lEEE is the world’s largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. ABOUT IEEE and its members inspire a global community to innovate for a better tomorrow through highly cited publications, conferences, technology standards, and professional and educational activities, IEEE is the trusted “voice” for engineering, computing, and technology information around the globe. MISSION IEEE’s core purpose is to foster technological innovation and excellence for the benefit of humanity. VISION IEEE will be essential to the global technical community and to technical professionals everywhere, and be universally recognized for the contributions of technology and of technical professionals in improving global conditions.
The pandemic has transformed our lives in recent years. The world was on the brink of monumental technological and demograph- ical changes that have altered the path of our lives. We suddenly have been forced to adapt to the new world that includes hybrid and work-from-home environments, parents home-schooling their children in a blended learning environment, the bio-bubbles be- fore every event, and sport. It has sped the timeline of technologi- cal innovations due to abundant space for social, educational, and economic opportunities. And to live in the world is to adapt con- stantly, which brings us to our theme of this year’s magazine ‘TECH- NOVATION: ADAPTING TO A WORLD OF PURE RE-IMAGINATION.’ “To foster technological innovation and excellence for the better- ment of humanity”, has been the mission of IEEE for over the years, and Cognizance is IEEE RGIT’s way to educate all avid readers on the technological innovation and advancements in today’s era. Cog- nizance has always been our identity and a platform that exhibits the literary skills and innovative ideas of students. In this edition of Cognizance, we bring disruptive innovations such as computers to translate a person’s thoughts into action, cars that can drive around without any human assistance, traversing a virtual world built on the convergence of augmented reality and virtual reality technologies, a detector looking for dark matter particles in space, computers with a high level of performance than the general-purpose computers and usage of Artificial Intelligence in Space exploration, to name a few. Innovation can be incremental like evolution, or radical like the birth of a volcanic island, which brings the article that focuses on a world that is designed to maximize profits by stimulating our emotions.
From publishing articles and providing smidgen contributions to the last two editions of the magazine and now bestowing me the honor of being the editor of this year’s edition, it is my re- sponsibility to take the readers on a journey to explore the fu- turistic changes made by technological innovations that will pave a path for a more sustainable and inclusive future. Also, I am eternally grateful to our Convener, Counsellor, and all the Branch Coordinators for being the pillars of encouragement in the entire voyage, and kudos to the Editorial and Digital Creative team, who left no stone unturned in their unflagging work to bring you Cognizance 2022. Lastly, a huge appreciation to all the au- thors and contributors of the articles in this edition. I hope this edition of Cognizance keeps you indulged till the end and remind you of all the opportunities awaiting us. - Vishal Walunj
Welcome! We at MCT’s RGIT Mumbai provide a transformative educational experience and believe that “Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in a man.” Since inception, the institute is committed to provide quality learning environ- ment and experience to the students and faculty. Over the years, our work ethics and policies have evolved from the vision of our inspiration Late Shree Vilasraoji Dagdojiraoji Deshmukh and various notable educational and social philosophies. Although I firml believe Science and Technology as extraordinary resources of the world, yet I feel availability of good leadership is necessary in development of nation. We have outstanding record of taking specific efforts in developing academic excellence, Character and Personality of our students. The Academics, Co-curricular and Extra-Curricular activities of our institute are designed for en- abling students to be versatile technocrats and leaders of enormous potential. Our major strengths are our worldwide network of Alumni, our linkages with apex educational and research institutions, our human resource and our infra- structure. The worldwide research in studying role of technocrats in socio-eco- nomic development of the nation has proved that technological innovations are the base of economic development of a nation. Moreover, the econom- ic growth of USA in the last fift years is attributed to science and technolo- gy. As a technological institution, this motivates us to shoulder the huge re- sponsibility of contributing to technological world for overall development of our nation. The institute has aligned its mission for developing the young minds into the human capital as an engineering workforce of the nation. We aim to enhance linkages with apex educational and national research insti- tution and develop systems for leading the institute towards academic autono- my and set foundation for institute to be a Centre of Excellence in next fi e years. I assure you that your stay as student at RGIT will be a memorable expe- rience in the context of learning a value based education. It will enable you to be successful in career and life.
Cognizance’22 is a matter of great pride to me, and it marks the culmina- tion of the academic year 2021-22. What a great year this has been, from increased exposure on an intercollegiate level, to the great turnout of our technical events this year. As the counsellor of IEEE RGIT, I am proud to be part of this thriving committee which has been in the circuit for more than 10 years now at this college. This magazine is our way of getting the lat- est in technology and that of our work towards each student. Though the aca- demic curriculum of the Mumbai University is fairly extensive, there is a lot more that is happening in the technical world we do not really have a clue of. Acknowledging this fact there is a need among thestudents to know all that is happening in the areas related to their field of study. Hence, Cognizance was incepted going to be a magazine dedicat- ed to the fields of popular science and technology. It will also help the students to share with the student community, their knowledge of the recent trends in technology. I take this opportunity to wish IEEE RGIT, all the very best in their efforts to bridge the gap between what is the classes and all that is happening in the outside world.
As we enter into the 75th year of the cuss a few sectors in detail where Indian Independence we see that a techovation helped us in becoming new India is emerging in this mul- one of the prominent players in the ti-polar world. We can see that India multi-polar world as many geopoliti- is performing much better in various cal experts and technocrats say. socio-economic factors. This is only possible due to visionary leaders like The fi st and most important sector Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam who taught is finan e. Here we would focus on us the importance of Technovation. the financial inclusion f the people Today India in its various sectors is in recent times using Technovation. applying a high level of technovation The Unified ayments Interface has which is leading the world to reima- been a revolutionary innovation in gine old methods, thinking and pro- the field f finan e. Today the UPI cedures. transactions are equivalent to 15% of the Indian GDP. In 2017 very few India has done succeedingly well people were using the digital mode in its sectors of defence, space re- of transactions but the revolutionary search, financial inclusion, I frastruc- UPI changed the game and today our ture, Entrepreneurship, Governance, Financial Inclusion Index is 53.1. The social sectors, Technological inno- extension of these services towards vations sectors and various other featured phones will further increase sectors. The strongest pillar is sup- the reach to the rural belts as well. porting India today to do well in Today in every shop and most of the the various sectors of Technovation marketplaces we always ask for a QR which helps to get into the new way- code which has been made possible sand ideas of doing things. Let’s dis- through a technovation only which 1
has forced us to reimagine the ease. This has not only included the people financiall but also eased the various billing operations which are required in daily life. The second sector we would touch upon is Defence. After the success of Project 17B and Project 65 (A) has been the UPI, the government has tapped the finest xamples of this state-of- upon the potential of the young the-art equipment. technocrats and has banned imports of various defence equipment to Thirdly we would touch upon the sec- transform the defence manufactuing tor of governance It is very impor- tant sector with technovation. to ease the life of the citizens through technology and the Indian The major equipment that is banned Engineers and developers have been is drones, Naval multi-utility helicop- able to do so by contributing to it. The ters, artillery gun systems, anti-radia- Digital India revolution has accelebrat- tion missiles etc. Here the intended ed the technovation of the sector of vision of the leadership is that un- governance. Today various hackathon der a PPP model the DRDO, HAL and is been organised by the governments various private partners innovate the to invite various problem solvers to various equipment required by the solve problems using various innova- armed forces. We have witnessed tive methods.The present scenario has that this model has been successful. been evident to the fact that digital If we try to review the def ence avi- transformation has its roots in digital ation and the aerospace industry the governance. India today is home to transformation till now has been at more than 75 crore smartphones, 133 a perfect pace. We have seen TATA’s crore Aadhaar cards, and more than along with Boeing developing the 80 crore internet users, has 4G and is C-295 aircraft for the IAF and also the now accelerating towards 5G.Digital quadcopters developed by the Idea India solved many difficult oblems forge for the Indian Army are a good that the country has been facing for example of technovation in defence years. Ensuring delivery of government manufacturing. If we talk about the schemes to its beneficiaries without Indian Navy it has been leading in the misuse of the resources has remained race from transforming into a “Buy- a herculean task. ers Navy” to a “Builders Navy”.They have developed projects working the frigates, submarines and Destroyers which are getting on to the field and proving themselves. 2
