG- leaved trees and grasses. Artiodactyls (AR-tee-o-DAK-tilz) few inches across. They have Ankylosaurs (ANG-ki-lo-SORE-z Hoofed mammals (ungulates) flourished since the Ordovician ee-nz) The ray-finned fish, a or ang-KIE-lo-SORE-z: “fused with an even number of toes. period, in both major group of osteichthyans lizards”) Four-legged, armored, Pigs, camels, deer, giraffes, and deep and shallow waters. (bony fishes). plant-eating, ornithischian cattle are living examples. Burgess Shale The site in Adaptations The ways in which dinosaurs with bony plates that Australopithecines British Columbia, Canada, organisms evolve in response covered the neck, shoulders, and (os-TRAL-o-PITH-e-seen-z: where an important discovery to their environment. back. A horny beak was used for “southern apes”) Extinct of Middle Cambrian fossils Aerofoil The curved suface of a cropping plants. apelike hominids including occurred. Among the 130 species wing that aids flight by creating Annelids Worms with segmented the ancestors of humans. identified are sponges, jellyfish, an upward force. bodies. Because they lack Aves Birds. Some scientists restrict worms, and arthropods. Agnathans (ag-NAY-thanz: “without skeletal structures, their fossil the name Aves to modern birds jaws”) A class of primitive evidence is usually restricted (see also Neornithes), calling the C vertebrates, the “jawless fish,” to trails and burrows. most primitive birds Avialae. that flourished mainly in Early Anthracosaurs Birds probably evolved from Caecilians Burrowing, wormlike Paleozoic times. They include (an-THRAK-o-SORE-z) Extinct theropod dinosaurs in the amphibians, which have poorly extinct groups and the living amphibious tetrapods, including Late Jurassic. developed eyes and no limbs. hagfish and lampreys. kinds that mainly lived on land, Algae Primitive plants and may have included the ancestors B Calcareous Any rock containing plant-like organisms that of the reptiles. calcium carbonate. grow in wet conditions. Anthropoids/the Anthropoidea Belemnites An extinct group of Cyanobacteria (“blue-green The higher primates: monkeys, squidlike creatures. They were Calcified To be converted to algae”) were among the first apes, and humans. characterized by an internal calcium carbonate, such as organisms to evolve and helped Anthropology The study of chambered shell, enclosed when bones or shells have to create the oxygen-rich humankind. Anthropologists entirely by soft, muscular tissue. formed chalk, limestone, atmosphere essential for examine and analyze the or marble. other lifeforms. structure of human societies and Bennettitales An extinct group Allosaurs (AL-o-SORE-z: “strange the nature of human interactions of plants with palmlike foliage, Calcite A widely distributed lizards”) Big, meat-eating and beliefs. and similar in appearance to the rock-forming mineral, common dinosaurs – a group of rather Antorbital fenestra A hole in the living sago palms, or cycads. in the shells of invertebrates. primitive tetanuran theropods. skull in front of each eye; a They produced star-shaped It is the chief constituent of Amber The fossil form of the sticky hallmark of the archosaurs. flowerlike reproductive structures. limestone. resin produced by trees. Perfectly Appendages Limbs, gills, preserved insects and other antennae, or other parts project- Bilateral Having two sides. The Cambrian The first period of the organisms have been found ing from a creature’s body. wings of a butterfly are one of Paleozoic era, about 542–488.3 fossilized in amber. Araucaria A genus of large many examples of bilateral million years ago. This was when Ammonites An extinct group of evergreen conifers, characterized symmetry in the animal kingdom. most of the main invertebrate cephalopods that teemed in by small leaves arranged in groups appeared in the fossil Mesozoic seas. They had a coiled, spirals. Living members include Bipedal Walking on the hindlimbs record. chambered shell. the monkey puzzle tree and rather than on all fours. Amniotes Tetrapod vertebrates Norfolk Island pine. Carbonate A substance containing whose young develop within a Archaea Primitive single-celled Biostratigraphy The branch of carbon with calcium or special protective membrane organisms, thought to be among geology that examines the fossil magnesium, for example called the amnion. Amniotes the earliest life forms to have content of rock layers. limestone or dolomite. include reptiles, birds, evolved, over 3.5 billion years and mammals. ago. Many thrive in extreme Biozone A division of geological Carboniferous The fifth period Amphibians Cold-blooded conditions, such time identified by the presence of the Paleozoic era, about tetrapod vertebrates whose as scalding water. of particular species fossilized in 359.2–299 million years ago. young use gills to breathe Archaean/Archean The second rock layers. The period is divided in North during the early stages of life. eon of the geological timescale, America into the Mississippian Living amphibians include about 3.8–2.5 billion years ago. Bivalves Aquatic mollusks, such (359–318 MYA) and frogs, newts, and salamanders, Archaic Primitive, or of an as clams, that are enclosed by Pennsylvanian (318–299 MYA). whose ancestors originated ancient time. a hinged shell. The two halves It was during the Pennsylvanian in the Carboniferous period. Archosaurs (AR-ko-SORE-z: of the shell are usually mirror subperiod that extensive forests Amphibious Inhabiting both “ruling lizards”) A major group images of each other. covered the land, and were water and land. Crocodiles and of reptiles that originated in the colonized by insects and four- otters are amphibious (but they Triassic. It includes dinosaurs, Blastopore An opening in an legged vertebrates including are not amphibians). pterosaurs, and crocodilians. embryo. In some organisms, amphibious tetrapods, and the Anapsids A group of primitive Arthropods Invertebrates with the blastopore will become the first reptiles and synapsids. reptiles with no skull opening mouth or anus, in others, part of the digestive system. Carbonized Describing organic matter that has decomposed Bovoids (boe-VOYD-z: “oxlike”) under water or sediment, leaving Artiodactyl hoofed mammals a carbon residue. The residue including pigs, hippopotamuses, preserves many features of camels, pronghorns, deer, plants, insects, and fish. Carinates A group of birds with deeply keeled breastbones. Carnassials The bladelike cheek 360

GLOSSARY teeth of carnivorans, designed Clade A group of organisms (such Digit A finger, thumb, or toe. by narrow tube feet for walking. to slice meat into pieces. as dinosaurs) sharing anatomical Dinosaurs (DIE-no-sore-z: Ecosystem A natural system that Carnivora A group of sharp- features derived from the same toothed, meat-eating mammals, ancestor. “terrible lizards”) A great is made up of a community of including cats, dogs, bears, and group of advanced archosaurs living organisms and the their relatives and ancestors. Cladistic (kla-DIS-tik) Describing with erect limbs. environment in which they live. People often call other meat- a method of classifying plants Diplodocids (di-PLOH-do-sidz: Ectotherm A cold-blooded animal. eating animals carnivores, too. and animals by grouping them “double beams”) A family of Ediacarans Fossil organisms Carnosaurs Large carnivorous in clades. huge saurischian dinosaurs: long- named after those found in dinosaurs with big skulls and necked, long-tailed, plant-eating the Ediacaran Hills of South teeth. All such theropods were Cladogram (KLAD-o-gram) sauropods. Diplodocids included Australia. These complex, once called carnosaurs. The A branching diagram showing Diplodocus and Apatosaurus. soft-bodied animals were found name is now used only for the relationships of different Diprotodonts (die-proe-toe- in rocks that were about 560 Allosaurus and its relatives. clades. DON-tz: “two first teeth”) million years old. Cartilaginous Having a skeleton The largest of the extinct giant Elasmobranchii (ee-LAZ-mo- of cartilage (a firm but flexible Class In the Linnaean system marsupials, diprotodonts were BRAN-kee: “metal plate substance) rather than bone. of classification, a group of rhinoceros-like creatures, with gills”) The main group of Catarrhines Primates with down- organisms containing one or huge rodent-like incisor teeth chondrichthyan fish, including pointing nostrils that are close more related orders (sometimes and massive skulls. These forest- the sharks, skates, and rays. together, for example monkeys, grouped in subclasses).Classes dwellers browsed on low-growing Elasmosaur (ee-LAZ-mo-SORE: apes, and humans. include Aves (birds), Reptilia trees and shrubs. “metal plate lizard”) A long- Caudal Of, or relating to, a tail. (reptiles), and Mammalia Disconformity A break between necked type of plesiosaur: a Cenozoic The era that covers the (mammals). parallel rock layers representing bulky, Mesozoic marine reptile last 65.5 million years. a time when no sediment was with paddle-like limbs. It is subdivided into the Paleogene Cold-blooded Depending upon deposited. It indicates an Elytra The hard outer wingcases of period (65.5–23 million years ago) the heat from the sun for body environmental change in the beetles and some other insects. and Neogene period (23 million warmth. affected area. Embryo An animal or plant in years to the present). See also Diversify To become more varied. its early stage of development Tertiary; Quaternary Continental drift The movement In evolution, for example, when from a fertilized egg or seed. Cephalopods Marine mollusks of continents across the surface a few species evolve into many Eocene The second epoch of the with big eyes and a well- of the Earth over time. species, which are adapted to Tertiary period, about 55.8–33.9 developed head surrounded by a different environments. million years ago. Hoofed ring of tentacles. Examples Cretaceous The last period of the DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, mammals, whales, and primates include ammonites, belemnites, Mesozoic era, about 145.5–65.5 whose molecules carry genetic diversified in this epoch. octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish. million years ago. instructions from one generation Eon The longest unit of geological Ceratopsians (ser-a-TOP-see-anz: to the next. (See Genes.) time. From oldest to youngest, “horned faces”) Bipedal and Crinoids (sea lilies) Plant-shaped The complex double-helix the four eons are called quadrupedal, plant-eating, echinoderms that are either structure of DNA was Hadean, Archean (Archaean), ornithischian dinosaurs with a free-floating or anchored to the discovered in the 1950s. Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. deep beak and bony frill at the sea-floor by long stalks. They Domesticated Bred to be tame, The Phanerozoic eon comprises back of the skull. They include form an important fossil group as with cows, sheep, and dogs, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and the horned dinosaurs. in Paleozoic rocks. which now live alongside Cenozoic eras. Ceratosaurs (se-RAT-o-SORE-z or human beings. Epoch An interval of geological SER-a-to-SORE-z: “horned Crustaceans A large class of Dominant and recessive Terms time that is longer than an lizards”) One of the two arthropods named after the hard describing inherited age and shorter than a period. proposed major groups carapace, or “crust,” that encases characteristics that depend on Era A unit of geological time of theropods. their bodies. Living examples the type of gene inherited from that ranks below an eon. Cetaceans (se-TAE-see-anz: include crabs, shrimp, and each parent. For example, in Erosion The wearing away of the “whales”) Marine mammals woodlice. humans brown-eye genes are surface of the Earth by natural with a streamlined, fishlike dominant, while blue-eye genes forces, such as wind and moving body and limbs evolved as Cycads (sie-kadz) Palmlike, seed- are recessive. ice and water. flippers. They include dolphins, bearing plants that are topped by Dromaeosaurids (DROH-mee-o- Eukaryotes (yoo-KARRY-oatz: whales, and porpoises. a crown of fernlike leaves. They SORE-idz: “running lizards”) “having a true nucleus”) Chelonians (ke-LO-nee-nz: may be short and shrublike, or Bird-like, bipedal, carnivorous All organisms made of cells with “tortoises”) Broad-bodied grow as high as 65 ft (20 m). dinosaurs. Most grew no a nucleus. Eukaryotes evolved reptiles, protected by a rooflike longer than 6 ft (1.8 m). from prokaryotes at least 800 shell. They comprise turtles, Cynodonts (SIE-no-dontz: “dog Dromaeosaurids lived in million years ago. tortoises, and their ancestors. teeth”) Extinct, doglike synapsids all northern continents. Eurypterids (yoo-rip-ter-idz: Chimaeras Cartilaginous fish that included the ancestors of “wide wings”) Sea scorpions, characterized by long, tapering mammals. E living in salt- and freshwater in tail fins. the Paleozoic era. Some grew Chondrichthyans (kon-DRIK-thee- D Echinoderms (i-KIE-no-dermz: more than 6 ft 6 in (2 m) long. anz: “cartilage fish”) Sharks, “sea urchin skins”) Marine Evolution The process by which chimaeras, and kin: fish with a Descendant A living thing that is invertebrates with a hard, one species gives rise to another. cartilaginous skeleton and jaws. descended from another. chalky skeleton and a five-rayed It occurs because individual Chondrosteans (kon-DROS-tee- symmetry. They evolved organisms pass on mutations anz: “cartilage-boned”) Primitive Devonian period The fourth during the Cambrian period (chance changes in genes ray-finned fish including the period of the Paleozoic era, and include starfish, sea lilies, controlling such things as sturgeons and paddlefish. about 416–359.2 million years sea cucumbers, and sea urchins. body size, shape, and color). Chordates Animals that have a ago. In Devonian times, tetrapods Individuals with beneficial notochord. (four-legged vertebrates) were Echinoids (I-KIE-noydz) Sea mutations pass these on, so Chronological Arranged in order evolving from fish. urchins – echinoderms with a their kind multiplies. In this of occurrence. rigid, globular (rounded) outer way new species eventually arise. Diapsids (die-AP-sidz) A major skeleton of spiny plates, pierced Excavation Digging out and group of reptiles, typically with two holes in the skull behind each eye. Diapsids include lizards, crocodiles, dinosaurs, and birds. Their ancestors originated in Late Carboniferous times. Dicynodonts (die-SIE-no-DONT-z: “two dog teeth”) Extinct, four- legged therapsids with long, downward-pointing tusks. 361