The Jan-Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) areas giving useful information and trinity has ensured that the poorest using digital technology for vaccina- receive every penny of their entitled tion to digital education for students benefits. inancially people have of schools/colleges when they were been supported with nearly 23 Lakhs closed, there have been shining ex- using the DBT (Direct Benefit Trans- amples of empowerment, inclusion fer) Technology in the past 8 years as and opportunity. Leveraging the per the government sources. This has powers of drones and GIS technolo- led to savings of Rs 2.22 lakh crore of gies SVAMITVA Yojana is providing- public money. The digital ecosystem digital land records to the rightful was also useful in tackling the chal- owners. This will not only reduce lenge of the pandemic. From bulk disputes but also ease the process of messages to people in quarantine availingof loans and enable scientific village-level planning. Nearly 2.14 Cr of India have constantly inspired land parcels have been digitised so India to perform better and innovate far. new methods and the Indians have continuously done so. With the same These are some sectors where we track, India seems to have a great have seen the technovation but all future. the other sectors are constantlycon- tributing towards the growth of this 3 mighty and great nation. We can expect that by 2047 we would be a superpower and at that time also technovation will be as relevant as it is today. The leaders and Technocrats
2 Across Down 3. Virtual computer world 1. Skill in performing tasks, especially 5. A person who designs, builds, or with the hands. maintains engines, machines, or 2. The branch of science concerned structures. with the processes and phenomena 8. Any of a large class of organic of the atmosphere. compounds with a characteristic 3. Set of electronic circuits on a small molecular structure containing four fl t piece of silicon. rings of carbon atoms 4. A member of a technically skilled 9. A set of rules to be followed while elite. solving a problem. 6. The technique of making an appa- 10. All existing matter and space ratus, a process, or a system operate considered as a whole; the cosmos independently 7. The flying o operating of aircraft. 4
In 2020, Google affiliate Waym driving operations, and picking up launched its product, the Waymo and dropping off customers on their One to the general public. This cab own, operating without the assis- service available in suburban Phoe- tance of a driver. How did they man- nix, Arizona operates in only a limited age to accomplish such a feat? The area around Chandler and Tempe. answer is Artificial Intelligence! Users could avail of its services by Artificial Intelligence (AI) is one of the using the Waymo One app and book most booming technologies of our a cab to travel to and fro in its desig- century. It has wide-ranging appli- nated 50-mile area. However, Way- ca-tions applications in a variety of mo was able to garner massive pop- domains: from e-commerce to ener- ularity and increased public interest gy to transport and even art! Yes, AI in the service. The reason behind this art is mainstream now. was the fact that these cars did not have a driver! They were capable of In 2018, an AI-generated portrait, charting the route, performing all “Edmond de Belamy” was sold for US$432,500 at Christie’s auction house in New York. Today, this vital piece of technology has encom- passed almost every aspect of hu- man life. The major reason for its massive popularity is its abi- lity to assist human beings and perform conventional human task. While inevitably giving rise to the moral dilemma of whether AI will replace humans; it is this ability that has fostered its growth in critical areas such as healthcare, engeneering,infra- 5
structure , and transportation, help- Cars are one of the most remarkable ing bridge the gap between limita- intersections of Artificial Intelligence tions and smart solutions. and Automation Technologies. By understanding the underlying tech- nologies at play and how they work hand in hand, we can understand the science behind the working of self-driving cars. Artificial Intelligence is the biggest Firstly, let us understand what is Ar- driving force, quite literally, behind tificial Intelligence and how it works. the implementation of Self-Driving In simple terms, Artificial Intelligence Cars. is a tool that gives machines the abil- Self-driving cars are cars that can ity to think like humans and perform drive around without any human human tasks. The term AI was first assistance. It can operate by sens- coined by American computer scien- ing its surroundings and responding tist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth accordingly. This gives it the ability Conference in 1956. Since then, A to function just like a traditional car Firstly, let us understand what is Arti- steered by a human. By harness- ficial Intelligence and how it works ing the power of sensors, actuators, In simple terms, Artificial Intelligence complex algorithms, and computer is a tool that gives machines the abil- vision, self-driving cars are reaching ity to think like humans and perform higher levels of independence requir- human tasks. The term AI was first ing less and less human input. The coined by American computer scien- idea behind self-driving cars dates tist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth back to the 1500s when Leonardo da Conference in 1956. Since then, AI Vinci invented a self-propelling cart has grown leaps and bounds to be- that could travel on a predetermined come the highly sophisticated tech- path without any human interven- nology we know of today. The gener- tion, considered by some to be the al functioning of AI systems centers world’s fi st robot. However major around their ability to learn from advancements in this technology data and perform certain operations. came forth in the 1900s and early The AI systems are fed large datasets 2000s. consisting of labeled training data. This data is then processed by the Since then, several major stakehold- system with the help of algorithms ers in the automobile industry and- and it analyzes patterns, correlations, beyond have invested in the research and features in the data. This process of self-driving cars, the most nota- is performed iteratively enabling the ble being Tesla, Ford, Mercedes, and system to ‘learn’ from the given data. even car renting services like Uber. Using this knowledge, the AI system Self-Driving Cars or Autonomous is trained and becomes equipped to perform specific tasks. However, Artificial Intelligence alone is not the only component responsible for the functioning of self-driving 6
cars. That is when Automation Tech- or points of failure. This introduces an nology comes into play. Automation aspect of flexibility and adaptation is a technology that aims to minimize in automation improving its perfor- human intervention in performing mance and rate of success. tasks. It is responsible for carrying The AI-powered automation span out repetitive and manual tasks re- several industries and domains. How- ducing the workload of workers. With ever, one of the most talked-about the help of automation, a system or applications, by far, is Autonomous parts of a system can function on Vehicles or Self-Driving Cars. their own with little to no human in- Now that we have a clear under- put. The scope of automation spans standing of its underlying tech- several aspects of industries includ- nologies, let us take a look at how ing manufacturing, logistics, design, Self-driving cars work.Self-driving marketing, and management. Using cars are powered by AI technologies, automation technology increases sensors, actuators, and complex soft the efficiency of a system and reduc- ware that enable them to map their es the possibility of human error. It surroundings to perform all driving- helps businesses and stakeholders operations as well as respond to their cut costs and boosts the scalability environment. Self-driving cars utilize of a business. Automation is of sever- three major technologies that allow al types: Basic Automation, Process them to replicate the actions of a hu- Automation, Integration Automation, man driver: AI Automation, and many more. • Cameras: Self-driving cars rely Exploiting the potential of artificial intelligence has reformed the auto- heavily on cameras and computer mation technologies giving rise to a vision to get a clear visual view of new interdisciplinary field called AI their surroundings to help them Automation. navigate. It also aids in detecting AI Automation is a convergence of traffic light signals, traffic signs, Artificial Intelligence and Automa- and surrounding vehicles and pe- tion that is becoming increasingly destrians. popular for expanding the scope and • RADAR Sensors: RADAR sensors capacity of machines and process- emit radio waves that help de- es. Artificial Intelligence has helped termine the distance, angle, and take automation to the next level by velocity of an object. Self-Driving allowing the system to continuously cars make use of Radar sensors learn and adapt. With the aid of arti- to survey and monitor their sur- ficial intelligence, automation tech- roundings. nologies can process large amounts • LIDAR: Light Detection and Rang- of data and analyze what works and ing sensor emit pulses of laser what doesn’t, modifying its work ac- light that bounce back from an cordingly. Such systems can perform object, using which, it calculates problem-solving, chart the future the distance, shape, and size of course of action, and predict pitfalls the object. This technology is es- pecially important as it gives a 3D view of the car’s surroundings 7
• providing highly accurate infor- • Advanced Driver Assistance Sys- mation. These three technologies tem can perform steering, accel- work in tandem to provide a clear eration, and braking. However, the view of the car’s surroundings. The driver still has to oversee and take data from all three are processed control of the car whilst perform- by highly sophisticated software ing other operations. powered by artificial intelligence. It helps the system interpret the • Level 3: Conditional Automation data and its surroundings. Thus, At this level, the ability to sense the system can map its environ- the environment is introduced in ment, plot a path, perform driving the car. Human intervention is still operations like steering, acceler- required at this level. ation, and braking, respond to its surroundings and avoid obstacles. • Level 4: High Automation – At this Using artificial in telligence allows level, the car’s Advanced Driver the system to learn and adapt Assistance System can perform all continuously, imitatingthe actions tasks of driving under certain con- and decision-making skills of a hu- ditions. Human input at this level is man driver. Self-driving cars, how- optional. ever, is a broad term and several levels of automation are included • Level 5: Full Automation- Finally, in the same. the highest level of automation is the one wherein the vehicle can The Society of Automotive Engineers perform all tasks of driving and (SAE) has prescribed 6 increasing lev- operate on its own. There is no els of automation in self-driving cars need for human assistance at this which are as follows: stage. • Level 0: No Automation – Human Currently, many automobile compa- driver operates the car completely. nies offer cars having the Advanced Driver Assistance System feature • Level 1: Driver Assistance – The Ad- such as Mercedes-Benz Drive Pilot vanced Driver Assistance System and Tesla’s Auto Pilot. However, these automates a single aspect of the are still level 2 or level 3 automation car. The driver is still majorly in- vehicles and need driver assistance volved in the operating of the car. most of the time. The biggest players in the automobile sector are now in • Level 2: Partial Automation – The the designing and testing phase of cars with higher levels of automation. A tremendous amount of effort and investment is being poured into the research of self-driving cars due tothe numerous tangible benefits it offers. Self-driving cars can reduce the casualties caused by road accidents each year, improving the safety lev- el of the car. Up to 94% of car acci- dentsare caused by human errors such as drunk driving or reckless driving. 8