REFERENCE SECTION removing fossils or other Gharial A large Indian reptile living and extinct relatives. snakelike amphibious and substances from the ground. related to crocodiles. It has a Hybrid The offspring of two aquatic tetrapods that Exoskeleton An external skeleton. long, very narrow snout. flourished in Carboniferous External skeletons appeared species. and Permian times. among various marine Giraffids (ji-RAF-idz: “giraffes”) Lissamphibians (LISS-am-FIB-ee- invertebrates in Cambrian times. A family of hoofed, plant-eating I anz) Living amphibians and their Extinction The dying out of a mammals – artiodactyls with long closest ancestors. Lissamphibians plant or animal species. This may necks and forelegs. Iapetus Ocean The precursor of include caecilians, frogs, and be caused by increased the Atlantic Ocean, between the salamanders. competition for resources, or Girdles (hip and shoulder girdles) ancient continents of Laurentia Lophophorates (LOF-o-FOR-aitz) unfavorable changes in the The hip bones and shoulder (mainly North America) and Invertebrate animals that possess environment, such as alterations bones of tetrapod vertebrates, Baltica (northern Europe). a lophophore, a fan of tentacles in climate or sea level or an forming structures that support The ocean closed during the around the mouth. The asteroid striking the Earth. the limbs. Ordovician period. lophophorates include the bryozoans and brachiopods. F Glossopteris (glos-OP-ter-is: Ichthyosaurs (IK-thi-o-SORE-z: Lungfish A group of lobe-finned, “tongue fern”) A Permian seed- “fish lizards”) Fishlike Mesozoic bony fish that evolved in the Fenestra A small hole, or opening, fern found on all southern marine reptiles that resembled Devonian. They have both gills in a bone. continents when they were modern dolphins. and lungs and can breathe in grouped as Gondwana. water and air. Flagellum A long, whiplike Igneous rocks Rocks formed appendage found on some Glyptodonts (GLIP-to-dontz: from magma: molten matter M microscopic organisms. “carved teeth”) Large, armadillo- originating deep down in the like mammals from South Earth. Mammaliaforms Mammals’ closest, Foraminiferans Minute aquatic America with hard, thick, bony extinct, relatives, differing from organisms with a single or multi- shells; now extinct. Iguanodontians (i-GWAHN-o- mammals only in small chambered shell. Their fossils dont-i-anz: “Iguana teeth”) anatomical details. are important indicators of the Gondwana The vast southern Large, bipedal/quadrupedal, ages of some rocks. supercontinent that included plant-eating dinosaurs: Mammals Warm-blooded, hairy South America, Africa, ornithopods that flourished vertebrates that secrete milk and Fossil The remains of a prehistoric Antarctica, Australia, and India. in the Early Cretaceous. suckle their young. Living organism preserved in the Gondwana persisted from mammals range from tiny shrews Earth’s crust. Precambrian times until the Ilium One of the three to the blue whale, the largest Jurassic period, when these (paired) hip bones. creature ever, and between them Fossilization Any fossil-forming lands began to move apart. occupy a great variety of habitats. process. As organic substances Inherited Passed down through Mammals originated in decay, they may be reduced to a Graptolites (GRAP-to-lietz: the generations. Triassic times. carbon residue, a process called “writing on the rocks”) Extinct, carbonization. Bones and shells tiny, colonial marine animals Insectivore Any insect-eating Maniraptorans (man-i-RAP-tor-anz: may be impregnated by mineral- whose branching tubular organism, including certain “grasping hands”) bearing solutions, in a process exoskeletons left impressions in plants, but especially the group Predatory dinosaurs including known as permineralization. shale. These fossils help scientists of mammals including moles, birds. They were advanced Original hard parts may be date others from the Ordovician shrews, and hedgehogs. tetanuran theropods with dissolved away and entirely and Silurian periods. long arms and hands. replaced by a mineral substance, Invertebrates Animals without in a process known as petrifaction. H backbones. Maneuverability An ability to perform complex movements G Habitat The natural home Ischium One of the three with ease and agility. of an organism. (paired) hip bones. Gastropods The largest, most Marginocephalians successful class of mollusks. Hadean The first eon of the J (mar-JIN-o-se-FAL-ee-anz: Their internal organs are geological time scale, about “bordered heads”) Ornithischian generally carried in a spiral 4.6–3.8 billion years ago. Jerboa A small desert rodent with dinosaurs with a skull ridge or shell, they have a head with long hindlegs. shelf – the pachycephalosaurs eyes and mouth, and a flattened Hadrosaurs (HAD-ro-SORE-z: and ceratopsians. foot for crawling. Living “bulky lizards”) The duck-billed Jurassic The middle period of the members of the class include dinosaurs – large, bipedal/ Mesozoic era, about 199.6–145.5 Marsupials Mammals that give snails, cowries, and limpets. quadrupedal Late Cretaceous million years ago. At this time birth to small, undeveloped ornithopods that used their dinosaurs dominated the land, young that grow and mature Genes Microscopic units of cells ducklike beaks for browsing. the first birds evolved, and in a skin pouch on the mother’s that control inherited mammals began to diversify. stomach. Living examples characteristics. They are passed Hagfish A living kind of jawless include kangaroos and wallabies. on from parents to their young. fish (agnathan). Juvenile A young or immature Marsupials survive only in individual. Australasia and the Americas. Genets Catlike mammals of the Hallux The innermost digit genus Genetta, characterized by (“big toe”) of the hindfoot K Mastodons (MAS-to-dons) spotted fur and a long, bushy of tetrapod vertebrates. An extinct group of large tail. Native to Africa and Kin Family – individuals that are mammals with trunks, tusks, southern Europe. Herbivore Any animal that eats genetically related. and thick hair. They were only plants. The teeth, stomach related to the elephants. Genus (plural: genera) and digestive system of herbivores L A group of related organisms are adapted to breaking down Megalosaurs (MEG-a-lo-SORE-z: ranked between the levels of fibrous plant material. Lamprey A living type of jawless “great lizards”) A mixed group family and species. fish, with a sucker mouth and of large carnivorous dinosaurs. Hesperornithiformes horny teeth. They were primitive tetanuran Geological Concerning geology, (HES-per-OR-nith-i-form-eez: theropods less advanced than the scientific study of the “western bird forms”) Toothed, Lancelets Small, invertebrate, fish- the carnosaurs. composition, structure, and flightless, foot-propelled diving like chordates that bury origins of the Earth’s rocks. birds of Late Cretaceous times. themselves in the sand. Mesoderm The middle layer of cells in an embryo. In vertebrates Holocene The most recent epoch Lepospondyls (LEP-o-SPON-dilz) of geological history, lasting from Small, salamander-like and 10,000 years ago to the present. Hominids The group of primates that includes humans and their 362

GLOSSARY the mesoderm develops into stronger, faster, etc.) survive in Cambrian period. 65.5–23 million years ago, muscles, bones, the circulatory greater numbers to reproduce Ordovician The second period divided into the Paleocene, system, and various internal and pass on their mutations to Eocene, and Oligocene epochs. organs and glands. the next generation. of the Paleozoic era, about See also Tertiary Mesosaurs (MEZ-o-SORE-z: Nautiloids (NOR-til-OY-dz) 488.3–443.7 million years ago. All Paleontology The scientific study “intermediate lizards”) A type of cephalopod living in creatures known from this time of fossil plants and animals. Primitive, somewhat lizardlike a straight or coiled, chambered lived in water. Paleozoic (“ancient life”) The aquatic reptiles of Permian times. shell. Nautiloids swim by Organelle A specialized structure geological era from 542–251 They swam by waggling their squirting water out of the body within a cell. million years ago, comprising the flattened tails. cavity. They reached their peak Ornithischians (or-ni-THIS-kee- Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Mesozoic The “middle life” era, in the Ordovician and Silurian anz: “bird hips”) One of the two Devonian, Carboniferous, and about 250–65 million years ago, but only a single genus survives: major dinosaur groups (see also Permian periods. containing the Triassic, Jurassic, the pearly nautilus of the Pacific Saurischians). The pelvis of Palpebral A bony eyelid, as seen and Cretaceous periods. and Indian oceans. ornithischians is similar to the in some ankylosaurs. This was the Age of the Neanderthal (nee-AN-der-taal) pelivis of birds. Palynology The study of Dinosaurs – their extinction is An extinct species of hominid Ornithodirans (or-ni-thoe-DIRE- microscopic pollen and spores marked by the end of the era. that is closely related to our own anz: “bird necks”) The group and their spread. Palynology is Metamorphosis Change of shape, species. of archosaurs that includes a branch of paleoecology and as when the young of some Nematodes Parasitic and free- dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and birds. paleobotany. creatures take on adult form, for living worms with a slender, Ornithopods (or-ni-thoe-POD-z: Pampas Treeless, grass-covered instance a tadpole becomes unsegmented cylindrical shape; “bird feet”) A group of large and plains. a froglet, and a caterpillar also called roundworms. small ornithischian dinosaurs: Pangea (pan-JEE-a) becomes a pupa and then Neoceratopsians (NEE-o-sera-TOP- plant-eaters that walked on their The supercontinent formed at a winged butterfly. see-anz: “new horned faces”) long hindlimbs or at least the end of the Paleozoic era. Metatarsals Foot bones between Small to large, mainly four- hurried along on them. Pangea consisted of all the major the ankle and toes. legged ceratopsians, many Ossicle A small bone or bonelike continental blocks and stretched Metazoans Many-celled animals with huge, horned heads. body part, for instance the calcite from pole to pole. (this applies to the vast majority Neogene The period of geological plates of echinoderms. Parareptiles (PAR-a-REP-tile-z: of animals). history covering the last Osteichthyans (OS-tee-IK-thi-anz: “near/beside reptiles”) Primitive Microfossils Fossils too small 23 million years, divided into the “bony fish”) Fish with a bony reptiles, including the mesosaurs. to be seen with the naked Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, not cartilaginous skeleton. Some people have used the term eye. They include the shells of and Holocene epochs. See also They include the ray-finned to include all the reptiles known some microscopic, single-celled Tertiary; Quaternary actinopterygians and lobe-finned as anapsids. organisms, plant spores, pollen Neornithes (nee-ORN-ith-eez: sarcopterygians. Pareiasaurs (par-EE-a-SORE-z) grains, and the bony scales of “new birds”) Birds of the modern Osteostracans (OS-tee-o-STRAK- A group of early reptiles certain fish. type, with a toothless beak, and anz: “bone shields”) Early jawless characterized by massive bodies Miocene The fourth epoch of the distinctive bones not found in fish whose head and gills were and strong limbs. Their skulls Paleogene period, about 23–5.3 earlier forms. enclosed in a heavy bony shield. had many bony protuberances. million years ago. Neural Relating to the nerves Overburden Sediment or other Peccary A piglike type of hoofed Mitochondrion A structure within or central nervous system. material that must be removed mammal native to the Americas. a cell containing enzymes Niche A set of environmental to reach an underlying deposit Pelvis The hip girdle. (See Girdles.) (special proteins) for energy conditions that are uniquely of fossils or minerals. Period The unit of geological time production and respiration. well suited to the survival of Oviraptorids (OH-vi-RAP-tor-idz: between era and epoch. Periods Mollusks A great group of a particular species. “egg stealers”) A family of are an era’s main subdivisions. invertebrates including bivalves, Nocturnal Relating to the night. long-legged, beaked, birdlike Perissodactyls (per-IS-o-DAK-tilz) gastropods, and cephalopods, Nocturnal creatures are active maniraptoran theropod dinosaurs. The “odd-toed” hoofed mammals, many important as marine fossils. during the hours of darkness including horses, rhinoceroses, Monotremes Primitive, egg-laying and sleep during daylight. P tapirs, their ancestors, and mammals that evolved by the Notochord A flexible internal rod various extinct forms. Mid-Cretaceous. Only the stiffening the body of chordates. Pachycephalosaurs (pak-i-SEF-a-lo- Permafrost Permanently frozen platypus and echidnas (spiny It forms the basis of the SORE-z: “thick-headed lizards”) ground. The surface thaws in the anteaters) survive. backbone in vertebrate animals. Bipedal ornithischian dinosaurs: higher temperatures of summer, Mosasaurs (MOZE-a-SORE-z) Nummulites Foraminiferans with marginocephalians with but water cannot drain away Large, Cretaceous marine disc-shaped and lens-shaped immensely thick skulls. through the frozen subsurface. reptiles – long-jawed aquatic shells; plentiful in some Permian The last period of the lizards with slender bodies and Cenozoic rocks. Paleobotany The study of fossil Paleozoic era, about 299–251 flipperlike limbs. They were plants. This is useful in million years ago. The end of fierce predators. O understanding ancient ecology, the Permian saw a worldwide Multituberculates Small, rodent- and can also help scientists to mass extinction of life-forms. like mammals of Late Jurassic to Olfactory Relating to the sense match the dates of different Phalanges (singular: phalanx) Early Cenozoic times. Many were of smell. rock samples. Toe and finger bones. mouse-sized, the largest as big as Phanerozoic (“visible life”) The a beaver. Oligocene The third epoch of the Paleocene The first epoch of the current eon of geological time, Paleogene period, about 33.9–23 Paleogene period, about spanning the last 540 million N million years ago. Many of the 65.5–55.8 million years ago. years, characterized by the modern animal families Large mammals appeared during evolution of plants and animals. Natural selection The natural flourished, but with species that this epoch. The Phanerozoic comprises the “weeding out” of weaker are now extinct. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and individuals that guides evolution. Paleoecology The study of the Cenozoic eras. As generations of individuals Onychophorans (ON-ik-o-FOR-anz) relationships between fossil Phragmocone (FRAG-mo-kone) mutate, those whose mutations Long, wormlike invertebrates organisms and their ancient The cone-shaped internal shell are favorable (making them with many stumpy limbs. They environments. Comparisons are of belemnites. It is divided into are closely related to arthropods. often made with modern chambers. The earliest lived in the ecosystems. Paleogene The first period of the Cenozoic era, about 363

REFERENCE SECTION Phylum A major subdivision of Proboscideans Elephants and their Living reptiles are cold-blooded, mammals. Sea cows and dugongs the animal kingdom, comprising extinct ancestors and relatives – scaly vertebrates that reproduce are the only living examples. a class or classes. mostly large mammals possessing by laying eggs or giving birth Skull The head’s bony framework a long flexible trunk. on land. that protects the brain, eyes, ears, Phytosaurs (FIE-to-SORE-z) Reptiliomorphs Small, lizardlike and nasal passages. Heavily armored, semiaquatic Prokaryotes (pro-KARRY-oatz: tetrapods that gave rise to true Species In the classification of Triassic archosaurs: reptiles “before a true nucleus”) Tiny, reptiles. living things, the level below a resembling modern crocodiles primitive organisms without Rhinocerotidae (“nose horns”) genus. Individuals in a species and with similar habits. a cell nucleus. They comprise A family of plant-eating hoofed can breed with each other to the bacteria and archaea. mammals related to tapirs and produce fertile young. Pikas Small, short-eared relatives horses. Living rhinoceroses are Stegosaurs (STEG-o-SORE-z: of hares and rabbits. They live in Pronghorns Antelope-like North large, thick-skinned quadrupeds “plated/roof lizards”) Four- rocky, mountainous parts of Asia American mammals that shed with a horn or two horns on legged ornithischian dinosaurs – and North America. their horns’ outer covering. their snouts. plant-eaters with two tall rows of Only one species survives today. Rhomboidal Having the shape of bony plates and/or spines Placentals Mammals whose a rhombus (a sloping square). running down the neck, back, unborn young are nourished by Prosauropods Early plant-eating Ribosome A type of particle and tail. a special organ called a placenta. saurischian dinosaurs including making proteins in a cell. Stereoscopic A type of eyesight Placental mammals have big four-legged forms resembling Rodents A group of small or photography where both eyes replaced marsupials in most the sauropods that replaced mammals including mice, rats, or two lenses slightly apart focus parts of the world. them. Prosauropods lived from squirrels, porcupines, and their on an object to give a three- Late Triassic to Early Jurassic extinct ancestors. Rodents have dimensional effect. Placoderms (PLAK-o-dermz: times. sharp front teeth used for Stratigraphy The study of layers “plated skins”) A class of jawed gnawing grains, nuts, and seeds. of sedimentary rock (strata). fish, protected by armorlike Proterozoic The third eon of the Stromatolite A mound made of plates. They flourished in geological timescale, from about S blue-green algae interlaid with Devonian times. 2.5 billion to 540 million years lime “mats.” Stromatolites ago. The first eukaryotes Sacrum Fused vertebrae that are abounded in intertidal waters in Placodonts (PLAK-o-dontz: appeared in this time. joined to the pelvis. Precambrian times, before algae- “plated teeth”) Aquatic reptiles eating sea creatures appeared. of the Triassic period. Some Protozoans A great and varied Sarcopterygians (SAR-KOP-ter-ig- Fossil stromatolites are early “rowed” with paddle-shaped group of tiny one-celled ee-anz: “flesh fins”) The lobe- evidence of widespread life. limbs, others swam with webbed organisms, for example the finned or fleshy-finned bony fish, Supercontinent A prehistoric digits and by waggling their tails. foraminiferans. comprising lungfish, coelacanths, landmass containing two or and so-called rhipidistians more major continental plates. Planarian A type of flatworm often Psittacosaurs (SIT-a-ko-SORE-z including the ancestors of Examples include Gondwana found in freshwater. or si-TAK-o-SORE-z: “parrot all four-legged vertebrates. and Pangea. lizards”) Bipedal, plant-eating Symbiosis The living together of Plastid In a plant cell, a structure Cretaceous dinosaurs with a deep Saurischians (sore-IS-kee-anz: individuals of different species containing pigments, food, or beak somewhat like a parrot’s. “lizard hips”) One of the two that benefit from this other substances. They were ceratopsian major dinosaur groups (see also arrangement. ornithischians related to the Ornithischians). The pelvis of Synapsids The group of tetrapod Platyhelminthes Flat-bodied later neoceratopsians (horned most saurischians is similar to vertebrates that includes the worms, also called flatworms. dinosaurs). that of lizards. extinct pelycosaurs and therapsids, and the therapsids’ Pleistocene The third epoch of the Pterodactyloids (TER-o-DAK-tee- Sauropodomorphs (sore-o-POD-o- descendants – mammals. Neogene period, 1.81 million to loidz) Short-tailed pterosaurs morfz: “lizard-foot forms”) 10,000 years ago. It was marked that replaced long-tailed early Mostly large to immense, four- T by a series of ice ages (really one forms. legged, long-necked, plant-eating ice age with cold and warm saurischian dinosaurs. They Tardigrades Tiny invertebrates phases). Pterosaurs (TER-o-SORE-z: “winged comprised the prosauropods whose bodies are composed of lizards”) Skin-winged, Mesozoic and sauropods. four segments, each bearing a Plesiosaurs (PLEE-SEE-o-SORE-z) flying reptiles – archosaurs related pair of unjointed limbs. They Large Mesozoic marine reptiles to the dinosaurs. Sauropods (SORE-o-podz: “lizard live in damp moss, on flowering that that swam with flipper- feet”) Huge, plant-eating, plants, in sand, in freshwater, shaped limbs. Many were long- Pubis One of the three quadrupedal saurischian and in the sea. necked, reaching lengths of (paired) hip bones. dinosaurs, including the largest- 10–40 ft (3–12 m). ever land animals. They lived Tarsiers Small nocturnal primates Pygidium The tail of a trilobite through most of Mesozoic time. with big eyes and ears, long tails, Pliocene The second epoch of the or certain other kinds of and long hindlegs for leaping Neogene period, about 5.3–1.81 Sauropterygians (SORE-op-te-RIG- from tree to tree. They live in million years ago. The first invertebrate. ee-anz) Mesozoic marine reptiles Southeast Asia. species of the genus Homo Pygostyle The short tailbone of a including the nothosaurs, appeared in this epoch. placodonts, and plesiosaurs. Teleosts A great group of the bird, formed of fused vertebrae. ray-finned bony fish Precambrian The great span of Scutes Bony plates with a horny (actinopterygians). Most time from the Earth’s formation Q covering set in the skin of certain living fish are teleosts. to the Cambrian Period. reptiles to protect them from Scientists divide the Precambrian Quadrupedal Walking on all fours. the teeth and claws of enemies. Temnospondyls (TEM-no-SPON- into three eons. (See Eon.) Quaternary In one dating scheme, dilz: “cut vertebrae”) A group Sediment Material deposited by of early tetrapods including Predator Any animal or plant that the second period of the wind, water, or ice. weak-limbed aquatic fish-eaters preys on animals for food. Cenozoic era, covering the last but also sturdier forms living 1.8 million years. See also Neogene Silurian The third period of the mainly on land. Prehensile Designed to grasp Paleozoic era, about 443.7–416 something by wrapping around R million years ago. It was named Tertiary In one dating scheme, the it. For example, South American after the Silures, an ancient tribe monkeys have prehensile tails. Reconstruction Rebuilding, for in Wales. instance reassembling scattered Preservation Keeping something, fossil bones to reconstruct the Sirenians (sigh-REE-nee-anz) for example a fossil, free from skeleton of an extinct animal. Large plant-eating aquatic harm or decay. Reptiles Lizards, snakes, turtles, Primates The group of mammals crocodiles, dinosaurs, and their that includes lemurs, monkeys, extinct and living relatives. apes, humans, and their ancestors. Primitive At an early stage of evolution or development. 364

GLOSSARY first period of the Cenozoic era, into three lobes. Variations in ADDITIONAL about 65–1.8 million years ago. trilobite shapes and features are See also Paleogene; Neogene. an accurate indicator of the age PRONUNCIATION GUIDE Tetanurans (TET-a-NYOOR-anz: of the sediments in which they “stiff tails”) The major group of are found. Acanthostega (le-SOH-toh-SAWR-us: theropod dinosaurs. Tylopods (TIE-lo-podz: “padded (a-kan-tho-STEEG-uh: “Lesotho lizard”) Tetrapods (TETRA-podz: “four feet”) Artiodactyl (even-toed), “spiky roof”) Macrauchenia (mack-row-CHEE- feet”) Four-legged vertebrates hoofed mammals including nee-uh: “big llama” or “big neck”) and those two-legged and camels, the llama, alpaca, Aepycamelus Mastodonsaurus (MAS-toe-don- limbless vertebrates descended guanaco, and vicuña, and (ee-pi-CAMEL-us: saw-rus: “mastodon lizard”) from them. their extinct relatives. “high/lofty camel”) Meganeura (meg-uh--NUR-us) Thecodonts (THEEK-o-DONT-z: Tyrannosaurids (ti-RAN-o-SORE- Megatherium “socket-teeth”) A mixed group idz: “tyrant lizards”) A family Archaeopteryx (meg-uh-THEER-ee-um: of archosaurs including various of huge, bipedal, carnivorous (AHR-kee-OP-ter-iks: “big beast”) extinct forms, among them the dinosaurs: tetanuran theropods “ancient wing, feather”) Metriorhynchus ancestors of dinosaurs, with large heads, short arms, (met-ree-oh-RINK-us) crocodilians, and pterosaurs. two-fingered hands, and massive Australopithecus afarensis Miacis (my-ASS-is) Therapsids (ther-AP-sidz: hindlimbs. They flourished (AWS-tra-lo-pith-ee-cus: Moeritherium “mammal arches”) Prehistoric in Late Cretaceous North “southern ape from Afar”) (moh-rih-THEER-ee-um) synapsids that included America and Asia. Morganucodon cynodonts, the immediate Caudipteryx (kaw-DIP-ter-iks (more-gan-OOH-kud-don) ancestors of mammals. They U or kaw-dip-TAYR-iks Oviraptor (OH-vi-RAP-tor: lived from Early Permian to or KAW-dee-tayr-iks: “egg robber”) Mid-Jurassic times. Ungulates Hoofed mammals. “tail wing, feather”) Pachycephalosaurus Theropods (THER-o-podz: “beast Unspecialized Not specialized – (pak-i-SEF-a-lo-SAWR-us: feet”) The predatory dinosaurs, Cheirolepis (kyr-o-LEE-pis) “thick-headed lizard”) many armed with sharp teeth not adapted, or set apart, for Cladoselache (clade-o-su-LAK-e) Panderichthys (pan-der-ICK-theez) and claws. They ranged from a specific purpose. Coelurosauravus Paraceratherium hen-sized creatures to the (para-sair-uh-THEER-ee-um) colossal tyrannosaurids. V (seel-uro-sawr-AV-us) Phacops (fake-OPS) Thylacines (THIE-la-seenz: Compsognathus Phenacodus (fenn-ah-co-DUSS) “pouched”) Also called Vendian The former name of the Plateosaurus (PLAT-ee-o-SAWR-us Tasmanian wolves, these were last Precambrian period of (komp-SOG-na-thus “broad, strong lizard”) foxlike marsupials. Until about Earth history, now called or KOMP-sog-NAY-thus: Platybelodon 10,000 years ago, they were the Ediacaran, about 630–542 “elegant jaw”) (plat-ee-BELL-uh-don) found on the mainland of million years ago. Many-celled Confuciusornis Plesiadapis (ples-ee-ah-DAP-is) Australia and New Guinea. Ediacaran-type creatures appeared (con-foo-shush-OR-nis: Psittacosaurus (SIT-a-ko-SAWR-us The last known thylacine was in the sea during this period. “Confucius bird”) or si-TAK-o-SAWR-us: captured in 1930 in Tasmania. Corythosaurus “parrot lizard”) Thyreophorans (THIHR-ee-OFF-o- Vertebrates Animals with an (ko-RITH-o-SAWR-us Pteranodon (TAIR-an-oh-don: ranz: “shield bearers”) Four- internal bony or cartilaginous or KOR-i-tho-SAWR-us: “wing, no teeth”) legged, plant-eating dinosaurs skeleton including a skull and a “helmet lizard”) Pteraspis (TAIR-as-pis) comprising the armored backbone made up of vertebrae Daeodon (DAY-oh-don) Pterygotus (tear-ee-GOTE-us) ankylosaurs, plated stegosaurs, or Dinohyus (dine-oh-high-us) Scelidosaurus (SKEL-i-do-SAWR-us: and their close relatives. Vertebrae (singular: vertebra) The Deinonychus (dine-on-EE-kus: “hindleg lizard”) Titanosaurs (tie-TAN-o-SORE-z: linked bones forming the “terrible claw”) Sinokannemeyeria “gigantic lizards”) Very large, backbones of vertebrate animals. Diadectes (DIE-a-deck-teez) (SIEN-o-kanna-may-urh-ee-a) four-legged, plant-eating According to what part of a Dilophosaurus Styracosaurus dinosaurs. The titanosaurs were backbone they form, scientists (die-loph-UH-saw-rus: (STIHR-a-ko-SAWR-us sauropods and included perhaps describe them as cervical (neck), “double-crested lizard”) or stie-RAK-o-SAWR-us: the largest land animals ever. dorsal (back), sacral (hip), and Diplocaulus (dip-low-COR-luss) “spiked lizard”) Topography The surface of the caudal (tail) vertebrae. Dunkleosteus (dunk-lee-OS-tee-us) Suchomimus (SOOK-o-MIEM-us: land, including its variations Echioceras (eck-ee-o-SAIR-us: “crocodile mimic”) in height. Viscera Organs inside the body “spiky horn”) Tanystropheus Trace fossils Traces left by cavity, for example the intestines, Edmontonia (tan-ee-STROFE-ee-us: prehistoric creatures. They heart, and liver. (ed-mon-TOHN-ee-a: “stretched joints”) include fossil burrows, footprints, “from Edmonton”) Therizinosaurus eggs, droppings, bite marks, and W Elephas falconeri (ele-FAS (THER-i-ZIN-o-SAWR-us: fossil impressions of skin, hair ful-con-ear-ee) “reaping lizard”) and feathers. Warm-blooded Keeping body Epigaulus (ep-ee-GAW-lus) Theropithecus Triassic The first period of the temperature at a constant level, Eryops (eer-EE-ops: “long face”) (THAIR-oh-pith-ee-cus) Mesozoic era, about 251–199.6 often above or below that of the Estemmenosuchus Thrinaxodon (thrin-AX-uh-don) million years ago. Dinosaurs surroundings. (es-tem-EE-nah-soo-kus) Thylacosmilus emerged in the Triassic period. Euoplocephalus (thigh-LACK-uh-smy-lus) Triconodonts (try-KON-o-dontz Z (YOO-o-plo-SEF-a-lus: Tuojiangosaurus “three cone teeth”) An extinct “well-armoured head”) (too-JUNG-uh-saw-rus) group of primitive mammals, Zone fossils (index fossils) Types Herrerasaurus Uintatherium known across North America, of fossil useful for determining (he-RER-a-SAWR-us: (u-IN-tah-theer-ee-um: and from Europe to China. the relative ages of rocks, and “Herrera’s lizard”) “Uintah beast”) Trilobites (TRY-lo-bite-z: “three matching the ages of rocks from Hylonomus (hiy-LON-uh-mus: Zalambdalestes lobed”) Paleozoic marine different parts of the world. “forest mouse”) (za-LAMB-duh-less-tees) arthropods with external Icaronycteris skeletons divided lengthwise (ick-ah-row-NICK-ter-is) Ichthyosaurus (ick-THEE-uh-SAWR-us: “fish lizard”) Lepidotes (lep-ee-DOTE-eez) Lesothosaurus 365