Since self-driving cars use sophisti- They need to make sure that self- cated computer systems, they can driving cars are completely safe be- overcome the obstacle of human fore giving them permission to hit error. It is estimated that self-driving the road and be available to the cars could reduce road accidents by general public. Also, insurance com- up to 90 %. By smart path mapping panies need to have new codes and and communicating with each other regulations on how to handle any po- to calculate the appropriate distance tential accidents that may be caused between two cars, self-driving cars by self-driving cars. The city infra- can reduce traffic ongestion on structure also plays an important role roads. Self-driving cars utilizing clean in the extent to which self-driving energy can drastically reduce urban cars can be operable. While these CO2 emissions. Transportation costs barriers sound daunting, researchers, can be decreased with the help of investors, and stakeholders are ac- self-driving cars. In terms of cost sav- tively brainstorming to find n w and ings, it is forecasted that self-driving creative solutions to overcome these cars could cut costs upwards of $800 hurdles. Whilst still having a long way billion each year. Self-driving cars to go, products such as Waymo One can prove to be a boon for people give us a hopeful glimpse of what the with disabilities and senior citizens future might hold for us when fully providing them with greater auton- autonomous cars become a reality. omy over their lives. Self-driving cars The milestones achieved in the introduce the feature of self-parking realm of self-driving cars are truly that will save both time and effort appreciable. However, it is not just for the drivers. Despite all efforts, cars anymore! Most recently, the we are still miles away from the im- Mayfl wer Autonomous Ship com- plementation of fully autonomous pleted a journey of 2,700 miles from cars. What are the factors holding Plymouth, the UK to Halifax, Canada. us back? This crewless ship was run by an ar- Self-driving cars have a very calcu- tificial i telligence system designed lated sense of driving. Human drivers by IBM which managed to accom- do not. Hence the biggest hurdle is plish its entire journey autonomous- to get self-driving cars to operate ly! The numerous advancements in effectively in unpredictable human the sector of autonomous vehicles conditions such as speed driving, have extended beyond the confines without risking the safety of any per- of self-driving cars. More and more son involved. Self-driving cars can vehicles are being powered by au- be taught how to perform driving tonomous driving technology due operations. However, they still need to its numerous benefits. The efforts to understand and process driving by investors and researchers alike regulations that may change accord- have broadened the horizons of au- ing to the country or state. Self-driv- tomation technology. With newer ing cars also present a challenge to breakthroughs in this field very day, insurance companies and state and AI-fueled automation technology federal licensing companies. has revolutionized the way the world works. 9
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Elon Musk is famous for having an Elon Musk’s latest company Neural- extraordinary vision for the future ink Corp is working on a micron-sized like Humans colonizing mars by 2029, device to link the human brain with Brain chips to heal minds and store a machine interface it was meet with memories these ideas sell themselves the same response. in an over-ambitious world of today as these ideas seem like science fi - What is Neuralink? tion ripped from the pages of a com- Co-founded by Elon Musk, Neuralink ic book. seeks to achieve an enhanced level of consciousness. Neuralink is a compa- The human body’s most complex ny that pursues to develop technol- organ is the brain. Neuroscience has ogies that will help improve the way made substantial growth towards we use the human brain and expand mapping the complex operations of our ability to communicate vastly. the brain’s 80 billion or so neurons This is done by developing technol- and about 100 trillion connections ogy that allows the human mind to between them. And while science interface directly with any machine. doesn’t fully understand the brain The Link can be used to control an yet, researchers in this expanding iOS device, keyboard, and mouse di- field h ve been making progress. rectly with the activity of your brain, just by thinking about it through the When Musk picks up any concept it Neuralink app. The Neuralink app is usually surrounded by a lot of hype guides the user through exercises as well as a certain amount of skepti- that teach the user how to control cism so when it was revealed that devices The Link device connects to 11
any external device through a Blue- tooth connection. On the 9th of April 2021, Neural- ink released an incredible video. It showed a macaque monkey 9 years old named Pager successfully playing a game of Pong using his mind, by having a neural link implant connect- ed to the device running the game. Pager was shown playing the game with a joystick and was given a sip of banana smoothie for each mo- ment performed correctly as an in- centive. As he played the game the Link implant recorded the patterns of electrical activity taking place in his brain. This mapped out which neurons controlled which motion. As soon as the joystick was disconnect- ed Pager was able to play the game using only his mind. Neuralink can be very advantageous What is BMI? in the future for merging humans A brain-machine interface (BMI), with machines, especially for people sometimes called a brain-computer with various kinds of neurological interface (BCI) is a direct communi- disorders which cause a discon- cation pathway between the brain’s nection between the brain and the electrical activity and an external de- nerves that serve the body. Neural- vice, most commonly a computer or ink prosthetics may be able to help robotic limb. BMIs are often aimed at people suffering from such disorders. mapping, researching, augmenting, Examples of Neurological disorders assisting, or repairing human cogni- which cause a disconnection be- tive or sensory-motor functions. tween the brain and the nerves that serve the body Paraplegia, Quadri- The user can type any messages at plegia, Parkinson’s disease, and Epi- the speed of thought and not be lepsy limited by typing speed or thumb dexterity. The only thing the user has Brain-machine interface (BMI) can to do is think of the message and the have more implementations beyond Link implant will convert it to text. medical applications. It can provide There are some concerns regarding a much faster way of interfacing with external devices compared to the- 12 process of using hands or voice.
this technology the most prominent e interface (BMI) which could over- of them being “Can Neuralink be whelm and take control of the vic- hacked?”. tim’s brain. The AI can take over and just like that we have on our hands in The Brain-machine interface (BMI) an army of mindless drones. researchers have concerns regarding Elon Musk has himself been heard on the potential harm of this technol- record stating that AI poses an exis- ogy. Without impregnable security, tential threat to humans. He sayshu- it is possible that hackers can gain mans will eventually merge with access to the Link and can cause all AI. He has tweeted “If you can’t beat kinds of disarray. This can be fatal for them, join them Neuralink mission the victim. statement”. There is also a concern of a powerful When can Human trials be expected? AI working through the Brain Elon Musk has shared that human machine trials are set to begin at the end of 2022. Details regarding this haven’t been released but it can be assumed these trials will build on previous progress. The neuroscience research needed for such a brain-machine interface (BMI) has been advancing for several decades. The require- ment was an engineering solution that solved some limitations, such as having a wirelessconnection to the implant, rather than connecting with wires. On the Question of whether Neural- ink will be a success, we can take a look at Elon Musk’s record of getting results in other fields 13
In everyday life, we all have come rapidly developing with new tools across numerous ML web applications and processes coming out all the like AI bots, Email Spam, Malware time. MLOps market was estimated at Filtering, etc. These ML features are $23.2 billion in 2019 and it may reach built and deployed in web produc- up to $126 billion by 2025. lt is one tion. It has been observed that those of the emerging job roles in recent who put AI and ML into production times. saw a 3-15% profit margin. To create a successful product at the production MLOps stands for Machine learning level, ML engineers or data scientists Operation. It applies the DevOps prin- co-operate with DevOps engineers. ciple to machine learning workflow What’s DevOps? DevOps is the de- for web production. It gives us fast velopment and operation team that experimentation, deployment, and works together to ship software to quality assurance of the model with production in minutes and keeps it end-to-end lineage tracking, which in reliable. It is the process of software turn helps managers and developers development lifecycle by providing to be more agile and strategic in their the service of continuous integration decision. In simple words functioning and continuous delivery in produc- on MLOps, tion. But 72% of the matter within the MLOps = machine learning + develop corporate world AI /ML initiatives are ment + Operation struggling at the testing stage where models often break when they’re MLOps is a set where talents like Data deployed in the real world. The mod- Engineers, Data Scientists, Operations el fails to vary in a dynamic environ- teams, and ML Engineers can collabo- ment. So that brings us to MLOps rate and communicate effici tly which is a fresh area, that’s 14
to build an efficient product for pro- MLOps level 0 (Manual process): duction. It has encompassed 7 inte- It is the phase where ML development grated and iterative processes such as takes place where Data scientists, ML development, training operation- data engineers, and ML engineers fol- alization continuous training, model low a prototype to build a model and deployment, predictive serving, and train it accordingly. It follows 7 manu- continuous monitoring. These steps als which are as follows : can be provided by a single integrat- ed platform or by combining the ven- 1. Problem defi ition: A problem dor tools to develop an MLOps ap- statement is given to the team to pro- proach. vide an idea or better AI/ML solution for the business growth. Here we note Let’s Understand the end-to-end pro- down the key requirement of indus- cess of MLOps by 3 levels which are as tries to come up with a better solu- follows : tion. 2. Data Collection: Every day the data 4. Data visualization: In this, we vis- is generated which tells us the behav- ualize the data on the basis of the ior of customers. So, in this stage, we problem statement and find seful have to collect all available data sets features to select the appropriate or focus on the subset of variables or method to build a model. data sample on which discovery is to be performed. It integrates data from 5. Model training: This is the phase multiple sources like databases, data where we build and run the powerful algorithm in the database for training cubes, or files. a model. Hence, it gives us the solu- 3. Data processing: Data processing tion to the problem statement. lets us prepare and transform a large amount of data for ML at scale in ML 6. Model evaluation: Once the model is built, the model evaluation lets us development. It handles problems like comprehend the effectiveness of the missing values, outliers, dummy val- model and compares its performance. ues, contradicting data, etc. It is an analysis on a what-if basis and gives a bias and fairness for 15