REFERENCE SECTION INDEX In this index main see fossil hunting, Araucaria 343 afarensis 230, 231, 351 Beipiao lizard entries for each subject amateur archaea 14 africanus 230, 347 see Beipiaosaurus are shown in bold type. amber 343 Archaeocetes 273 boisei 231, 316 Beipiaosaurus 127 Scientific names are Ambulocetus 274 archaeocyathans 280 habilis (formerly Homo Belemnitella 339 given in italics. American pouched Archaeopteris 286 habilis) 231, 316 belemnites 30–1, 296, mammals (marsupials) Archaeopteryx 138, 140–1, robustus 231 339 A 208–9, 324 297 aye-ayes 227 Belemnoteuthis 31 Ameridelphia 208 Archaeotherium 264 azhdarchids 99 bennettitaleans 296, 343 aardvark (living) 245 amids 37 Archaoethyris 68 Bennettitales 297 Abel, Roberto 110 amino acids 344 Archelon 74, 75 B Betula (living) 298 abelisaurids 110–11, 117 ammonites 10, 13, 30–1, Archimylacris 29 Betulites 298 Abel’s lizard see 338 Archonta 224 babies Bible 10 abelisaurids ammonoids 286, 289, archontans 195 dinosaurs 182 bichirs (living) 48 Abelisaurus 110 294 archosauromorphs 88, ichthyosaurs 86, 87 Bienosaurus 168 Abrigo do Lagar Velho, amniotes 35, 57, 66, 89, 94 mammoths 262 Bienotherium 203 Portugal 236 68–9, 194 archosaurs 71, 76, 88, psittacosaurs 187 big leg lizard acanthodians 46, 284 amniotic egg 35, 68 90, 92, 294 see also eggs, hatchlings see Barapasaurus Acanthostega 56, 58, 59, amphibians 341 Argentavis magnificens baboons 229 big lizard 286 cladogram 56–7 144 bacteria 14, 15 see Megalosaurus Acara (living) 51 see also under Argentinosaurus 117, 160 Bakh, A.N. 354 big llama Acer 304 individual names argyrolagids 209 Bakker, Robert 344 see Macrauchenia Acheulian culture 233 Amphicoelias 155 Argyrolagus 209 Balaenoptera musculus bilaterians 32 actinopterygians amynodontids 256 arm lizard 311 biogeography 233 48, 288 anagalids 242 see Brachiosaurus Bambiraptor 136, 137 biomolecules 344 adapids 226, 227 Anapsida 341 armadillos (living) baphetids 56 biostratigraphy 326 adaptive radiation 354 anapsids 341 210, 211 Baragwanathia 285 bipedal plant-eaters Aegyptopithecus 304 anatomy of fossils 159, armor plates/armored Barapasaurus 152 166–7 Aepycamelus 266, 267 319, 320 dinosaurs 160, 161, Barghoorn, Elso 344 birch tree (living) 298 aerial photographs 312 ancestral ox 164, 168–9, 174–5, bark (Lepidodendron) Bird, Roland T. 345 aetosaurs 90, 91 see Bos primigenius 176–7 322 bird-hipped dinosaurs Afrovenator 112 ancient wing fish 34, 36, 40–1, 340 Barosaurus 149, 154, 155 see ornithischians Agassiz, Douglas 344 see Archaeopteryx glyptodonts 211 making replica display birds 35, 88, 142–3, Age of the Amphibians Andrews, Roy Chapman placodonts 80, 81 model 149, 331 144–5, 341 341 317, 344 reptiles 91, 92 Barrande, Joachim 345 and dinosaurs 133, 348, age of coal 289 Andrew’s flesh-eater trilobites 24 Barsbold, Rinchen 345 350, 354 Age of Cycads 296 see Andrewsarchus turtles 74 Barsboldia 345 ancestors of 103, 120, Age of the Dinosaurs Andrewsarchus 272, 273 arsinoitheres 250 Barton, Otis 345 133 102 Andrias 64 Arsinoitherium 250 Baryonyx 114, 115 bones/skull 139 Age of Fish 42 angiosperms 298, 343 arthrodires 41 Basilosaurus 274, 275, cladogram 138–9 Age of Reptiles 294 ankylosaurids 174, Arthropleura 68 303 closest relatives 138 ages 327 176–7 arthropods 15, 23, 28, bathysphere 345 evolution 139, 296, agnathans 38 ankylosaurs 168, 174, 345 Batodon 224 297 Ailuropoda melanoleuca 175 Cambrian period 280, bats 222–3, 224–5, 302 flightless 144, 302, 311 annelids 23 281 fish-eating 225 303, 305, 308, 310 Alberta lizard see Anning, Mary 344 Silurian 284, 286 fruit-eating 225 living 139, 144 Albertosaurus Anomalocaris 15 artiodactyls 195, 264, horseshoe 225 skeleton 138 Albertosaurus 125 Antarctica 305, 307 266, 267 vampire 225 Birkenia 284 Alectrosaurus 125 anteaters (living) 210 asioryctitheres 213 Bavarisaurus 120 Bison priscus 270 algae (singular alga) antelopes 270, 271 Aspidorhynchus 297 HMS Beagle 16, 347 bivalves 339 284, 322, 324, 342 anthracosaurs 57, 66 asteroid impact 300, 301 beaks blue-green algae 282 see also blue-green Anthropoidea 228 Asterophyllites 342 bird 303 blowholes 275 algae, green algae anthropoids 228 Atlantic Ocean 25, 297 dinosaurs 103, 166, body fossils 12 Alioramus 125 antilocaprids 271 atoms 328 175, 178, 182 Bonaparte, José 110 allosaurs 104, 116 Antilophrax 251 neutrons 328 ornithomimids 122 bones Allosaurus 116, 118, 119, antlers 268 nucleus 328 rhynchosaurs 89 and diseases 321 149 antorbital fenestra 71 protons 328 pterosaurs 95 and injuries 321 jaws 116 anurognathids 94 Auca Mahuevo, turtles 74 dinosaurs 102, 156, skeleton 102–3, 116 apatemyids 227 Argentina 161 bear-dogs 220 158 Alphadon 208 Apatosaurus 149, 153, aurochs 270 bears (living) 214, 220, replica 330 alula 138, 139, 143 155, 349 Australia 221 see also dentary bone, Alvarez, Luis and Walter apes 228, 230, 232 pouched mammals beast teeth palprebal bone, 344 aquatic animals (marsupials) 206–7, 324 see theriodonts pteroid bone, alvarezsaurids 142 fossil timeline 279–311 australopithecines beavers 239, 305 rostral bone Alxasaurus 126 aquatic plants 230–1, 352 Beebe, William 345 bony club amateur fossil collecting fossil timeline 282 Australopithecus 230–1, beetles, water 28 see tail club arachnids 289 232 bony fish 48, 50, 286, Araripemys 74 aethiopicus 231 288 366

INDEX classification 340 C cats saurischians 104–5 spruce 308 cladograms 34, 36, 37 cattle 270–1 synapsids 194–5 Confucius bird bony plates caecilians 64 wild (living) 270 vertebrates 34–5 see Confuciusornis ankylosaurs 168, 174, Caipora 229 Caudipteryx 132–3, 136 Cladoselache 44 Confuciusornis 142, 175, 176 Calamites 288 cave paintings 263, Cladosictis 208 143 placoderms 40, 41 calcichordates 32 270 classes 18 confuciusornithids spiny sharks 47 calcium carbonate 312 caviomorphs 238 classification 18–19, 138 stegosaurs 168, 170, Callixylon 286 Cedarosaurus 158 352 conifers 322, 342 172, 173 camarasaurids 157 Cenozoic era 144, 278 Claudiosaurus 77 ancestors of 286 thyreophorans 168 Camarasaurus 156, 157 centipedes 284 claws fossil timeline 288, bony scutes 92, 160, 164, Cambrian centrosaurines 190 Baryonyx 114 290, 294, 296, 298, 168, 169, 211 and evolution 23 Centrosaurus 125, 190 hoatzin (living) 141 302, 304 bony “swords” 114 common index fossils Cephalaspis 38 hoofed mammal 255 conodonts 33, 283 boomerang head 327 cephalochordates 33 Plateosaurus 150 continental drift 290, see Diplocaulus explosion 15, 280 cephalopods 30 retracted (carnivore) 357 boreholes 327 period 278, 280–1 Cerapoda 165 214 continental Borhyaena 208 plants 342 cerapods 165 celidosaurus 168 plates/continents, borhyaenoids 208 camels 266–7 Ceratodus 52 Therizinosaurus 126 movement of 13, 323 saber-toothed 208 camera lucida 319 ceratopsians 165, 185, Troodon 136 Cooksonia 284 borophagines 220 Camptonotus 178 186 clays 312 Cope, Edward Drinker Bos primigenius 270, 271 Camptosaurus 178, 179 ceratopsids 188, 190 Cleveland-Lloyd 346 bosses, on skin 73 Candiacervus 240 ceratosaurs 104, 105, Dinosaur Quarry, Utah copying fossils Bothriolepis 40, 340 caniforms 220–1 108, 110 119 see reconstructing fossils bovoids 266, 269, 270 canine-like teeth 70, 71 Ceratosaurus 108, 110 climate coral 338 bowfins 37 canine teeth cereal crops 310, 311 see Earth facts boxes in fossil timeline 288, 292, brachiopods 23, 282, dinosaurs 167 cetaceans 195, 274 fossil timeline 278–311 293, 294 284, 288, 290, 339 mammals 196, 198, 199, Cetiosaurus 152 climate, reconstructing Cordaites 289 brachiosaurids 158, 160 200, 201, 242, 272 chalicotheres 126, ancient 323 Coryphodon 213 Brachiosaurus 153, see also carnassials 254–5 Climatiiformes 46 Corythosaurus 182, 183, 158–9 Canis dirus 220, 221, chalk 312, 324 Climatius 46, 47 299, 325 brachyopoids 61 324 chambered lizard cloning 311 Cothurnocystis 32, 33 Branchiostoma 33 capitosaurs 61 see Camarasaurus club mosses 68, 322, crabs 286, 298 brain captorhinids 70 chamosaurines 191 342 craniates 33 australopithecines 230 carbon-14 (C-14)isotope Champsosaurus 77 fossil timeline 288, Cranioceras 269 dinoceratans 241 327, 352 Chaoyangsaurus 186 290 Crassatella 339 dinosaurs 136, 159, Carboniferous Charniodiscus 14 cnidarians 22 Crassigyrinus 66, 67 171 period 278, 288–9 Cheiracanthus 47 coal 11, 62, 342 creodonts 215 Homo species 233, 235 plants 322, 342, 343 cheirolepidids 37 coccolith 324 crests see head crests mammals 213 swamp forest 11, 62–3 Cheirolepis 48, 49 cockroaches 29 Cretaceous Branisella 229 trees 69 chelicerates 26 coelacanths 34, 298, 340 common index fossils breeding Carcharocles 45 chelonians 74 (living) 52, 53 327 genetic manipulation carcharodontosaurids chewing the cud 266, Coelodonta 257 mass extinction 300–1 311 117 269 Coelophysis 108, 347 period 278, 298–9 see also cross-breeding Carcharodontosaurus 117 Chiappe, Luis 346 coelurosaurs 105, 120, plants 298–9, 322, 323, Briggs, Derek 345 Caribbean Sea 306 chicken mimic 122 342 brithopodids 198, 199 Carinatae 139 see Gallimimus Coelurosaurus 76, 77 Crick, James 346, 357 Brongniart, Alexandre carnassials 214, 216, Chicxulub Crater 301 Colbert, Edwin H. 347 crinoids 285, 288, 296, 346 217, 218 chimaeras 36 cold-blooded 339 Brontops 254, 255 see also canine teeth chimps 230 crocodilians 92 crocodiles 90, 115 Brontosaurus 149, 155 Carnegie Quarry, Utah Chondrichthyes 44 Collenia 279 crocodylomorphs 71, brontotheres 243, see Douglass Quarry, chondrosteans 37 colobids 229 92–3, 294 254–5 Utah chordates 15, 22, 32, common index fossils crocodylotarsians 90, 91 Brown, Barnum 345 carnivorans 214-15 280 327 Cro-Magnons 236 browsers 267 carnivores 202, 213, choristoderes 76, 77 Como Bluff, Wyoming cross-breeding bryozoans 290, 338 219 Christmas, Erwin 332 317 grasses 311 Buckland, William 113, cladogram 194 see also chronometric dating comparative dating 326 crustaceans 298 346 meat-eaters, predators 328–9 Compsognathus 120, 121, cryptoclidids 84 Buettneria 60 carnosaurs 116–117 cichlid (living) 51 297 cryptodires 75 Buffetaut, Eric 346 Carnotaurus 110, 111 Cistecephalus 201 computer generated Crystal Palace, London Buffon, Georges-Louis carpoids 32 civets (living) 216 imaging (CGi) 333 332, 354 de 346 cartilage 36, 44 Clack, Jennifer 346 computer modeling for ctenophores 22 buoyancy 50 cartilaginous fish 34, 36, clades 17, 18, 19 reconstructions 333 CT-scan images 318, 321 Burgess Shale 15, 280, 340 cladistics 18, 350 computerized Currie, Philip J. 347 281, 345, 357 casting see under models cladograms 8, 17, 19 tomography (CT) 321 Cuvier, Georges 347 burrowing catarrhines 228 amphibians 56–7 concretions 312 Cyathocrinites 339 dicynodonts 201 catfish 307 birds 138–9 Condylarthra 244 cycads 322, 342 rodents 238, 239 cats 216–17 early tetrapods 56–7 condylarths 245 fossil timeline 288, 290, buttercups 309 (living) 214, 217 fish 36–7 cones 294, 296, 298 see also saber-toothed invertebrates 22–3 club moss 322 Cycas (living) 296 ornithischians 164–5 conifer 342 Cylindroteuthis 31 reptiles 70–1 cordaite 289 cynodonts 195, 294, 367