model validation. The model is then flow of data into, and output from, a stored in a model registry with its machine learning model which ty- metadata. pi-cally goes through a series of test- 7. Model serving: This stage makes ing and staging environments before a model ready to move further in it is released to production. It can be production level by deploying it. It constructed by developing a source hasbuilt-in support for a common ML code and configuration of training serving framework eg: TensorFlow pipelines or using many tools that serving. Torch Server, Nvidia Triton, are available such as Airflow, Per- etc which make runtime time envi- fect, Luigi, etc. this makes a model ronment for customers. reusable, composable, and poten- We have made a model ready to tially shareable across ML pipelines. serve but sometimes the model fails But to achieve continuous delivery to adapt to the dynamics of the envi- in model prediction service, we have ronment. This challenge addresses us performed continuous training (CT) to use MLOps, this will overcome the by automating the ML pipeline. This problem by deployingan ML training also creates fresh data based on live pipeline. That shifts us to another pipeline triggers. So this data can be phase of deployment. used to retain the model depending MLOps level 1 (ML pipeline automa- upon the use case eg: if we are using tion): a shopping website, the recommen- The pipeline implementation that’s dation of the product changes as we used in the development or exper- search and click the data. However, iment environment is used in the till now we have managed to create preproduction and production envi- to build an ML pipeline automation ronment, which is the key aspect of in production, now it needs to CI/ MLOps practice that makes unifying CD setup to automate the build, test, DevOps. ML pipeline is the end-to- and deployment of ML pipelines. end contract that orchestrates the MLOps level 2 (CI/CD pipeline auto- mation): To obtain a rapid and reliable update of pipelines in production, we need a robust automated CI(continuous integration )/CD(continuous delivery ) system. In the Continuous integra- tion stage, the project is tested in 16
In the Continuous Delivery stage, the Thus, inference logs and other serv- tested training pipeline artifacts are ing metrics are stored for continuous deployed to a target environment to monitoring and analysis. ensure model service efficiency be- fore releasing in the environment. If This was the whole working of a new pipeline fails to deploy then it MLOps but this may vary with the re- falls back to a training pipeline stage. quirement or the model production. Once the model is tested effective- There are also many tools available in ly, it is gradually served in produc- MLOps which serve cloud-based im- tion alongside the existing model plementation that helps us with End- or new model. This running online to-End solutions. Some of the top experiment is a particularly impor- commercial solutions are as follows: tant context to decide whether a new model candidate should replace the 1. Amazon SageMaker: production version which is a more Amazon SageMaker is a managed complex and multi-dimensional service in the Amazon Web Services task compared to deploying other (AWS) public cloud. It provides can software assets. In the progressive quickly and easily build and train delivery approach, a new model can- machine learning models, and then didate does not immediately replace directly deploy them into a produc- the previous version. Instead, after tion-ready hosted environment. Am- the new model is deployed to pro- azon Sagemaker features help Busi- duction, it runs in parallel to the pre- ness analysts make ML predictions vious version. The most common on- using a visual interface with Sage- line experimentation techniques that Maker Canvas, Data Scientists to pre- you can use to quantify the impact of pare data and build, train and deploy the new model on application-level models with SageMaker Studio, and objectives are A/B testing and mul- ML Engineers to deploy and man- ti-armed bandit (MAB) testing. Once age models at Scale with SageMaker the model is served at the produc- MLOps.etc tion level, the model start accepting prediction request ( server Data) and 17 server response with predication.
4. There are many more tools such as MLflow, Airflow, Kubeflow, Optu- na, Pachyderm, Neptune, Cortex, and many more. These tools provide an end-to-end solution by joining vari- ous micro-services together. 2. Microsoft Azure: Hence adapting the MLOps befits lots Azure is a cloud platform that pro- of companies, teams, etc. let’s enlist vides many MLOps features, such some following features of MLOps : as Azure machine learning to build, • Improve customer user experience. train and monitor reproducible ML • Give a real-time analysis of the pipelines, Azure Pipelines to auto- product. mate ML deployments, Azure mon- • Give faster response to changing itor to trace and analyze metrics, environmental conditions Azure Kubernetes Service, and other • Increase the automation a nd effi- additional tools. ciency of the product • Increases reliability, performance, scalability, and security of the system 3. Google Cloud: These are the feature that help the Google cloud is also a cloud plat- companies to increase revenue by form that offers many services for using Machine learning. Most of the MLOps. Such as Dataflow to extract, companies have already invested in validate, and transform data as well these capabilities and took advan- as to evaluate models, AI Platform tage by using it. One of the famous Notebook to develop and train mod- exam examples is Uber, It uses MLOps els, Cloud Build to build and test for services features such as distance machine learning pipelines, TFX to price prediction, driver ride pair, and deploy ML pipelines, Kubeflow Pipe- calculating time reaching. These mod- lines to arrange ML deployments on els are successfully deployed by using top of Google Kubernetes Engine the Michelangelo platform. This pro- (GKE), etc vides end-to-end support for man- aging model deployment via the User interface or an API. However, adapting MLOps is not just a plug-in-play task. It requires ex- perts who have proper knowledge of tools and proper coordination of a team that can also handle the tech- nical errors of the system. Hence, Machine Learning Operations help Data Scientists and machine learn- ing engineering in reducing the time between analyzing the problem and creating and deploying the solution with high-quality outputs similar to DevOps. 18
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Artificial intelligence is a field of com- Another fascinating example is- puter science that has the created intelligent machines that work and (i) Daphne: It’s a satellite system used react like human IQ; they are focused to measure the planet’s overall ar- on three cognitive skills Learning, chitecture. It has a GUI-based front Reasoning, and self-correction tech- end and has run machine learning niques. algorithms on the data sets. A deep learning model based on a CNN mod- The “CIMON” robot is a common ex- el was used to classify the input into ample talked of space explorations different categories; questions or and is merely used to support the commands. Daphne is a question-an- astronauts in the time of any difficulty swering system/analyst that is a citric and acts as a guide to show instruc- agent. tions to the astronauts in space. CI- MON flew onboard the ISS from July (ii) Kepler-90i: A machine learning 2018 to August 2019; CIMON-2 fol- algorithm was designed to learn to lowed in December 2019; it has more identify exoplanets in the light read- sensitive microphones, an advanced ings recorded by Kepler-the minus- sense of orientation, and other en- cule for the change in brightness hancements. and captured when a planet passes in front of all transit of star as well as CIMON was developed and built by Kepler version 4-year data set which the German space exploratory and also consists of more than 35000 sig- the company called AIRBUS. nals arriving from different planets. Japanese science comic ‘flying brain’ has a lot of impact on the name of (iii) Clear Space 1: It was the fi st at- CIMON and has a significant contribu- tempt of all the space organizations tion from ‘Professor Simon Wright’ to remove the amount of trash from There are various robots like CIMON; the space and which is to be imple- Robonaut 2 from NASA & Skybot mented by 2025. F-850 from the Russian space labora- tory are some examples. (iv) Black hole mergers: A model to predict what’s left after black hole The main benefit of using such robots merger-properties of the fi al black is, that they work alongside the as- hole as its spin and mass. tronauts to carry on a task that is too There’s also a concept such as Object risky for them, freeing of the crew for detection using YOLO for identifying more critical work consisting of scien- meteors. tific research. Using AI for space exploration can take human existence to another milestone. 20
METAVERSE - a term that’s widely This machine simulated the being used to describe the “next lev- experience of riding a motorcycle in el” of the internet. Although the exact Brooklyn by combining 3D video with definition varies depending on who audio, scents, and a vibrating chair to you ask, it generally refers to immer- immerse the viewer. In the 1970s, MIT sive, 3D, interconnected virtual envi- created the Aspen Movie Map, which ronments that are far more engaging enabled users to take a comput- and experiential than the websites we er-generated tour of the town of As- visit today. With the world what it is pen, Colorado. This was the first time these days, you can see why people we could use VR to transport users to might be itching for an alternate re- another place. ality, a way to reboot the system and start fresh. That’s the appeal of virtual The term “metaverse” was first used realms! They are places where powers in Neil Stevenson’s 1982 novel, Snow can be inverted and disappointments Crash. Stevenson’s metaverse was a virtual place where characters could escaped. go to escape a dreary reality. Face- Now let’s take a dig into the history of book acquired Oculus VR in 2014 in a this virtual world which has certainly $2 billion deal. At that time, Face- book founder Mark Zuckerberg stat- kept mankind hooked. It all started back in 1838 when scien- ed that Facebook and Oculus would tist Sir Charles Wheatstone outlined work together to build out the Oculus platform and develop partnerships to the concept of “binocular vision,” where you combine two images, one support more games. Also in 2014 a for each eye to make a single 3D im- busy year for XR – Sony and age. This concept led to the Samsung both announced development of stereo- they were creating their scopes, a technology own VR headsets, and where you use the illusion Google released its first of depth to create an Cardboard device and image. This is the same Google Glass AR glasses. concept used today in modern VR headsets. Microsoft’s HoloLens The first VR machine headsets hit the maket in i.e. the Sensorama 2016, which gave us Machine, was created mixed reality (AR and VR) in the year 1956 by for the first time. With Morton Heilig. HoloLens, we can cre- 21