REFERENCE SECTION 202–3 different lizard see dromaeosaurids see Compsognathus reptiles 71 Cynognathus 202, 294 Allosaurus 134–5, 138 elements 328 saurischians 105 different-tooth lizard Dromiceiomimus 122 elephant bird 144 synapsids 194, 195 D see Heterodontosaurus dryosaurs 179 Elephantidae 306 tetrapods 57 digits (fingers, toes) 56, Dryosaurus 178, 179 elephant-shrews (living) vertebrates 35 dace (living) 306 58, 59, 98, 286 dsungaripterids 98 212 evolutionary Daeodon (formerly digs, fossil 313 Dubois, Eugene 348 elephants 240, 250, relationships 320 Dinohyus) 264, 265 Diictodon 201 duck-billed dinosaurs 258–9, 306 excavation of fossils damselfish (living) 51 Dilophosaurus 109 see hadrosaurs dwarf 241 protective gear 314 Dana, James Dwight 347 “Dima” 262 duck-billed platypus (living) 260, 262 removing/freeing from Dart, Raymond 347 Dimetrodon 196–7, 199, (living) 205 see also mammoths rock 314, 315, 318, 319 Darwin, Charles 16, 17, 203, 290 dugong (living) 309 Elephas falconeri 241 techniques 314–15 246, 347 Dimorphodon 94, 95, Dunkle, D.H. 41 Elginerpeton 58 tools 314 dating 96–7 Dunkle’s bony one Elginia 72 transporting fossils 314, chronometric 328–9 dinocephalians 76, 198 see Dunkleosteus Elrathia 338 315 comparative 326–7 dinoceratans 242–3 Dunkleosteus 41, 42 elytra 28 wrapping fossils 315 fission-track 329 Dinofelis 216, 217 Dutuitosaurus 60 Emausaurus 168 see also stabilization of radiocarbon 329, 352 Dinohyus Embolotherium 255 fossils radiometric 328 see Daeodon E embryos 22, 68, 156, 354 expeditions, fossil using microfossils 327 dinosaur displays emmer 311 finding 312, 313 Daubentonia see reconstructing ear bones 194, 195, 200, emu mimic exposure of rocks 313 madagascariense 227 fossils, restoring fossils 302 see Dromiceiomimus extinction 10 daubentoniids 227 Dinosauria 348 early horns enantiornithines 139, caused by humans 308, dawn little-wing dinosaurs 102–3, 298, see protoceratids 142 310 bird see Eoalulavis 344, 355 earth lizard entelodonts 264, 265 see also mass extinctions De Pauw, Louis 348 and birds 144 see Edaphosaurus environments 11, 324 eyes deceptive lizard extinction of 300–1, earth-shaking lizard Eoalulavis 143 ichthyosaurs 87 see Apatosaurus 344 see Seismosaurus Eobasileus 242 insects 28 decay processes 328 first 294 earthworms 23 Eocene epoch 278, pterosaurs 95 deciduous trees 302, heaviest 151, 158 Eastmanosteus 287 302–3 trilobites 25, 280 304 largest 152, 176 ecdysozoans 23 Eoraptor 106 Troodon (dinosaur) 136 deer 240, 268–9 longest 155 echinoderms 22, 32, Epigaulus 238, 239 Deinogalerix 225 rule of 296 288 epitheres 195 F Deinonychus 134–5 see also under individual echinoids 339 epoccipitals 190 Deinosuchus 92, 93 types of dinosaur Echioceras 30, 31 epochs 327 families 18 deinotheres 259 Diplocaulus 64, 65 echolocation 274 Equisetites 288 fan sails 52 Deinotherium 259 diplodocids 149, 154–5 ecological niches 324 Equisetum (living) 286 Farlow, Jim 348 Dendrerpeton 60 Diplodocus 154–5 ecosystems 11, 324, 325 Equus 243 feathers 132, 140 dentary bone 202, 203 diploe 258 Ecphora 339 eras 278, 327 Archaeopteryx 140 deoxyribonucleic acid Diprotodon 206, 207, 309 Ectoconus 245 Eremotherium 210 dinosaurs 132–3, 134, see DNA diprotodontids 206 Edaphosaurus 197, 290 Erlikosaurus 127 135, 137 Derbyia 290 Diptera 350 Edentata 210 erosion 10, 13, 313 evolution of 105 derived characters Dipterus 286 Ediacara 279 Eryopids 63 feathery filaments, 17, 18, 19 Discosauriscus 67 Ediacara fauna 14, 317, Eryops 11, 63 dinosaur 127, 135 Desmana moschata 224 diversification 17 349, 356 estemmenosuchids 199 feet desmans 224 DNA (deoxyribonucleic Ediacara Hill, Estemmonosuchus 198, 199 see hoofed mammals Desmatosuchus 91 acid) 14, 17, 346, 357 Australia 14, 317 Estonioceras 282 feliforms 216–17 desmostylians 195, humans 236 Edmonton’s lizard eukaryotes 14, 279 Felinae 217 251 mammoths/ see Edmontonia nucleus 14 fenestrae 72 deuterostomes 22 elephants 262 Edmontonia 174, 175 organelles 14 ferns 68, 322, 342 Devil’s corkscrews 239 whales/hippos 274 Edmontosaurus 103 eumetazoans 32 fossil timeline 288, 296, Devonian dodo 310 Edwards, Dianne 348 Euoplocephalus 176, 177 298, 299 age of fish 42 Doedicurus 211 egg-laying monotremes Euramerica 289, 291 see also seed ferns period 278, 286–7 dog jaw see monotremes, egg- eurypterids 26 Ficus 303 plants 322, 342 see Cynognathus laying Eurypterus 26 figs 303 Diadectes 66, 67 dog teeth Egg Mountain, Montana Eusthenopteron 53, 58 filter feeders 282 diadectomorphs see cynodonts 351 Eustreptospondylus 112 finding fossils 35, 57, 66 dogs 214, 220–1 egg thief Evernia prunastri 310 see fossil finding Diadiaphorus 247 Dollo, Louis 348 see Oviraptor evolution 14–15, 16–17, finger nails 229 Diapsida 341 Dolly the sheep 311 eggs/eggshells 68 319 fingers diapsids 71, 76–7 dolphin (living) 306 dinosaur 130, 150, 161, birds 139 see digits Diatryma Dong Zhi-ming 348 182, 349, 351, 354 by jumps 17 fins 34, 37, 340 see Gastornis dormice 240 Elasmobranchii 36 Darwin’s theory 16, 347 fish 37, 41, 47, 49 Dicellopyge 294 Dorudon 275 elasmosaurs 84 fish 37 ichthyosaurs 86 Dickinsonia 279 double beams Elsmosaurus 84, 85 human 347, 349 mosasaurs 79 dicynodonts 76, 200–1 see diplodocids Elasmotherium 256 insects 28–9 first arrivals of different didolodontids 244 Douglass, Earl 348 Eldredge, Niles 348, invertebrates 23 prehistoric life on Didolodus 244 Douglass Quarry, Utah 349 limbs and digits 59 Earth 279 Didymictis 214 348 elegant jaw living animals 16 fish 304, 340, 344 Draco 77 ornithischians 165 dragonflies 28 plants 322 368

INDEX first 32 famous 316–17 geographic isolation H see Aepycamelus cladograms 34–5, 36–7 mapping 315 324 Hill, Dorothy 350 evolution of 37 recording 315 geological maps 312, habitats 11, 324, 325 Himalayas 305, 307 with “arms” 40 walking, to spot fossils 334, 356 hadrosaurs 182–3, 299 Hipparion 146, 252–3, see also under different 33 geological time Haeckel, Ernst 349 304 types of fish fossil timeline 278–311 chart/timescale 278, hagfish 36, 38 Hippopotamus 264 fission-track dating 329 fossils 12–13 326 Haikouella 33 lemerlei 264 Flaming Cliffs, Gobi cataloging fossils 318 subdivisons of 327 Halecostomi 37 hippopotamuses Desert 317 cleaning fossils 318 geology 313, 346, 353 halkieriids 281 (hippos) 240, 264–5 flat lizard common 327 see also geological entries Hall, James 349 Histoire Naturelle see Plateosaurus displays in museums and comparative dating Hallucigenia 15 (Natural History) 346 flatworms 22 358–9 gharials (living) 92 hand fin Hitchcock, Edward 350 flight finding age of 326 giant lizard see Titanis see Cheirolepis hoatzin (living) 141 bats 224 formation of 13 gigantic lizards hands hollow-tail lizard birds 139 identifying fossils 337 see titanosaurs Camptosaurus 179 see coelurosaurs insects 28, 29 illustration of fossils giant pandas five digits 56 Holocene epoch 278 flippers 79, 82, 83 319 see pandas Iguanodon 180 holocephalans 36 flowering plants 183, in the lab 318–19 giant southern lizard psittacosaurs 186 holochroal eyes 25 309, 322 index 327 see Gigantosaurus saurischians 104, 105 Homalocephale 184 footprints 58, 148, 312, mass death 60 Gigantosaurus 117 see also digits Home Quarry, Wyoming 352 models of fossils Gillicus 51 hatchlings (dinosaur) 345 Foraminifera 324, 327 Gilmore, Charles 150, 182, 184, 344, 351 hominids 232, 234, 236, forest mouse see models of Whitney 349 Hayden, Ferdinand 350 347, 349, 351, 352 see Hylonomus prehistoric life Ginkgo (living) 294 head chordate Homo 232–3, 308 forests myths about fossils 10 ginkgos 290, 294, 296, see cephalochordates erectus 232, 233, 234, bamboo 311 naming fossils 317, 319 298 head crests 348 coniferous 308 restoration of 319 Giraffa camelopardalis 269 dinosaurs 109, 117, ergaster 232, 233, 316, destruction of by restoring fossil animals giraffes 268, 269 183, 299 348 humans 310 332–3 giraffids 268, 269 pterodactyloids 98, 99 habilis (now rain forests 308 scientific descriptions gizzard stones 159, 187, head shields 39, 281, Australopithecus habilis) temperate 302, 304, of 319 320 340 231, 316 305, 306, 307, 310 studying 320–1 Glaessner, Martin 349 heavy lizard heidelbergensis 234, 236 tropical 288, 302 types of 12 gliding 77 see Barosaurus neanderthalensis 234, fossil anatomy 319, 320 see also excavation of glires 194 hedgehogs 224, 225 235 fossil animals, restoring fossils, stabilization of glossopterids 294 Heilmann, Gerhard 350 rhodesiensis 234 332–3 fossils Glossopteris 290, 323 Heliobatis 45 sapiens 234, 236–7, 308 fossil blocks 314, 315 fossilization 13, 356 Glossotherium 210 Heliospongia 293 Homotherium 217 fossil collecting four-limbed vertebrates glyptodonts 210, 211 Hemiaster 339 hooves/hoofed see fossil hunting 286, 287 gnathostomes 34, 36 Hemipristis 340 mammals fossil deposit 11 frills 189, 190, 191 goats 270–1 Hennig, Willi 18, 350 camels 266 fossil digs 313 frogs 64, 294, 341 Gobi Desert, Mongolia Henodus 81 even-toed 264 fossil expeditions fur 92, 308 317, 344 herbivores odd-toed 254–5 see fossil finding fused lizards gomphotheres 259, 260 camels 266 predators 272–3 fossil finding 10, 312–13 see ankylosaurs Gomphotherium 259 caniforms 220 primitive 244–5 see also excavation Gondwana deer 268 South American 246–7 of fossils G fossil timeline 281, 283, diprotodonids 206 three-toed 252 fossil hunters 285, 287, 289, 291 first (diadectomorphs) ungulates 195 see fossil finding Galápagos Islands 16, Goniatites 289 66 Hoplophorus 211 fossil hunting, amateur 347 Goniopholis 341 horses 304 Hopson, James 351 334–5, 336–7 Gallimimus 103, 123, 320 good strong fin Iguanodon 181 horn cores cataloging and labeling Galton, Peter 348 see Eusthenopteron xenarthrans 210 bovoids 270 fossils 336, 337 gars (living) 17, 49 gorillas 230 see also plant-eaters horned dinosaurs 17, cleaning fossils 337 Gaston, Robert 176 Gould, Stephen Jay 349 herds 344 165, 184, 185 clothing 335 Gastonia 176 Graeophonus 289 and trackways 325 advanced 190–1 equipment and tools Gastornis (formerly Granger, Walter 349 dinosaurs 162, 182, 191 early 188–9 335, 337 Diatryma) 303 graptolites 283, 284 Herrera’s lizard horned lizard examining fossils 337 gastropods grasses 304, 306, 310 see Herrerasaurus see ceratosaurs field notes 337 see under molluscs grasslands 248, 252, 304, Herrerasaurus 106, 107 Horner, John 351 fixing fossils 337 Gauthier, Jacques 348 306, 308 Hesperocyon 220 horns (dinosaurs) geological maps 334 Gavialis (living) 92 grazers/grazing Hesperornis 142, 341 abelisaurids 110 places to look for fossils gavials (living) 92 mammals 270–1, 304, hesperornithiforms 139 ankylosaurs 174, 176 336 gelada (living) 228 306 Heterodontosaurus 164, ceratopsomorphs 190 research and reference Gemuendina 40 living 267 167 ceratosaurs 108 334 Genasauria 164 Great auk 308 Hexaprotodon 264 dinoceratans 242, 243 safe practices 335 genealogical tree 349 green algae 282, 284 hide Neoceratopsia 188, 189 sieving for fossils 336 genera (singular genus) groupings of living crocodiles 168 paleomerycids 269 storage of fossils 337 18, 352 things 18, 19 dinosaurs 168, 172, protoceratids 268 wrapping fossils 336 Genera Plantarum 352 guenons 229 173, 175 horns (mammal) fossil sites genetics 17, 311 gymnosperms 288, 290, high camel arsinoitheres 250 excavating genets (living) 216 296, 298 bovoids 270 see excavation of fossils Gyracanthus 46 brontotheres 254, 369