ate a holographic image in front of us, then put it into the real world and manipulate.It using augmented re- ality. Also in 2016, people around the world were running around in their neighbourhood trying to catch Pokémon using the Pokémon GO augmented reality game. Swedish furniture giant IKEA joined (AR) and virtual reality (VR). Here are the metaverse mix in 2017 with their a few cutting-edge metaverse sports innovative Place app, which allows examples: you to select a piece of furniture and Dodge ball in the Metaverse with view what it looks like in your home or HADO:This is an e-sport called HADO, office whereas in 2020, Apple adde where players wear a connected Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) bracelet and an augmented reality to iPhones and iPads, creating bet- headset to play a version of immer- ter depth scanning for better photos sive dodge ball. Players shoot “ener- and AR, and also paving the way for gy balls” at opponents and activate mixed-reality headsets in the future. virtual shields to defend themselves And just in the year 2021, Facebook during the game. changed its name to Meta, indicating A Bird’s Eye View of the Action at its focus on shaping the future of the Wimbledon: metaverse. Now what could be more The Wimbledon tennis tournament has Hawk-Eye technology that lets interesting than this? Tech Giants showing interest to focus on the op- fans watch the ball and see wheth- portunities that are predicted to be er the shot was in or out. Hawk-Eye is built on a network of 10 cameras worth up to $21 trillion. that surround the court, capturing 60 Although it’s an idea that emerged in high-resolution images per second. gaming, the metaverse concept has A centralized computer system pro- been adopted across many industries cesses the images and calculates the that are extremely keen to capital- flight path for every shot taken in the ize on the opportunities. Let’s take a match. look at the overwhelming impact this 2. Fashion virtual world has had on the various Thanks to the pandemic, online shop- industries. ping has never been more popular. 1. Sports However, there are some ways in From training, to broadcasting, to- which it falls short. For example, when watching and playing games, the it comes to fashion, customers have metaverse is revolutionizing the world always appreciated the opportuni- of sports. This latest phase of tech- ty to touch, feel and try on items of nological evolution, includes far more clothing, an experience that online exciting immersive environments and shopping has so far not replicated experiences using augmented reality well. 22
This means we will be able to take our The chain has filed patent applic - avatars into “virtual dressing rooms” tions indicating that it is in the pro- and virtually try on as many diffe - cess of developing “virtual restau- ent items of clothing from a retailer’s rants.” As we are spending more and inventory as we wish. Using technolo- more of our time online, McDonald’s gy like that developed by a company is betting that just as teenagers like named ReactiveReality, we can see to meet and hang out in burger res- what they will look like on our bodies. taurants today, tomorrow, they will We can view ourselves wearing the log into virtual reality (VR) equiva- items from any angle and also place lents where they can talk to friends our avatar in many different env - in entertaining environments, as well ronments, such as offices, beaches as order food and drink deliveries to or nightclubs.This is an application their homes. It also plans to sell vir- of mixed reality (MR) – technology tual goods, this might take the form that involves taking elements of both of branded clothing and other items virtual reality (VR) and augmented that can be used to decorate avatars reality (AR) and combining them to or customers’ virtual homes in the create imagery that is part real, part metaverse. virtual. In this way, retailers will also get access to a huge amount of data 4. Top brands that can be harvested from custom- Nike ers as they try on clothes. This data Nikeland is Nike’s purpose-built can be used by fashion retailers to metaverse space that uses the Roblox make recommendations and improve platform to allow its fans to meet, conversion rates. Metaverse will also socialize, take part in promotions help retailers to reduce the huge cost and engage with a whole range of and waste generated by dealing with brand experiences. According to Nike, returns. If virtual dressing rooms allow 7 million visitors have spent time in customers to make better buying de- Nikeland since its launch in Novem- cisions, they could result in a huge re- ber 2021. While there, they have been duction in waste as well. The idea has able to enjoy celebrity appearances become so popular that this year saw from sports stars, including LeBron the launch of the first ever ’Metaverse James, as well as buy exclusive digi- Fashion Week’, hosted on the popular tal products to decorate their avatars Decentraland platform, visitors were with. The items are not restricted to able to buy items of clothing in the Nikeworld and can be worn as their virtual world and have them shipped avatars travel to other Roblox envi- to their homes in the real world. Fash- ronments thereby turning the visi- ion retailers including Tommy Hilfiger torsinto digital brand ambassadors. and Dolce & Gabbana were among Sounds amazing, right? But this little the ones who participated. curious mind has a question. Can life in the metaverse be meaningful?Now 3. Food when we talk about Virtual Reality, by McDonald’s In The Metaverse definition, it is something not real. So Many global brands are seeing VR as if it’s true that we will find ourselves the next big thing in both marketing increasingly living our lives in the vir- and customer experience, and Mc- tual worlds and environments of the Donald’s is no exception. metaverse, will this end up cheapen- 23
ing what it means to be human? Is it to carve out a space in the metaverse possible that we can live meaning- where they will be able to connect ful and fulfilling lives as digital av - tars? We all know that people of age with and sell products to us in new groups these days tend to spend ways. So, there’s plenty in it for ce- most of their lives plugged into digi- lebrities and corporations but what tal devices and social media. Imagine about us? Well, for me, the true val- how much more addictive it will be ue to be found in the metaverse isn’t when rather than smartphone screens necessarily in the virtual elements of filled with carefully posed selfies an these worlds but in the “real” element, videos, the virtual worlds at our fi - elements that will inevitably arise gertips will be fully 3D, immersive due to the fact that we share these environments that are indistinguisha- worlds with other living, breathing ble from reality, and capable of taking human beings.In other words, there’s any form we can imagine. no reason to think that a conversation or other interaction that takes place It might sound fantastic, but a 2020 between two people is necessarily Ericsson survey found that 70% of any less “meaningful” simply because respondents believe we will be able to it takes place in a virtual environment. create VR worlds that our brains can’t distinguish from real worlds by 2030. It makes sense that in a VR environ- We have already seen people getting ment where we are represented by married in the metaverse. It has also lifelike avatars with our own physical been estimated that, by 2035, more characteristics, bonds would form than half of romantic relationships even more readily. And what about will start online – through dating apps experiences? We might think of a or whatever new methods of digital real-life experience as “meaningful” matchmaking emerge as the digital if it provides an emotional reaction, domain continues to evolve. It’s clear such as fun or laughter, or if we learn that we are not instinctively averse to something from it, either in an educa- experiencing major life events virtu- tional sense or if it teaches us some- ally. Is this a trend that will continue thing about ourselves or other people. to grow, as has happened with the Putting aside, for the moment, those encroachment of the internet into ‘impossible-to-verify’ arguments that all other aspects of life? Or will there we are already living inside a virtual be some form of kickback against reality simulation, it seems clear to me it? Companies like Meta (Formerly that we will not find it difficult to find known as Facebook) and Microsoft meaning in the virtual worlds. As long are definitely optimistic about this as, just as is the case with actual real- metaverse .They are throwing huge ity, they provide us with the ability to ofmoney into making what we used make connections with other people to call “cyberspace” amounts. and share experiences with those we meet there. Brands are also already on board, from business chains like McDonald’s, Disney, Gucci, and Coca Cola, to en- tertainment icons like Snoop Dogg and Paris Hilton, everyone is racing 24
1. What do you mean by silicon pho- tronics) (SOI). tonics? Existing semiconductor production- Silicon Photonics is a material plat- techniques can be used to make sil- form that can be used to create pho- icon photonic devices, and because tonic integrated circuits (PICs). Sili- silicon is already used as the substrate con Photonics is abbreviated as SiPh. for most integrated circuits, hybrid Silicon Photonics combines two of devices combining optical and elec- the twentieth century’s most impor- tronic components on a single micro- tant inventions: the silicon integrated chip are viable. circuit and the semiconductor laser. As a result, numerous electronics It allows for speedier data transfer companies, including IBM and Intel, over longer distances than tradition- as well as academic research organ- al electronics while taking use of In- isations, are actively researching sil- tel’s high-volume silicon production icon photonics as a way to stay up economies. It’s a technology for con- with Moore’s Law by employing opti- necting data centres. It uses a combi- cal interconnects to offer faster data nation of semi-conductor laser tech- transfer both between and within nology and a silicon integrated circuit microchips. to transport data between data cen- The Kerr effect, the Raman effect tres at breakneck rates. two-photon absorption, and inter- The study and implementation of actions between photons and free photonic systems that use silicon as charge carriers are all nonlinear op- an optical medium is known as silicon tical phenomena that influence light photonics. Silicon is typically shaped propagation through silicon devic- into microphotonic components with es. Nonlinearity is essential because sub-micrometer precision. These it allows light to interact with other work in the infrared, most typically at light, allowing for applications such as the 1.55 micrometre wavelength that wavelength conversion and all-opti- most fibre optic telecommunication cal communication routing in addition systems employ. Silicon is often de- to passive light transmission. posited on top of a layer of silica in a Silicon waveguides are also of great process known as silicon on insulator academic interest because of their (after a similar design in microelec- unusual guiding qualities, which allow 25
them to be employed for communica- gap (III-V materials), like Indium Phos- tions, interconnects, biosensors, and phide (InP), are most usually used to exotic nonlinear optical phenomena make semiconductor lasers for the like soliton propagation. frequencies utilized in tele and da- tacom (1550 and 1310nm). Different 2. What are the benefits and draw- methods exist to coordinate III-V ma- backs of silicon photonics? terials as well as complete lasers in the Silicon photonics PICs’ benefits and SiPh wafer (chip) to drive the photonic drawbacks enable, extend, and in- parts inside the photonic circuit. crease data transfer. PICs may use less energy and produce less heat than 3. What is the relationship between traditional electronic circuits, allowing photonic and electrical circuits? for more energy-efficient bandwidth PICs can’t manage without “typical” scaling. Because SiPh is compatible or Electronic ICs to frame a total ar- with CMOS (electronic) production, rangement serving an application. SiPh PICs can be produced utilising In an optical pluggable handset, one existing foundry equipment. Older necessities the hardware to drive the CMOS nodes may be completely ad- modulator and enhance the signs equate for patterning and fabricating from the photodetector, and extra photonic devices and circuits due to computerized gadgets signal han- the physics of photonics. dling is frequently required. Silicon Waveguides, which connect photon- photonics manufacture cycles can ic devices in a circuit, are built from shift starting with one foundry then a silicon core and come in a variety onto the next and incorporate electri- of shapes and sizes, such as a rib or a cal gadgets. Assuming that that is the strip, with the oxide from the SOI sub- case we talk about solid silicon pho- strate as the bottom cladding and air tonics, permitting planners to plan or another layer of silicon oxide as the both electrical and optical capacities top cladding. These waveguides carry in very much the same chip, rather light, and due to the material qual- than planning (at least two) chips that ities of silicon, only infrared signals should be consolidated in a bundle. can be carried without severe losses. As consistently with item improve- Nowadays, silicon photonics PIC tech- ment, dynamic about what innovation niques frequently contain additional to choose for a specific application waveguides made of silicon nitride as accompanies cost, execution, time to the core material, allowing for a larger showcase contemplations and coop- range of wavelengths to be carried, erating ahead of schedule with a likely including visible light. foundry and bundling supplier will Light sources (lasers, the “power sup- help in making the right compromise ply” of photonic circuits and frame- examination. works) are today difficult to fabricate SiPh is progressively utilized in optical in silicon due to the circuitous band- datacom, detecting, biomedical, car, gap of the material (a level shift be- space science, aviation, AR/VR and AI tween the valence and conduction applications. An illustration of an auto band of the material). For light to be application is incorporated LiDAR created, a material necessitates to chips for independent vehicles. Syn- have a direct bandgap. Consequently, opsys upholds the business by giving different materials with a direct band a one of a kind and complete start to 26
fi ish plan answer for silicon photon- has not demonstrated successful for ics, covering gadgets and photonics. lasing in view of warm dissemination Synopsys is working intimately with inside the material. Hence, outside all significant foundries to help the lasers have been expected in the as- improvement of silicon photonics sembling of optical PCs utilizing sil- fabricating, PDKs and apparatus ena- icon chips. Specialists are creating blement. techniques for defeating issues that Silicon photonics is an advancing forestall the utilization of silicon, in innovation wherein information is any case. For instance, consolidating moved among CPUs by optical beams. silicon with indium phosphide further Optical beams can convey defi itely a develops its IR-bandwidth. Electric bigger number of information quicker flow is applied to the indium phos- than electrical channels. phide through metal cathodes, caus- Optical fi er is being utilized to defeat ing photon discharges that can be the constraint of copper in systems bound and packed in a silicon cavity, administration and capacity region delivering reasonable IR. organizations (SANs) to help quicker interconnects between server farms. The following limit in execution is the network among chips and processors. The idea includes consolidating la- ser and silicon innovation on a similar chip. The better presentation results from the more prominent accessible data transmission and higher spread speed of infrared (IR) radiates con- trasted and electric flow. The viable execution of silicon photonics inno- vation would decisively speed up and force of PCs. Silicon photonics research started in the last part of the 1980s and has been continuous from that point on- ward. The innovation utilizes lasers to move information into light heart- beats. A multiplexer joins the beats into a solitary sign which traverses an optic fi er to a silicon recipient where de-multiplexers partition the sign once more into discrete channels. Photodetectors can then transform the light once again into information. By and large, perhaps the most seri- ous test confronting the designers of silicon photonics has been the way that laser gadgets, which create the IR radiates that convey the information, are eager for power. Also, silicon 27
Supercomputers have impacted each individual’s life in the 21st century in ways that he/she can possibly im- agine. Do you love driving your new car and watching online high budget movies and TV series with spectacular special effects? Do you enjoy online shopping and quick banking and pay- ment services? If the answer is yes, supercomputers play an integral role in your life but are hard to notice. Supercomputers are high perfor- mance computers with great compu- tational capabilities suited to solve complex challenges in the field of science and engineering. Supercom- puters have a couple of advanced CPUs, large storage capacity and input/ output capacity designed to handle extremely large volumes of data. Unlike conventional computers, they have a drastically large capacity of memory/ RAM, speed and storage. Supercomputers use vector arithme- tic which means they can work on a list of numbers. The processing speed of these marvels of technology are measured in floating point operations per second. It is most commonly ex- pressed in petaflops (PFLOPS). The numerous high performing processors in supercomputers make them capa- ble of performing complex calcula- tions within seconds. Supercomputers can be operated by multiple people at the same time and can occupy a con- siderable amount of space and are su- per expensive to build and maintain. Supercomputers are capable of sup- porting a number of users at the same time efficiently and accurately carry out computationally intensive tasks. Seymour Cray is considered to be the father of supercomputing and designed the fi st commercial super- computer in 1964. Cray 1 is considered 28
as the fi st supercomputer and paved used for military and national secu- the way for modern and advanced rity purposes like design of nuclear versions of supercomputers. Com- weapons and aid in cryptography. mon artificial intelligence applications Supercomputers are used to run sim- in the early days of supercomputers ulations which are helpful in weather included facial recognition, ability to forecasting, seismology and under- play strategy games like chess and standing fluid dynamics and nuclear aid in national security. Since then physics. Risk calculation in the bank- many commercial players like Micro- ing and fi ance sector, production soft, IBM, Nvidia, Amazon Web Ser- lines, aero engines, combustion and vices have become notable players crash simulations are also handled in the supercomputer and high-per- effectively by supercomputers. Other formance computing market. Most fields that heavily depend on super- of the recent supercomputers have a computers are cryptanalysis, oil and Linux based OS (operating systems) gas (petroleum) industry, advanced which is open source. manufacturing, energy, biotechnolo- gy, bioinformatics, aerospace, genetic Supercomputers have widely been engineering, airline industry, quantum used in research and testing of math- mechanics and industrial, academic ematical models, to understand and and technical research. Automobile study the evolution of human life, industry uses these machines in their natural phenomena like weather fore- study and research of developing and casting, meteorology, environmental designing efficient and fast vehicles. or climate change, developing nuclear The entertainment industry also uses weapons and reactors. They played a supercomputers to create animations key role in advancement in the field of and special effects which are used medical science by helping scientists widely in sci-fi m vies and online and doctors in formulating new drugs games and also drastically improves or vaccines and understanding how the performance of multi-player on- various viruses, bacteria and multicel- line games. The fi ance sector also lular organisms function which aid in uses supercomputers for handling our fight with life threatening diseas- stock exchanges, high frequency and es and ailments and also predict new algorithmic trading. The fi ancial potential diseases and illnesses and market place owes their emerging their impact. Coupled with artificial success of online / digital currency intelligence, researchers use super- like bitcoin, ethereum, dogecoin and computers to run simulations to solve others to these powerful machines. global pressing issues like the spread of pandemics like COVID-19. Without supercomputers, these simulations would be too expensive and difficult or impossible to reproduce in a phys- ical environment. Supercomputers are also used by scientists and astro- physicists to know more about outer space, understand and study celestial bodies, galaxies and black holes. Su- percomputers have primarily been 29