REFERENCE SECTION 255 see Climatius K lignite 68 typical 194 dinocephalians 198 index fossils 318, 327 limbs 56, 58 mammals 194 lepospondyls 64 Indosaurus 110 kannemeyeriines 200 first development 35, ancestors of 202 meiolaniids 74 Indosuchus 110 Kentrosaurus 170, 171 287 biggest known 256, 272 mylagaulids 238 inheritance 17 keratin 256 limestone 283, 312, 339, first 204–5 pronghorns 271 insectivores 195, 224–5 Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia 342 fossil timeline 341 rhinos 256 see also xenarthrans 210 351 Linnaeus, Carolus 18, hoofed see hoofed antlers insects 28–9, 286 king of the tyrant lizards 19, 352 horses 304, 252–3 in amber 343 see Tyrannosaurus rex Linné, Carl von mammals (living) 243, 253 largest flying 68 kingdoms 18 see Linnaeus, Carolus placental see placental horseshoe crabs 286 invertebrates Knight, Charles 332, 351 lions, marsupial 207 horsetails 68, 284, 288, 338–9, 351 Kronosaurus 82, 83 Liopleurodon 82 mammals/placentals 290, 342 cladogram 22–3 K-T boundary 344 lipotyphlans 224 pouched see marsupials Hovasaurus 77 evolution of 23 Kvabebihyrax 251 Liquidambar 307 Howe Ranch, Wyoming iridium 301, 344 lissamphibians 35, 57, (pouched mammals) 345 Irritator 114 L 64–5 second fastest 271 humans 226, 232, 236–7, Isan lizard litopterns 244, 246, 247 strange joint see 306, 308 see Isanosaurus laboratory little shield lizard ancestors of modern Isanosaurus 152 (paleontology) 318–19 see Scutellosaurus xernarthrans 230–1 attavipachi 346 safety equipment 319 liverworts 284 see also living mammal art 236, 237 island giants and dwarfs use of acids 319 living mammal groups groups hunting/causing 240–1 lagomorphs 212, 238, egg-laying monotremes mammoths 262–3, 316 extinctions 308, 310, isotopes 328, 329 239 204, 205, 212 Mammuthus 311 half-life 328 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste placentals 204, 210, 212 imperator 263 origins in Africa 237 351 pouched (marsupials) primigenius 262, 263 tools 236 J Lambe, Lawrence 351 206, 207, 208, 209, 212 mangabeys 229 see also hominids, Homo lambeosaurs 183 lizard-hipped dinosaurs maniraptorans 105, 122, Hutton, James 350 Jacobson’s organ 78 Lambeosaurus 183 see saurischians 132, 135, 136, 140 Huxley, Thomas 351 Java Man 348 lambei 351 lizards 71 mantle, belemnites 31 hyenas 214, 216 jawed fish 37, 40, 284, lamp shells (living) 290 gliding (living) 77 Mantell, Gideon 180 Hyaeodon 215 286 lampreys 34, 36, 38 Lizzie the lizard 67 Mantelliceras 338 Hybodus 45 jawed vertebrates 36 lancelets lobe-finned fish 35, maple trees 304 Hydrodamalis gigas jawless fish 38–9, 284, (living) 32, 33 52–3, 56, 58, 286, 340 mapping 309 286, 340 land animals lobe fins 52 see under fossil sites Hydrophilus 28 cladograms 34, 35, 36, first 284 lobopods 15 maps see geological maps Hylonomus 68, 69, 70 37 fossil timeline 286–311 Lockley, Martin 352 Marginocephalia 165, hyopsodontids 245 jaws 34, 37 land bridge 307 long-face 185 Hyopsodus 245 Australopithecus boisei land plants see Eryops marginocephalians 103, Hypacrosaurus 182 231 fossil timeline 279–311 lophotrochozoans 23 165 Hypolagus 239 Carnotaurus 111 see also plants lophotrophorates 23 marine reptiles 70, 80, Hypsilophodon 103, 166, Compsognathus 121 langurs 229 lorises 226 82, 84, 86, 296 186 cynodonts 203 lateral lines 59 lower hind limb lizard Mariopteris 291 Hypsognathus 72 desmans 224 Latimeria 53 see Scelidosaurus Marrella 15, 281 hyracodontids 256 dinosaurs 103, 113, 116, Law of Irreversibility in “Lucifer” 230 Marsh, Charles Othniel hyraxes 250, 251 164, 165, 166 Evolution 348 “Lucy” 351 353 elephants 260, 261 Lazarussuchus 77 Lufengosaurus 148 marsupials (pouched I Homo heidelbergensis Leakey, Mary and Louis lungfish 34, 52, 286 mammals) 309 234 316, 352 Lycopsis 208 American 208–9, 324 Iapetus Ocean 25, 281, placodonts 80 Leidy, Joseph 352 Lydekker, Richard 353 Australian 204, 205, 283 pterodactyloids 98 Leithia 240 Lyell, Charles 353 206–7, 309, 324 Icaronycteris 223, 224, Tyrannosaurus rex lemurs 226 Lyme Regis, England cladogram 194 225 124 lens eye see Phacops 316, 344 (living) 204, 205, 206, ice sheets 283, 292, 309 see also skulls and teeth Leonardi, Giuseppe 352 Lystrosaurus 200, 201 212 ichthyornithiforms 139 entries Lepidodendron 68, 322, see also under living ichthyosaurs 86–7, 294, Jefferies, Richard 32 323, 342 M mammal groups 296, 344 Jeholodens 205 Lepidostrobus 322 Martínez, Rubén 161 Ichthyosaurus 86, 87, jellyfish 22 Lepidotes 50, 114 Machaeroprosopus 91 Maryanska, Teresa 345 296 jet propulsion 30, 31 Lepisosteus 49 machairodontines 218 mass extinctions 278 Ichthyostega 56, 58, 59, Jobaria 112 lepospondyls 35, 64–5 mackerel 302 Cretaceous 300–1, 344 287 Joggins, Nova Scotia Leptolepides 50 Macrauchenia 246, 248–9 Ordovician 284 Ictitherium 216 69 Lesotho lizard Macrocranion 225 Permian 290, 292–3 igneous (volcanic) rock Johanson, Donald see Lesothosaurus Macrogenis 265 mass death fossils 60 312, 326 351 Lesothosaurus 166, 167 Macrones 307 mass spectrometer 328 Iguanodon 114, 178, Jurassic Leuciscus (living) 304 Macropoma 298 mastodon lizard 180–1, 348 common index fossils Lexovisaurus 170 magnetic field, reversal see Mastodonsaurus iguanodontians 178 327 Libby, Willard 352 of 328, 329 Mastodonsaurus 60, 61 Imperial mammoth period 278, 296–7 lichens 308, 310 Maiasaura 182, 351 mastodons 10 see Mammuthus imperator plants 342 Majungatholus 110, 111 Mastopora 282, 342 inclined fish Jurassic Park 333, 344 mammalian features, Matthew, William Diller 353 Mayulestes 208 meat-eating bull see Carnotaurus meat-eating dinosaurs 106, 117, 124 370

INDEX megabats 225 using computers 333 Neptunists 357 hipbones 103 palynology 323 Megacerops 243 see also under Barosaurus nesting colonies skull 103 pampas 306 Megaladapis 226 Moeritherium 258, 259 (dinosaur) 182 ornithodirans 71, 90 panameriungulates 246 megalancosaurs 89 moles 224 nests (dinosaur) 130, Ornitholestes 120, 121 pandas 311 Megaloceros 268 mollusks 23, 30, 284 150, 182, 344, 351 ornithomimids 122–3 giant 221 megalosaurs 112 gastropods 298, 339 Neusticosaurus 295 ornithomimosaurs 105 Panderichthys 52 Megalosaurus 112–13, swimming 288, 289 New World monkeys ornithopod dinosaurs Pander’s fish 180, 346 Mongolia 228, 229 103, 165, 166, 178, 186 see Panderichthys Meganeura 11, 28, 29, 62 see Gobi Desert Nicholson, H.A. 353 Ornithoracines 138, 143 Pangaea 290, 291, 292, Megatherium 210, 211 mongooses 216 Ninjemys 74 Ornithorhynchus 205 295, 297, 357 Megazostrodon 295 monkeys 228–9, 304 Nipa (living) 302 Ornithothoraces 138 Panochthus 211 meiolaniids 74 monotremes, egg-laying node lizard Ornithurae 139 pantodonts 212, 213, melon (in whales) 274 194, 205 see nodosaurids ornithurines 139 242 meridiungulates 246 (living) 204, 205, 212 nodes 19 Orthograptus 283 Paracarcinosoma 285 Merychippus 252 Montanoceratops 188 nodosaurids 174 Osborn, Henry Fairfield Paraceratherium 256 Mesoleuctra 29 moonrats 225 Norell, Mark 354 354 Paracolobus 229 mesonychians 272 Morgan’s tooth nostrils Osmólska, Halszka 345 Paradoxides 25 mesonychids 273, 274 see Morganucodon dinosaurs 115, 179 Osmunda 342 Paranthropus 231 Mesonyx 273 Morganucodon 204, 205 Macrauchenia Osteoborus 220 parareptiles 70, 72–3, 74 Mesopithecus 229 Moropus 255 (litoptern) 246 osteoderm 12 Parasaurolophus 183 mesosaurs 73, 290 mosasaurs 78–9 plesiosaurs 82 osteostracans 39 pareiasaurs 72, 73 Mesozoic Mosasaurus 10 whales 275 ossicones 268, 269 Parka 284 common index fossils Moschops 198, 199 Notelaps 325 ostrich dinosaurs 122–3 parrot lizards 327 mosses 284, 308 Notharctus 227 Ostrom, John 354 see psittacosaurs era 278 molding 333, 337 nothosaurs 80–1 Otlestes 224 Patagopteryx 139 plants 322, 343 mouse lizard Nothosaurus 80, 81 overburden 314 peat 68 Messel, Germany 316, see Mussaurus notochord 32, 33, 280 Oviraptor 130–1, 344 peccaries 264–5 325 mud 312 notoungulates 247 philoceratops 130 pecorans 264 metailurines 216 mud trap 118–19 Novas, Fernando 110 oviraptorids 130–1, 132 peer-review 319 Metaldetes 280 mudstones 312, 314 Ovis canadensis 271 Pelecanimimus 123 metamorphic rocks 312 multicellular organisms O Owen, Richard 152, 246, Pelorovis 270 metamorphosis 23 14, 279, 310 332, 354 pelican mimic Metaxygnathus 58 multituberculates 204 oak mosses 310, 304, 305 ox 270 see Pelecanimimus metazoans 14, 15 Murchison, Roderick oak trees 303 Oxydactylus 267 pelycosaurs 194, 196 metoposaurs 60 354 Obruchevichthys 58 penguins 305 Metriorhynchus 92, 93 museum displays 333, occipital chignon 235 PQ periods 278, 327 Meyer, Hermann von 358–9 okapi (living) 269 perissodactyls 195, 353 Mussaurus 150 Okapia johnstoni 269 pachycephalosaurs 165, 252, 254 Miacis 214, 215 mylagaulids 238 Old World monkeys 228, 184 permafrosts 312, 316 miacoids 214, 216 Myliobatis 43 229, 304 Pachycephalosaurus 184, Permian microbats 225 Myotragus 240 Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania 185 mass extinction 292–3 microfossils 322, 327, 316, 347, 352 Pachydyptes 305 period 278, 290–1 344 N olecranon process 56 Pachypteris 295 Phacops 24, 25, 287 microorganisms 279, Olenellus 25 pacing 267 Phanerozoic Eon 12, 15 280 naked seeds 289, 290 Oligocene epoch 278, Padian, Kevin 354 phenacodontids 244 Micropachycephalosaurus see also cones 304–5 Pakicetus 274, 275 Phenacodus 244, 245 184 Nanshiungosaurus 127 omnivores 212, 220 paleobotany 322–3 Phimnin 261 Microraptor 135 natural selection 16, 347 Onychiopsis 299 Paleocastor 239, 305 Phiomia 258, 259 microsaurs 64 natural variation 16 onychophorans 23 Paleocene epoch 278, Phoberomys 238 microscopes (in the lab) nautiloids 282 Oparin, Alexander 354 302–3 Pholidocercus 225 318, 320, 321, 327 Nautilus (living) 282 Ophiacodon 288 paleoecology 324–5 phorusrhacids 145 microscopic life 14 neanderthals 234–5, 236 opisthosoma 26 Paleognathae 144 Phosphatherium 258 microscopy 320, 321 brow ridges 233 opossums (living) 208 paleomagnetism 329 phyla (singular phylum) middle nail necks orders 18 paleomerycids 268, 18, 349 see Mesonyx dinosaurs 152, 154, Ordovician 269 phylogeny 319 Miller, Stanley 353 155, 158, 159, 160 common index fossils paleoniscoids 48 phytosaurs 90, 91 milleretids 72 plesiosaurs 82, 84 327 Paleoniscus 291 Picea 308 millipedes 68, 284, 288 prolacertiforms 88 period 278, 282–3 paleontologists pigs 264–5 Minmi 175 nectrideans 64 organelles 14 finding fossils 313 Pikaia 15, 280 Miocene epoch 278, nematodes 23 organic materials, dating in the laboratory pikas 238, 239, 240 304–5 Neoceratopsia 188 of 329 318–19 Pinguinus impennis 308 moa 144 neoceratopsians 188 origins of life on Earth studying fossils 320–1 Pisanosaurus 106 Mobergella 281 Neochoerus 238 353, 354 paleontology 10–11 Pithecanthropus erectus models of prehistoric neodiapsids 76, 77 Ornithischia 164, 355 Paleozoic era 278 349 life Neognathae 144 ornithischians Paleoparadoxia 251 placenta 210, 194 casting 333, 337 neopterygians 48, 50, (dinosaurs) 103, 106, paleopathology 121 placental from imprints in rocks 291 148, 186 Paleothyris 68 mammals/placentals 337 Neornithes 139, 144 cladogram 164–5 palm trees 302, 343 194, 204, 210–11, making 333 neornithines 139, 144 evolution 165 palpebral bone 178 212–13, 324 plaster of Paris 337 Placerias 201 3-D modeling 333 placochelyids 81 371