Heat management has always been which make it in the top 500 glob- one of the challenges posed by su- al list of supercomputers and rank percomputers. These machines re- 63rd in the world. PARAM Siddhi-AI quire enormous electrical power is the fastest supercomputer made in which in turn generates a lot of heat India, which rank 89th globally. It and require suitable infrastructure was the brainchild of Centre for De- and cooling systems to ensure their velopment of Advanced Computing smooth functioning. Also supercom- (C-DAC) and is located in Pune, India. puters need to be handled by trained and experienced professionals. All Supercomputers are used to effec- these factors contribute to the high tively run A.I (artificial intelligence) maintenance cost of these powerful programs because of their impressive machines. Different ways to resolve computational power, complex prob- this issue have been adopted by man- lem solving capabilities and its nu- ufacturers of successful commercial merous microprocessors which have supercomputers and has also pushed the capacity to handle huge volumes them to practice green computing. of data in a short period of time with accuracy. The supercomputer and The fi st supercomputers were cre- high-performance computing (HPC) ated in the mid1900s and the race to market is a promising market with create advanced and cost effective a promising future. More and more versions of supercomputers is still on- companies are relying on big data, going. Countries like the USA, China, analytics and artificial intelligence India, Japan, Canada and other Euro- for optimizing their processes and pean nations are pioneers in the de- making informed business decisions. velopment of supercomputers. There Hence cloud computing, an alterna- are 500+ supercomputers globally out tive to the capabilities of supercom- of which America and China have the puters have become extremely popu- lion’s share. Different versions of su- lar and have been used globally. This percomputers are created world wide is mainly because cloud computing based on its specific application and is comparatively scalable and cost the research projects it would be used efficient than the on-premises super- for. India has 3 supercomputers computers which are costly to run and maintain. 30
PARADOX This classic gem, The Dichotomy Paradox, also comes from Zeno. From this brainteaser about distance and motion, Zeno drew the conclusion that all motion is actually impossible. Like the Limited And Unlimited Paradox, this deals with a division that becomes nev- er-ending. Let’s say that you decide to walk to the store and buy a soda. For you to get there, you’ll have to cross the halfway point. No problem, this makes sense. But from the halfway point, you’ll have to next cross the halfway point of the halfway point (three-quarters of the way from your house to the store). Then you’ll have to cross the half- way point of that distance and the halfway point of the next smaller distance. So wait a minute. If you keep dividing your trip into halfway points, you’ll never actually be across the halfway point . . . .ever! How is this possible? You know that you can go to the store and get a soda. But when do you actually cross the last halfway point (where there are no more halfway points)? Zeno seemed obsessed with this question of where we draw the line. When are you actually inside the store? 31
production was stopped when the corona started to occur. Automobile companies reduced CPU orders early in the pandemic due to reduced demand. Their production has been reassigned to other buy- ers. The automotive sector recovered faster than expected. But the tip isn’t there. Chip production takes about three months, and a power outage at any stage can result in the loss of all production during those three months. Recently, the Texas power grid has ordered all Texas semicon- ductor manufacturers to go offli . When the chip shortage fi st paralyz- ed the automobile industry’s produc- After that, the US-China conflict tion lines in 2021, the semiconductor “trade war” occurs. As a result, Chi- industry was in extraordinary lime- nese companies like Huawei are hav- light. Suddenly, everyone was talking ing a hard time buying and manufac- about a small chip that enables so turing chips that contain US content. many different car features, from in- Essentially, which is everyone. terior lighting to seat control to blind- spot detection. Attention increased as some tech and consumer electronics The next problem is that not all chip companies began to experience chip makers are the same. Intel was once shortages and raised supply chain by far the best chip maker. For years, concerns. Now it’s obvious to every- I’ve been sticking to the 14nm pro- one. We live in the world of semicon- cess. Attempts to reach 10 nm have ductors. very low yields and do not have the expected benefits. urrently, the best Taiwan is the largest producer of sem- manufacturer ever is TSMC. Apple has iconductors, and China is in the pro- committed all of its 5nm capacity to cess of completely annexing Taiwan new laptops and desktops, as well with little world-class support. China as ARM-based M1 chips for the new bought an excess of semiconductors iPhone and iPad. The TSMC 7nm pro- in 2019, but now that they are in con- cess is mainly used by AMD. I’m trying flict, is the e an unspecified shortage to knock out the PS5, the new Xbox, that prevents tech manufacturing desktop and laptop chips, and chips from recovering outside of China? for the GPU. IIRC Nvidia is “satisfied” with Samsung 8nm. It’s almost hard to imagine that this is But what led to the current dilemma? as “amazing” and “unexpected” as it And what awaits the semiconductor seems to work. There was also a short- industry and the significa t economic age of parts to make the chip, and value it creates? 32
The biggest reason I can think of: In addition to long-standing prob- Increased demand. Most of this is a lems in the industry, such as the lack pandemic, and everyone and their of capacity in semiconductor fabs, dog wants a new laptop / desktop to the COVID-19 pandemic poses un- get back to remote work and games. precedented challenges. For example, Part of this is the rise of other indus- automakers cut chip orders in early tries – EVS is starting to take off sig- 2020 as car sales plummeted. When nifica tly, requiring more electronics demand recovered faster than ex- than ICE vehicles, cryptocurrencies pected in the second half of 2020, the are booming again, and demand for semiconductor industry was already everything that can be mined is sig- shifting production lines to meet the nifica t. demand for other applications. Sem- iconductor companies are improving The underestimates of this demand is their throughput, which will contrib- due to the integration of the manu- ute to expected revenue growth of facturing industry. Currently, there are approximately 9% in 2021. This is an only two major third-party foundries, increase from about 5% seen in 2019 TSMC and Samsung.And in reality, last year before the pandemic. Some TSMC is far ahead of Samsung. governments are also increasing their investment in semiconductor technol- Pandemic supply chain disruption. ogy to mitigate the effects of global This can happen in unexpected ways. supply chain disruptions. Not only the foundry itself is delayed, but also the movement of goods from However, due to the complexity of the manufacturing site A to manufactur- semiconductor manufacturing pro- ing site B, or the interruption of small cess, it is unlikely that the current chip IC / SMT components that people shortage will be resolved in the near rarely think of. future. For products already estab- lished on the production line, the nor- Increased manufacturing complexity. mal lead time can exceed 4 months. Creating 5nm or 7nm or similar is dif- Moving a product to another man- ficult and equires expensive / time ufacturing site to increase capacity consuming / rare EUV machines or usually adds an additional 6 months multi-pattern DUVs ... It takes time. (even in an existing plant). Switching Building a new state-of-the-art fa- to another manufacturer usually ex- cility can be very expensive (over $ 15 tends for an additional year or more, billion) and you don’t want to spend as the chip design needs to be modi- too much just to fill the si e with 70% fied o suit the specific manu acturing capacity. Adding layers to the DUV process of the new partner. process is time consuming and reduc- es wafer throughput. In addition, some chips may contain their own intellectual property that Chip Shortage- less supply, more de- needs to be modified o licensed. mand Many companies in need of endan- A confluen e of the problem, which is gered Global Value semiconductors in low supply and in high demand. are already rethinking their long-term 33
sourcing strategies. For example, you from late 2015 to late 2019.Last year, may move from a “just-in-time” or- shareholders saw even higher returns, dering model, which helps minimize averaging 50% per annum, as con- inventory costs, to a model that or- sumers and businesses upped their ders semiconductors well in advance. purchases of digital equipment of all Many semiconductor companies are kinds, partly in response to the COV- coordinating long-standing strategies ID-19 pandemic. to stay strong. The decisions made by semiconductor companies can The question is whether the semicon- have a significa t economic impact ductor industry can continue deliv- on both the industry and the econo- ering such strong returns, especially my as a whole. And stakes are higher as the pandemic continues to create than ever. In the early 2000s, the rate uncertainties about demand patterns, of return on semiconductor compa- supply chains and other issues. nies was low, with most companies Beyond increasing production capac- making less than the cost of capital. ity, semiconductor companies could However, profitabilit has improved consider several steps to continue over the last decade, with increasing their growth and meet customer de- demand for microchips in most indus- mand. They could undertake more tries, rapid growth in the technology M&A deals and partnerships to gain sector and increased cloud adoption, an edge in profitable segme ts and and continued integration in many expand their customer base. Sem- subsegments it is supported by. As a iconductor companies might also result, the profitabilit of the semi- increase investments in innovative conductor industry has improved sig- technologies that will help them de- nifica tly compared to other sectors, velop leading-edge chips for auton- and this trend is expected to contin- omous cars, the internet of things, ue. The capital markets are reward- artificial i telligence, and other areas ing the increased profitabilit of the with burgeoning growth. Above all, semiconductor industry. Companies in more agile strategies may be impor- this sector are delivering an average tant during these uncertain times. annual profit f 25% to shareholders 34
“Dark matter makes up the vast majority of matter in the universe, but scientists still do not know the nature of this exotic material.” The idea of dark matter started in the orbiting the exterior edges of the 1930s when astronomer Fritz Zwicky galaxies moved in the same way tracked the velocities of over 1,000 quickly as those at the center, per- galaxies clustered together and ob- haps due to a halo of dark matter served that the pull that is gravita- providing an extra gravitational pull. tional noticeable matter alone wasn’t Of late, an image of two colliding gal- strong enough to keep the group axies, nicknamed the Bullet Cluster, from traveling aside. He posited that exhibited gravitational lensing that is there should be a matter that an in- bent due to enormous gravity—that dividual can’t see—dark matter—that could never be explained by visible contributes most of the force that is matter alone. Researchers say why gravitational and holds everything in these fin ings strongly point out the place. presence of dark matter, but exact- Forty years later, astronomers Vera ly what that matter is constructed Rubin and Kent Ford found more of stays a secret. Boffins are also proof of dark matter by studying the attempting to create matter that is motion of stars within spiral galaxies. dark by crashing two high-energy They discovered that moving stars protons into one another within the 35