REFERENCE SECTION placoderms 36, 40, 286, Prenocephale 185 radiometric dating 328, horned lizards 109 Sauropsida 351 287 Presbyornis 145 329 Riojasaurus 151 Sauropterygia 80, 82 armored 284 Prestosuchus 90 Ramoceros 271 Riversleigh quarry, sauropterygians 80, 295 placodonts 80–1 priapulids 15 Rancho La Brea tar pits, Australia 317 Saurosuchus 106 Placodus 80 primates 302 California 220, 317 rock savanna 304 plankton 282 primitive 226–7 Ranunculus 309 nodules 336 scale bones 340 plant-eaters see also apes, monkeys Raphus cucullatus 310 strata 326, 356 scales dinosaurs 158, 162 Priscacara 51, 340 rat fish 44 rocks 12, 324, 350, 354 advanced ray-finned rabbits and rodents proboscideans 195, ratites 144 age of 328 fish 50 238 258–9 rauisuchians 90 chemical changes 12, Edmontonia 174 small bipedal 166–7 procolophonids 72 ray-finned fish 34, 37, 13 enameled 48, 49, 50, 53 see also herbivores Prodinoceras 242 340 classification of layers glyptodonts 211 plants 342–3, 348, 356 Proganochelys 74 advanced 50–1 278 see also skin ancestors of 282 prokaryotes 14, 279 early 48–9 dating, using pollen scanning electron evolution of 286, 322 prolacertiforms 88, 89 fossil timeline 286, 288, 323 microscopes (SEMs) Carboniferous 62 Prolagus 240 291, 294 decay of elements 328 321 first 284 Promissum 283 ray fins 52 erosion 10, 313 Scaphonyx 89, 106 flowering 183, 322 pronghorn 271 rays 36, 42–3, 294, 296 exposure 313 scavengers 30, 120, 219 identifying fossil 322 prosauropods 106, 148, sword 51 maps of 312 Scelidosaurus 103, 168, see also land plants, 149, 150–1 reconstructing oldest known 328 169 paleobotany key features 148, 150 ancient climates 323 types of 312 schizochroal eyes 25 plated dinosaurs 170–1 prosoma 26 ancient communities see also rock strata Schizoretepora 338 Plateosaurus 103, 150, Prosqualodon 275 324 rodents 238–9, 302, 305 scientific names 319 151 Protoceras 268 ancient environments Romer, Alfred Sherwood scientific papers 319 plates Protoceratops 130, 135, 11, 324 355 scombroids 302 see armor plates, 188–9, 344 ecosystems 11, 324, 325 roof lizard scorpions 68, 288, 284 bony plates Protodonata 62 reconstructing fossils see Stegosaurus see also sea scorpions, Platybelodon 260–1 Protohydrocoerus 238 330–1 rostral bone 165, 186 whip scorpions platyhelminths 22 Protopithecus 229 casting 330 roundworms 23 sculling 79 Platypterygius 86 proto-pterosaur 94 final assembly 331 rumination 266 scurfy scales platyrrhines 228 Protostega 299 framework support 331 ruminants 266 see Lepidotes Platystrophia 339 Protosuchus 93 molds 330 running Scutellosaurus 168, 169 Pleistocene protozoans 324 see also restoring fossil hoofed mammals 244, scutes see bony scutes epoch 278, 308–9 Psephoderma 81 animals 247 Scutosaurus 73 protozoans 324 Pseudaelurus 218 Red Deer River, Alberta rhinoceroses 256 scythe lizard plesiadapids 226 psittacosaurs 186 345 Russell, Dale and see Therizinosaurus Plesiadapis 226, 227 Psittacosaurus 186–7 reef builders 282, 293 Donald 127 sea floor, and formation plesiosaurs 295, 344 Pteranodon 98, 99 reefs 289, 290 russellosaurines 78 of rocks 312 long-necked 84–5 Pteraspis 38, 340 algae 342 sea lilies 285 short-necked 82–3 pteridosperms 295 replica fossils S sea lizards Plesiosaurus 82 pterodactyloids 98, 344 see reconstructing fossils see mosasaurs pleurodires 75 Pterodactylus 296 reptiles 35, 68, 346 saber-teeth 208, 209 sea scorpions 26–7, 285, Pliocene epoch 278 Pterodaustro 98 anapsid 341 saber-toothed cats 216, 292 pliosaurs 82–3 pteroid bone 98 cladogram 70–1 217, 218–19, 307 sea urchins 284, 298, polacanthids 174, 176 pterosaurs 88, 346 diapsid 341 Sacabambaspis 38 339 pollen 232, 233 advanced 98–9, 296 early crocodile group Sagenocrinites 285 seabirds 142, 308 populations, interaction early 94–5, 96–7, 294 90–1 salamanders 64 seacows 250, 302 between 325 Pterygotus 26, 27 early ruling group salmon 310 hunting of 311 poriferans 22 punctuated equilibria 88–9, 92 Salta lizard Steller’s 309 posture 17, 348, 349 evolution 71 see Saltasaurus sea lions 221 sprawl (reptiles) 120 Purgatorius 226 first 288 Saltasaurus 12, 160 seals 220, 221, 306 upright (dinosaurs) 102 pycnodontiforms 37 skulls 70, 71 sand 312 hunting of 310 potassium-40 isotope 328 Pygostylia 143 see also marine reptiles sandstones 312, 314 seas, ancient 324 pouch pygostyle 138, 143 reptiliomorphs 35, 57, sarcopterygians 34, 37, Sedgwick, Adam 355 Pterandon 98 Quercus 305 66–7, 68 52 sedimentary rocks/strata pouched marsupials Quetzalcoatlus 98, 99 resinous sap 343 satellite images 312 10, 326 see marsupials restoring fossil animals Saurians 353 fossils in 312, 316 (pouched mammals) R 322–3 Saurischia 355 types of 312 prairie 304 research 332 saurischians 103, 106, sediments 11, 12, 13, 69 Precambrian time rabbits 238–9 see also models of 148 seed ferns 286, 288, 295, 279, 344 (living) 212 prehistoric life cladogram 104–5 343 algae 322 raccoons 220 Rhacolepis 325 evolution of 105 seeds 322, 323, 343 predators radioactive decay 328, Rhamphorhynchus 95 pubic hipbones 103 see also naked seeds dinosaurs 106, 117, 124 329 rhenanids 40 Sauropelta 175 Seeley, Harry Govier 355 phorusrhacids 145 radioactive uranium rhinoceroses 256–7 sauropodomorphs Segnosaurus 127 predentary bone (jaw) see uranium, radioactive (living) 256 103,104, 148–9 Seismosaurus 155 103, 164 radioactivity 328 rhizomes 287 sauropods 148, 149, 150 Sequoia 343 prehensile tails 229 radiocarbon dating 329, rhizophores 322, 323 early 152–3 Sereno, Paul 355 prehistoric landscapes 352 rhynchosaurs 88, 89, 106 key features 149 seymouriamorphs 35, restorations of 332 Ricqlès, Armand de 355 57, 67 premaxillae 35, 57 ridges shale, fossils in 69, 338, 372

INDEX 342 Herrerasaurus 107 pachycephalosaurs species 18, 19, 352 Struthiomimus 122 shared features 17 Lufengosaurus 148 184, 185 change over time Stupendemys 75 sharks 36, 40, 44–5, 288, Ornitholestes 121 Protoceratops 188 16, 17 sturgeon 49 294 Ornithominus 122 Psittacosaurus 187 sphenacodontids 199 Styracosaurus 190, 191 first modern 296 Protoceratops 188 Shunosaurus 153 spiders 286, 288 suborbital fenestrae 70 spiny 34, 36, 46–7, 284 Psittacosaurus 186 stegosaurs 180 spikes Suchomimus 115 Sharovipteryx 92 Shunosaurus 153 titanosaurs 161 ankylosaurids 176 suiforms 264, 265 sharp point lizard Stegoceras 184 Triceratops 191 ankylosaurs 174 sun ray see Heliobatis see Kentrosaurus Triceratops 191 Tyrannosaurus rex 124 centrosaurines 190 supercontinent 357 sheep 270–1 Troodon 137 skull (mammals) parareptiles 72, 73 fossil timeline 290, 291, shell, parts of 68 Tuojiangosaurus 170 Australopithecus stegosaurs 170 292, 295, 357 amnion 68 Tyrannosaurus rex 124 africanus 230 turtles 74 Supersaurus 155 buoyancy 30, 31 skeletons (fish) Bienotherium 203 spines supramaxilla 37 gas-filled chambers 30, cladograms 34, 36 bovoids 271 barbed 43, 45 swamp forest, 289 skeletons (mammals) Broken Hill 234 fin 45, 46, 50 Carboniferous 11, 62–3 phragmocone 31 Edaphosaurus 197 brontotheres 254 mosasaurs 79 swampland, Cretaceous shells 68, 280, 338, 339 hominid 232 dicynodonts 200, 201 ornithopods 179 183 shield bearers Lycopsis 208 dinocephalians 198, sharks 46, 4 swim bladders 50, 52 see thyreophorans Macrauchenia 246 199 stegosaurs 171, 172 swimming shield lizard Megaladapis edwardis elephants 259 Wiwaxia 281 ichthyosaurs 87 see Scutosaurus 226 Equus 241 spinosaurs 50, 114–15 jawless fish 38 shielded lizard Megaloceros 268 hippos 264 Spinosaurus 114, 115 molluscs 282 see Sauropelta Moschops 198 Homo erectus 233 spiny sharks mosasaurs 79 shovel-tusker neanderthal 235 Homo ergaster 348 see under sharks sweetgum trees 307 see Platybelodon Notharctus 227 Homo neanderthalensis sponges 15, 22, 32, 290, symbiosis 14 shrew opposums 208, Paracolobus 229 233 293 Symmorium 288 209 Sthenurus tindalei 206 Hyaenodon 215 spores 287, 322, 323, 342 snyapsid opening 194 shrews 212, 222, 226 Toxodon 247 Hypolagus 239 Sprigg, Reg 356 synapsids 35, 68, 194, Shokawa 77 Ukhaatherium 213 Ictitherium 216 Sprigginia 14 202, 351 Shuo lizard uranothere 251 mammoths 262 squamates 76 cladogram 194–5 see Shunosaurus Ursus spelaeus 221 mastodonts 195 spruces 308 early 196–7, 288 Shuvuuia 142 Vulpavus 214 Megacerops 241 stabilization of fossils evolution of 194, 195 Siamotyrannus 125 skeletons (marsupials) mesonychians 272 glue or resin 315, 318 fossil timeline 290, 294, Siberia 316 Diprotodon 309 Neochoerus 238 wrapping in plaster of 296 Siderops 61 skeletons (reptiles) Osteoborus 220 Paris 315 Syndyoceras 268 Sigillaria 69 crocodilian 92 peccaries 265 stance see posture Synthetoceras 268 Silurian 354 ichthyosaur 86 pelycosaurs 196 starfish 22 Systema Naturae 18, 352 common index fossils mosasaur 79 protoceratids 268 Staurikosaurus 107 327 trilophosaur 88 Smilodon 216 stay apparatus 253 T land plants 342 turtle 74 Thalassoleon mexicanus Stegoceras 184, 185 period 278, 284–5 skin sails/skin fins 114, 221 stegosaurs 164, 168, 170, Taeniolabis 204 Simpson, George 197, 290, 291 Thylacoleo 207 172 taiga 308 Gaylord 366 skin, scaly Tremacebus 229 Stegosaurus 170, 172–3 tail chordates 33 Simolestes 82 dinocephalians 198 Trogosus 213 Stenomylus 266 tail feather single-celled organisms dinosaurs 110, 134, Uintatherium 240, 241 Stenopterygius 86 see Caudipteryx 14 161, 183 whales 273, 275 Stensen, Niels 356 tail spikes Sinokannemeyeria 200, ichthyosaurs 86 skull (reptiles) 35, 70, 71 steppe 306 stegosaurs 172 201 pterosaurs 95 amniote 69 Sternberg family 351, tails Sinornithosaurus 135, 136 Saltasaurus 12 crocodile 15 356 birds 138 sirenians 195 temnospondyls 60 meiolaniids 74 Steropodon 205 dinosaurs 148, 152, site maps 315 see also feathers, hide plesiosaurs 82, 84 Stethacanthus 45, 288 154, 176, 177, 348 sivatheres 269 skull (amphibians) Procolophon 72 sthenurines 206 early primates 226 skates 44 Acanthostega 59 rhynchosaurs 89 Sthenurus tindalei 206 meiolaniids 74 skeletal reconstructions Diplocaulus 64, 65 younginiforms 76 Stigmaria 322 monkeys 229 Cetiosaurus 152 skull (birds) 139 sloths stingrays 43, 45 sauropods 153 Oviraptor 131 skull (dinosaurs) 117, ground 210, 211 stomach contents 325 tetanurans 112–13 Therizinosaurus 126–7 164, 165 tree (living) 210 of an ichthyosaur 86 Tanystropheus 88, 89 skeletons (amphibians) Baryonyx 115 Smilodon 216, 217, of a placoderm 286 taphonomy 10 emnospondyls 11, 60 Brachiosaurus 159 218–19, 307 of a pliosaur 83 tapinocephalids 198, 199 skeletons (birds) 138 Camarasaurus 157 Smith, William 356 of a younginiform 77 tar pits (Rancho La Archaeopteryx 140 Camptosaurus 178 snakes 71, 79, 298 stomata 323 Brea) 317 Presbyornis 145 Centrosaurus 190 soft-bodied animals 13, stoneflies (living) 33 Tarbosaurus 125, 128 skeletons (dinosaurs) Compsognathus 121 279, 280 Stopes, Marie 356 tardigrades 23 Albertosaurus 125 Cynognathus 202 Solnhofen, Germany strangler figs 303 tarsiers (living) 228 Allosaurus 102–3 Dilophosaurus 109 297, 316 stratigraphic history 326 Tatisaurus 168 Apatosaurus 148–9, 349 Dimetrodon 203 sonar 224 stratigraphy 326, 347, Taung skull 230, 347 Bambiraptor 137 Edmontonia 175 South America 356 teeth Camarasaurus 156 Edmontosaurus 103 hoofed mammals 246–7 stromatolites 14, 279, anthropoids 228 Coelophysis 108 Euoplocephalus 176 ungulates 195 280, 322 bears 341 Deinonychus 134 hadrosaurs 183 Southern Cross lizard Strophomena 282 Diplodocus 154 Majungatholus 111 see Staurikosaurus Struthiocephalus 198 373