Large Hadron Collider, mimicking SuperCDMS detectors are designed what may have taken place at the Big aided by the main function of detect- Bang when all these particles formed. ing the moment crystal lattice vi- Finally, direct detection experiments brations (phonons) and ionization like LZ and SuperCDMS hope that (charge) produced within the detector dark matter particles occasionally crystal by elastic collisions between connect to normal matter through detector nuclei and as low-mass mat- poor force, allowing them to be spot- ter that is dark. The vitality deposited ted by acutely painful and sensitive in a detector by an interacting dark detectors. Because the faculties of matter can be as low as several tens dark matter particles are entirely of electron volts (eV). Event detection unknown, researchers attempting to at such energy takes a painful and detect matter that is dark by an ed- sensitive device that is experimen- ucated guess about what mass their tal. The foremost requirement is that detectors must certainly be looking the detector is maintained at a very out for. low heat to distinguish the deposit- The absolute most well-regarded ed power through the thermal power matter that is dark is the weakly so- regarding the detector’s nuclei. cializing massive particle or WIMP. WIMPs fi st gained appeal after the- oretical physicists noted that weakly interacting particles were roughly 100 times more massive compared to a proton that had been created in the Big Bang. 1. SuperCDMS | Super Cryogenic 2. LZ Detector: Dark Thing Search: The LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment uses The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search 7 tonnes of active xenon that is a fluid (SuperCDMS) is one of several collab- to search for xenon nuclei that recoil orations performing experiments to in reaction to collisions caused by an directly identify these particles and impinging flux f dark matter parti- thus realize the character of the mat- cles known as WIMPs (Weakly Inter- ter that is dark. acting Massive Particles). The test will The SuperCDMS collaboration is nearly be located 1 mile underground looking for dark matter particles with in the Sanford Underground Research a public smaller compared to ten Facility (SURF) in Lead, Southern Da- times the mass of the proton. Such kota. The active liquid is configu ed in dark matter is a natural consequence a cylinder 1.5 meters in diameter and of present theories postulating the height, with a used electric industry presence of a ‘dark sector’, parallel- ing the conventional matter particles and getting together with them only weakly. Detecting these particles would open a window up into an un- known pair of brand-new particles. 36
to make a TPC (Time Projection Chamber). Xenon that is recoiling creates a prompt flash of scintillation light, followed by the delayed flash of elec- troluminescence. The light signals are detected by 494 photomultiplier tubes, which are deployed above and underneath the liquid xenon. The central xenon that is liquid is surrounded by way of a thin, instrumented region of fluid xenon, an outer detector of gadolin- ium-loaded liquid scintillator, and a layer of ultrapure water, to identify and minimize false signals. LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ), a next-generation dark matter, will replace the Large Underground Xenon (LUX) experi- ment. Your decision that is critical 3CD-3) approval places LZ on track to start its deep-underground to search for theoretical particles known as WIMPs in 2020.LZ is made so that in case a dark matter collides with a xenon atom, it will create a prompt flash of light followed closely by an additional flash of light once the electrons stated in the liquid xenon chamber drift to its top. The light pulses, found with several about 500 light-amplifying tubes lining the tank—over that is massive times sig- nificantly more than were set up in LUX—will carry the telltale fin erprint regarding the particles that creat- ed them. Daniel Akerib and Thomas Shutt are leading the LZ group at SLAC National Accelerator Labora- tory, including an attempt to purify xenon for LZ by removing krypton , a component that is normally found in trace amounts with xenon after standard refin ment procedures 37
Summary: When the different upgraded de- tectors are manufactured functional and their particular backgrounds are recognized, every one of them will be able to defi itively show perhaps the XENON1T-test has seen matter that is dark. A few of these experiments are far along, also it won’t be that long until the appropriate real ques- tion is answered, although Covid has slowed progress. Comprehending the cosmic secrets that dark matter is proposed to re- solve is a goal that is pushing the physics community. One thing makes galaxies turn too fast and holds groups of galaxies together. Therefore can we state we’ve discov- ered matter… that is dark?? That could be a conclusion that is hasty nevertheless the situation is pretty interesting. 38
A fruitful collaboration between the ble, who determined that the universe National Aeronautics and Space Ad- is not static but expanding. In its 25 ministration (NASA) and The Europe- years of working, Hubble has made an Space Agency (ESA) paved way to more than 1.3 million observations the conception of the Hubble Space since the beginning of its mission. One Telescope, the world’s fi st major op- of the main goals for Hubble was to tical telescope to be placed in space. determine just how quickly the uni- Since its inauguration, the Hub- verse is stretching. Apart from that, ble Space Telescope has furnished the Hubble helped pin down the age awe-inspiring images of the cosmos of our universe, discovered two moons and changed our fundamental un- of Pluto and confirmed that every gal- derstanding of the universe. But what axy has a massive black hole at its makes it EPIC? The Hubble Space tel- center. These discoveries along with escope was launched way back in the several others proved to be a boon April of 1990, just months after the for the astronomy community and ac- emergence of the World Wide Web celerated the understanding of previ- (WWW). Yet the highly advanced and ously unknown phenomena. The Hub- sophisticated technologies that make ble Space Telescope also paved way up this telescope, seemingly trans- for several other powerful telescopes, port it to a different era. NASA’s most such as its successor, the James Webb famous space telescope was named Telescope helping unravel the con- after American scientist Edwin Hub founding mysteries of our cosmos. 39
From an evolutionary standpoint, our For the same reason, people become brain rewards us for anything that overweight, alcoholics, or drug ad- will increase our likelihood of surviv- dicts. The point is that dopamine al by releasing a neurotransmitter doesn’t have an idea of what’s good called dopamine in our brain. That’s for us and what isn’t. It doesn’t know the reason it feels so damn good that having too much chocolate is to eat junk food because our brain unhealthy for us. All it sees is the po- thinks that a pizza equals long-last- tential of pleasure without any con- ing satiation. text and for the same reason, drug addicts are willing to let their whole Let us look at an example- Once you life fall apart only to receive that one stand in front of your refrigerator hit of dopamine rush over and over and you have the choice to either again. pick a carrot or a scoop of ice cream, your brain will tell you to pick the Short-term video platforms like Ins- one which releases more dopamine ta Reels and YouTube Shorts are on as it knows that which will make you a roll right now. We have all expe- feel more pleasure. So naturally, you rienced that, we open Insta Reels, will choose the ice cream. Now, you watch a few videos and 30 minutes of might say, “Well ! it’s not too bad to our lives have gone. The reason why eat a piece of chocolate or have a it is so addictive is the scroll ability scoop of ice cream now and then” factor. The fi st thing to know is that . That’s true indeed but as soon as Instagram Reels and YouTube Shorts our brain releases a lot of dopamine are all set to auto-play. When you it will try to stimulate the craving for open the reels section on Instagram, that thing over and over again un- a video automatically starts playing til we develop an urge for it. That is and it loops again and again until you when the addiction kicks in and we decide to scroll on and it’s the same can’t live without it. with other short video platforms. 40
The applications into a slot machine in a casino and automatically scroll to hoping that you will get a the next video for you, so big payoff and your dopamine levels you don’t even need to will skyrocket. These few points make touch your phone. This Instagram reels and YouTube Shorts way one can easily get highly addictive. Also, these plat- caught up in each app’s forms minimize our attention span by ecosystem whether you choose releasing the same amount of dopa- to or not. mine release as compared to a full- The algorithm of these apps exactly fledged m vie or video as social me- knows what type of content you en- dia isn’t designed with our long-term joy watching, which content you happiness in mind. view for the longest, and which con- tent you engage with and they keep Here, the terrifying reality is that al- sending personalized recommenda- most every company in our modern tions based on that thereby making society exploits this deeply rooted you spend longer on the app. How- reward system by putting it on ster- ever, these recommendations aren’t oids. Millions of experts all around always a hundred percent accurate the globe are designing their prod- as new videos are created, they will ucts and internet platforms to make test these videos with new audienc- sure we release as much dopamine es and send them perhaps to you as possible to make us come back which brings us to the other point over and over again. Social media about intermittent reinforcement or platforms have switched from chron- random reinforcement in behavioral ological feeds to algorithm-based psychology. Intermittent reinforce- feeds which is why video games have ment is when you receive a reward at leveling and ranking systems to keep random intervals and you don’t know us coming back. They give us con- when the reward is coming but you stant dopamine hits as we bounce know that it will come at some point, from one post to the next and from it’s like you win some, you lose some. one level to the next. And what When you’re scrolling on these apps, makes it even easier for us to engage sometimes you’ll see a video that you don’t like but the chances are that 41 you don’t exit the app and put your phone down but end up scrolling on, , hoping for another video that will satisfy your needs and give you that dopamine hit. You’ll just be car- ried away by this pleasant dopamine state. It’s almost hypnotic, you’ll keep watching and watching. This same concept is what makes gambling so addictive. Scrolling on an app is pret- ty much the same as putting money
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