REFERENCE SECTION caninelike 70, 71 therapsids 73, 202, 204, Trigonocarpus 343 ursines 221 weigeltisaurids 77 carnivores 214, 216 291 trilobites 23, 24–5 Ursus spelaeus 221 well-armored head conodonts 33, 283 see also dinocephalians fossil timeline 280, see Euoplocephalus cynodonts 202, 203 theriodonts 202 284, 286, 287, 288, V Werner, Abraham dicynodonts 201 therizinosaurs 126–7, 292, 338 Gottlob 357 dinoceratans 242 128–9 trilophosaurs 88 Valen, Leigh van 356 Westlothiana 67, 288 dinosaurs 165, 166, Therizinosaurus 126–7, Trilophosaurus 83 Valley of the Moon, Wetherellus 302 167, 170, 182 128–9 Trimerorhachis 60 Argentina 317 whale lizard horses 252 Theropithecus 228, 229 Trionyx 341 vascular plants 284, 349 see Cetiosaurus Iguanodon 348 oswaldi 228 Triticum 311 Velociraptor 135, 189, 344 whales 264, 273, 274, mammals 196 theropods 103, 108, tritylodonts 203 velvet worms 23 303 mosasaurs 78 140 trochozoans 23 Vendian fauna 14, 278, blue 311 nothosaurs 80 early 106–7, 148 Trogosus 213 279 early 274–5 ornithischians 164, 165 stiff-tailed 126 Troodon 136, 137 Ventastega 56, 58 modern 306 Panderichthys 52 trackway 12 troodontids 136 vertebrae Right 306 parareptiles 72 thick-headed lizard trunks of early placentals 210 whaling 310, 311 Pelecaniminus 123 see pachycephalosaurs amphibious rhinos 256 of Elasmosaurus 84 wheat 311 Plateosaurus 151 Thoatherium 247 elephants 258, 259, 261 of ornithopods 179 whip scorpions 287 plesiosaurs 82, 84 three knob teeth tubers 288 vertebrae, parts of 34, 56 Wilkins, Maurice 346, pterodactyloids 98 see tritylodonts tunicates (living) 33 centrum/centra 53 357 pterosaurs 94 Thrinaxodon 202, 203 Tuo River lizard neural spines 149, 153 Williamsonia 297, 343 rabbits/rodents 238 thunder lizard see Tuojiangosaurus tail/chevrons 149, 152, Williston, Samuel sharks 45 see Brontosaurus Tuojiangosaurus 170 154 Wendell 357 synapsids 290 thunnosaurs 86 Turkana boy (hominid zygapophyses 153 wing shield teleosts 296, 298 thylacines 206 skeleton) 232 vertebrates 36, 340–1 see Pteraspis Tyrannosaurus rex 124 Thylacinus 206, 324 turtles 74–5, 341 bird 341 wings see also canine teeth, Thylacoleo 207 ancestors of 72, 294 cladogram 34–5 azhdarchids 99 carnassials thylacoleonids 207 (living) 75 evolution 35, 286 bats 222, 224, 302 Teleoceras 257 Thylacosmilus 208, 209 sea 299 four-limbed 52, 286 birds 144 teleosts 37, 50, 51, 297 thyreophorans 103, see also placochelyids jawed 34 insects 28, 29 telson 26, 27 164, 165, 168 tusks limb-bearing pterosaurs 94, 95, 98 Temnodontosaurus 87 tillodonts 212, 242 dicynodonts 20, 201 see tetrapods Wiwaxia 281 temnospondyls 35, 57, time chart, geological dinoceratans 242, 243 viverrids 216 wolves (singular wolf) 60–1, 64, 68 278 dwarf elephants 241 volcanic activity dire 220, 221, 324 temperature control timeline bar 9 elephants 258, 259, end of Permian period marsupial (pouched) 197, 290 Titanis 145, 146–7 261, 306 292 206 tentacles, belemnites 31 Titanohyrax 251 mammoths 262 rocks 312, 326, 329 Woodward, John 357 teratorn 144 Titanophoneus 198, 199 temnospondyls 61 volcano tooth woolly tergites 26 titanosaurs 160–1 two dog teeth see Vulcanodon mammoths 262 terrapins 75 toes see digits see dicynodonts Vulcanists 357 rhinoceroses 257 terrible cat tomography 321 two-ridge lizard Vulcanodon 152 work person see Dinofelis tools see Dilophosaurus Vulpavus 214 see Homo ergaster terrible claw in excavations 314 two types of teeth wounding tooth see Deinonychus in the laboratory 318, see Dimetrodon W see Troodon terrible heads 319 tylopods 264 see dinocephalians toothplates 45, 52 Tylosaurus 78, 79 Walcott, Charles D. 15, XYZ terrible horns tortoises 74, 75 tyrannosaurids 117, 357 see dinoceratans giant (living) 16 124–5 walking xenarthrans 194, 210–11 terror crane Toxodon 247 tyrannosaurs 126 australopithecines 230 Xenotarsosaurus 110 see phorusrhacids toxodonts 247 Tyrannosaurus rex 124–5, camels 266, 267 Xiphactinus 51 Tertiary trace fossils 12 345, 354 Caudipteryx 133 X-ray technology 318, common index fossils Trachyphyllia 338 tyrant lizard rausuchians 90 320, 321 327 tracks/trackways see tyrannosaurids sauropods 149 Xystridura 280 plants 342 amphibians 352 Walking with Dinosaurs Yang Zhongdian 348 tetanurans 104, 105, 108, dinosaurs 179, 183, U 333 Yaverlandia 184 112–13, 120 352 walruses 221 Youngina 76 see also spinosaurs first four-footed 286 Uintah beast warm-blooded younginiforms 76 Tethys, sea of 295 sauropods 344 see Uintatherium cynodonts 202 Zalambdalestes 212, 238, tethytheres 195, 250 theropods 12, 325 Uintatherium 242–3 dinosaurs 102 298 Tetralophodon 306 trees Ukhaatherium 213 mammals 204 zircon crystal 329 tetrapods 35, 36, 67 fossil timeline 286, unconformities 326 pterosaurs 94 zones 327 early 58–9 302, 304, 305, 307, ungulates 195, 244 water bears 23 zooid 283 early, cladogram 56–7 323, 343 uranium-235 isotope 328 Watson, James 346, Zosterophyllum 287, 342 evolution 57, 356 Tremacebus 229 uranium-238 isotope 329 357 zygapophysis 56, 59 see also amniotic egg Triadobatrachus 64 uranium, radioactive weasels 220 Tetrapteryx 345 Triassic period 278, decay 328, 352 websites 359 Thalassocnus 210 294–5 uranotheres 250–1 Wegener, Alfred 357 Thalassoleon mexicanus Triceratops 191 Uranotheria 250 221 triconodonts 204, 205 urochordates 33 thecae 283 trident tooth Theosodon 247 see Thrinaxodon 374

PICTURE CREDITS PICTURE CREDITS The publisher would like to thank 292bl; Hans Reinhard 49br; Jens 262bc; University Museum of Zoology, the following for their kind Rydell 225tr; The Natural History Museum, Cambridge: 58bc, 59t, 201c, 286tr, permission to reproduce their S. Conway Morris: 279bl, 280bl, London: 3t, 13tr, 23tcr, 31tr, 32c, 287tc; images: 280-281c, 281tc, 281cr; 37tr, 45c, 45cr, 45clb, 64bl, 74bl, Dr. RT Wells, Flinders Position key: c=center; b=below; Corbis: 14cl, 16tr, 16cb, 16br, 18tr, 80b, 82tr, 87bl, 87tr, 89br, 94cl, University: Photo by F. Coffa 206cl; l=left; r=right; t=top; a=above; f=far 18c, 18l, 252-253, 260-261, 292cl, 124br, 140c, 155tr, 168bl, 168cr, Professor Harry Whittington: 335br, 336b, 345tr, 350bc, 351tr, 194tr, 207br, 216cl, 217tr, 224bl, 319cr; Aero Vironment Inc: Martyn 352tc, 353bc, 355bc, 357bl; 225bl, 230l, 231c, 231br, 233tc, Yorkshire Museum: 153t, 200- Cowley 99bl; O.Alamany & E.Vicens 316br; Tom 233tr, 234bl, 235tl, 235tr, 236tr, 201b, 230r, 231l, 232l; American Museum Of Natural Bean 12br, 148br, 218-219; 242bl, 247tr, 261tr, 273tr, 275tl, Jerry Young: 57ca. History; 10clb, 45tl, 76bl, 93c, Jonathan Blair 316cla, 316clb; 279t, 282bl, 282t, 283bl, 284tc, 126bl, 155tl, 157cr, 161br, 208bl, Gianni Dagli Orti 270bl; Juan 284bl, 285cl, 285c, 286bc, 287bl, All other images 212-213b, 216bl, 220cl, 221tl, 221tr, Echeverria 10bc; Marc Garanger 288bc, 289bl, 290tc, 290br, 291cr, © Dorling Kindersley. 226bl, 227bl, 238cl, 239tr, 239bc, 240-241; Derek Hall/Frank Lane 291bl, 291t, 294tr, 294c, 294br, For further information see: 246cb, 247br, 251br, 254tr, 263cr, Picture Agency 312tr; Dave 295tr, 295cl, 295bcb, 296c, 296t, www.dkimages.com 264bl, 264br, 265tl, 271cr, 271bc, G.Houser 317tc; Peter Johnson 297tr, 297cr, 297bl, 298c, 298bc, 272bl, 313bl, 317tl, 319bl, 122tc; Bob Krist 222c; Diego 298tc, 299c, 299cr, 299bl, 302c, Specially commissioned 321cr(below), 325tc, 332cr, 332br, Lazama Orezzoli 317bc; The 302br, 303c, 303bl, 303tr, 304tc, illustraions: 344tl, 344bc, 349br, 351c, 352cl, Purcell Team 267tl; Charles O'Rear 304c, 304br, 305cr, 306tc, 306cr, Bedrock: 4bl, 5tl, 6tl, 7tl, 7tr, 11c, 355tl; A. E. Anderson 86bl, 257br; 317br; Martin B.Withers/Frank 307cr, 307bl, 307t, 308c, 308b, 308tc, 17tl, 21inset, 26-27, 29cl, 34ca, AMNH Photo Studio 196bl, 197bc, Lane Picture Agency 316bc; 309t, 313br, 313tr , 318cr, 318bl, 36ca, 37tl, 41c, 46-47, 55inset, 62- 199br, 200tr; J. Beckett 134cr Peter Cormack: James L. Amos 318br, 340cl, 340cr, 340bc, 340t, 63, 65c, 68-69, 70tl, 70tr, 71tc, 71tr, (above); J. Beckett/Denis Finnin 280tr; Layne Kennedy 281tr; 341tr, 341bl, 341br, 342tr, 342cl, 72-73, 74-75, 76-77, 78-79c, 80-81, 90-91; Bierwert & Bailey 91bl; Esto Photographics: Scott 342cr, 342bl, 343cl, 343b, 358bl; 82-83, 86-87, 88-89, 101inset, 104tl, Blackwell/Finnin/Chesek 124bl; C. Frances 359br; Nature Magazine: 319br; 104tr, 112-113, 116-117, 124-125, Chesek 2bl, 48bl, 60bl, 135cr,286- Mary Evans Picture Library: N.H.P.A.: 96-97; Daniel Heuclin 126-127, 128-129, 138tc, 143c, 143tr, 287c; Jim Coxe 28c; Mick Ellison 357tc; 300-301; Trever McDonald 44-45; 145cr, 146-147, 150-151, 156-157, 130bl; D. Finnin/ C. Chesek 197t; Exhibit Museum of Natural Oxford Scientific Films: 158-159, 160-161, 165tl, 178-179, D.Finnin 3b, 38b, 40cl, 40br, 44c, History, University of Michigan: Hjalmar R. Bardarson 292tr; Max 184-185, 193inset, 194tl, 195tl, 49tr, 95cr, 130tr, 135tr, 229tr 229cb, 292-293; Gibbs 48tr; Mark Jones 272tc; 195tc, 196-197, 198-199, 202-203, 288c; Kirschner 78-79t; Menke Getty Images Stone: Earth Maurice Tibbles 92br; Norbert Wu 204-205, 206-207, 208-209, 214-215, 317tr; Rota 79bl; Imaging 316cr; 33tr; 216-217, 217tr, 218-219, 220-221, Ancient Art & Architecture Graves Museum: 137br, 137t; Popperfoto: Reuters 316tc; 222-223, 224-225, 226-227, 228-229, Collection: 257tr, 263tc; Dr. Pat Herendeen: 321bc; Dr. Mark A. Purnell, University 244-245, 246-247, 248-249, 252-253, Aquila Photographics: J.J. Brooks John Holmes: 103tl, 333tl, 333tc, of Leicester: 3bc; 254-255, 256-257, 260-261, 265r, 141tr; 333cl, 333cr; Luis Rey: 127cr; 266-267, 268-269, 270-271, 272-273, Ardea London Ltd: Francois Hulton Archive: 332tr, 345bc, Royal British Columba 277inset, 332cr, 333br; Gohier 199tc; 346ct, 347cl, 347cb, 349tr, 354tr, Museum: 195trc, 262-263; Tim Brown: 11cr, 14tr, 14bl, 64c, Barleylands Farm Museum: 35tr; 354bc, 356cb; Royal Museum of Scotland: 67c, 123tc, 140b, 144t, 145tr, 328tr, J. Beckett: 142tc; Hunterian Museum: 2c, 11tr, 34tr, 37cla, 59b, 286c, 288tr; 329cr; BBC: 23tc; 34ca, 39bc, 279c, 302tc, 45br; Science Photo Library: Martin Peter Bull: 17br, 19cb, 19la, 19fl, Bridgeman Art Library, London Dr. Neil D.L. Clark 283tl; Dorhn/Stephen Winkworth 98-99; 22-23bl to br, 25cr, 25tr, 30bl, 33tcr, / New York: 237tl; Gerado Kurtz: courtesy of James King-Holmes 328bl, 329tl; 34-35bl to br, 36-37bl to br, 47cb, Bristol City Museum and Art University of Madrid 143bl; David Parker 301tl; Geoff 56-57bl to br, 70-71bl to br, 90br, Gallery: 168tr; Dave Martill: 83tr; Tompkinson 328cr; 91t, 98bl, 98br, 99tr, 99tr, 104-105bl British Antarctic Survey: Chris Museo Arentino De Cirendas Senckenberg Nature Museum: to br, 138-139bl to br, 164-165bl to Gilbert 324tc; Naterales, Buenos Aires: 150tr; 140l, 154c; br, 194-195bl to br, 255br, 256tr; Carnegie Museum of Natural Muséum National d’Histoire Paul Sereno/University of Gary Cross: 212-213tc; History: Mark A.Klinger 148t, Naturelle: Paleontologie (Paris), Chicago: 106bl, 117br; Encompass Graphics: 236cr; 170bl, 205cr; D. Serrette 11bl; J & B Sibbick: 14cb, 15cr; Malcolm McGreggor: 58c, 61rc, Jean-Loup Charmet: 10t; Museum of the Rockies: Bruce Smithsonian Institute: 156tr; 66-67t, 77c, 112bl, 127tl, 152b, Robert Clark: 161tl; Selyem 136br; South African Museum: Clive 208tl, 209l, 209br, 269tr, 274cr; Cleveland Museum of Natural N.A.S.A.: 312b; Booth 198bl, 201tr; Luis Rey: 20-21, 52-53c, 54-55, History: 41bc; National Museum of Natural Topham Picturepoint: Press 100-101, 192-193, 276-277; CM Studio: 201br; History/Smithsonian Association 311tr; Peter Visscher: 19tc, 19tl, 22cc, Bruce Coleman Collection: 248- Institution: 167tr; Royal Tyrell Museum: 136l, 19ca, 34tc, 37tc, 56cl, 56tl, 56tla, 249, 310-311t; Mark Carwardine National Museum of Wales: 165tc; 57tc, 104tc, 138tr, 139tl, 139tc, 310-311c; Sarah Cook 227tc; Janos University Museum, Oxford: 139tca, 164tl, 195tl, 213cr, 213tr, Jurka 172-173; Steven Kaufman 19cl, 58c; 324bl, 336t, 337tl, 337bl; Robin Carter/Wildlife Art Ltd: 81tl, 81bl, 82bl, 89bl, 94bl, 244bl, 245tl, 245br. 375

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS With special thanks to: the American Museum of Natural History for their patient help and expert advice. In particular: Maron Waxman, Editorial Director, Department of Special Publishing; Mark Norell, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology; Jin Meng, Assistant Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology Special Photography: Denis Finnin, Roderick Mickens, and Megan Carlough for photography at the American Museum of Natural History; Trish Gant of Dorling Kindersley for photography at the Yorkshire Museum Dorling Kindersley Picture Library: Sally Hamilton, Rachel Holt, Diane Le Grande Jacket Design: Nicola Powling, Dean Price Additional Editorial Assistance: Margaret Hynes, Carey Scott Additional Design Management: Julia Harris, Gill Shaw Additional Picture Research: Marie Osborn, Sarah Pownall Additional DTP Assistance: Siu Yin Ho Proofreading: Lee Simmons, Claire Watts Design Assistance: Polly Appleton, Sheila Collins, Venice Shone Index: Lynn Bresler 376