World Lit Part 1

Oedipus the King May misfortune come to you! Go from here—without delay! Away from my dwelling! Turn and go! Tiresias 425 I would not have come here, had you not invited me. 430 Oedipus 435 I did not know you would speak nonsense Or I would have been unwilling to ask you here to my dwelling. 440 445 So you believe I was born lacking sense? Tiresias 450 Yet I made sense to those who gave you birth. What? Wait! Which mortals gave me birth? Oedipus Tiresias It is on this day that you are born and also destroyed. Oedipus All that you have said is enigmatic or lacking in reason. Tiresias But are you not the best among us in working things out? Oedipus Do you find fault with what I have discovered is my strength? Tiresias It is that very fortune which has totally ruined you. Oedipus I am not concerned—if I have preserved this clan. Then I shall depart. You—boy! Lead me away. Tiresias Oedipus Let him lead you away. While here, you are under my feet And annoy me. When gone—you will give me no more pain. Tiresias I shall go but speak that for which I was fetched, with no dread Because of your countenance. For you cannot harm me. I say that the man you have long searched for And threatened and made proclamation about for the killing Of Laius—he is present, here. Although called a foreigner among us, he will be exposed as a native Of Thebes but have no delight in that event. Blind, though recently able to see— And a beggar, who before was rich—he shall go to foreign lands With a stick to guide him along the ground on his journey. And he shall be exposed to his children as both their father And their brother; to the woman who gave him birth As both her son and husband; and to his father As his killer who seeded her after him. So go 297

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 455 Within to reason this out and if you catch me deceiving you, 460 Then say that in my prophecies there is nothing for me to be proud of. 465 [Exit Tiresias and Oedipus] 470 475 Chorus 480 Who is the one that the god-inspired oracle-stone at Delphi saw 485 With bloody hands doing that which it is forbidden to speak of? 490 For now is the day for him to move his feet swifter Than storm’s horses as he flees 495 Since the son of Zeus—armed with fire and lightning— 500 Is leaping toward him Accompanied by those angry And infallible Furies! It was not that long ago that the omen shone forth From the snows of Parnassus: Search everywhere for that man who is concealed; He who wanders up to the wild-woods, Through caves and among the rocks like some bull— He unlucky in his desolation who by his unlucky feet Seeks to elude that prophecy from the Temple at the centre of the world— That living doom which circles around him. There is a strange wonder—wrought by he who is skilled in augury; I cannot believe, yet cannot disbelieve, nor explain my confusion For fear hovers over me. I cannot see what is here, or what is behind! Yet—if there was between the family of Labdacus, And that son of Polybus, any strife existing Either now or before, I have not learned of it To thus use it as proof to examine by trial and thus attack The public reputation of Oedipus, becoming thus for the family of Labdacus Their ally in respect of that killing which has been concealed. Rather—this is for Zeus and Apollo, who have the skill To understand, although that other man has won more For his discoveries than I. Even so, on some things nothing decisive is discovered: As in learning, where by learning One man may overtake another. Thus not before I see that they who accuse him are speaking straight Will I declare myself for them For she was visible—that winged girl who came down against him— And we then saw proof of his knowledge, which was beneficial to our clan. So therefore my decision is not to condemn him as ignoble. [Enter Creon] Creon Clansmen! Having learnt of a horrible accusation Made against me by Oedipus the King I hastened here! If, in these our troubles, He deems that he has suffered because of me— Been injured by some word or some deed— Then I would have no desire to live as long as I might Having to bear such talk! For it is not simple— The damage that would be done to me by such words: Rather, it would be great, for I would be dishonoured before my clan— With you and my kinsfolk hearing my name dishonoured. 298

Oedipus the King Chorus That insult perhaps came forth because of anger— Rather than being a conclusion from reason. Creon And it was declared that it was my reasoning Which persuaded the prophet to utter false words? Chorus 505 It was voiced—but I do not know for what reason. 510 Were his eyes straight, was he thinking straight Creon 515 When he made that allegation against me? 520 Chorus 525 I do not know. For I do not observe what my superiors do. But here, from out of his dwelling, comes the Chief himself. 530 [Enter Oedipus] Oedipus You there! Why are you here? Have you so much face That you dare to come to my home? You—the one exposed as the killer of its man And, vividly, as a robber seeking my Kingship! In the name of the gods, tell me if it was cowardice or stupidity That you saw in me when you resolved to undertake this! Did you reason that I would not observe your cunning treachery— Or, if I did learn of it, I would not defend myself? Instead, it was senseless of you to set your hand to this— With no crowd or comrades—and go in pursuit of authority: That which is captured by using wealth and the crowd! Creon You know what you must do—in answer to your words Be as long in hearing my reply so that you can, with knowledge, judge for yourself. Oedipus Your words are clever—but I would be mistaken to learn from you, Since I have found how dangerous and hostile you are to me. Creon That is the first thing you should hear me speak about. Do not tell me: it is that you are not a traitor! Oedipus Creon If you believe that what is valuable is pride, by itself, Without a purpose, then your judgement is not right. Oedipus And if you believe you can betray a kinsman And escape without punishment, then your judgement is no good. 299

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 I agree that such a thing is correct— Creon So inform me what injury you say I have inflicted. Oedipus Did you convince me or did you not convince me that I should Send a man to bring here that respected prophet? Creon 535 I am the same person now as the one who gave that advice. 540 545 How long is the duration since Laius— Oedipus 550 Since he did what? I do not understand. Creon Since he disappeared: removed by deadly force? Oedipus Creon The measurement of that duration is great—far into the past. So—was that prophet then at his art? Oedipus Creon Yes: of equal skill and having the same respect as now. At that period did he make mention of me? Oedipus Creon Certainly not to me nor when I was standing nearby. Was there no inquiry held about the killing? Oedipus Creon It was indeed undertaken, although nothing was learned. So why did that clever person not speak , then? Oedipus Creon I do not know. And about things I cannot judge for myself, I prefer to be silent. Oedipus But you do know why and would say it if you had good judgement! What? If I did know, then I would not deny it. Creon Oedipus It is that if he had not met with you, He would not have spoken about “my” killing of Laius. 300

Oedipus the King Creon You should know if he indeed said that. Now, however, it is fair that I question you just as you have me. Oedipus Question me well—for you will never convict me as the killer! Creon 555 Nevertheless. You had my sister—took her as wife? 560 That is an assertion that cannot be denied. Oedipus 565 570 Creon 575 Does she, in this land, possess an authority the equal of yours? 580 585 Whatsoever is her wish, she obtains from me. Oedipus 590 Creon And am I—who completes the triad—not the equal of you both? Oedipus And it because of that, that you are exposed as a traitor to your kin! Creon No! For consider these reasons for yourself, as I have, Examining this first: do you believe anyone Would prefer authority with all its problems To untroubled calm if they retained the same superiority? I myself do not nurture such a desire To be King rather than do the deeds of a King: No one commanding good judgement would, whoever they were. Now, and from you, I receive everything with no problems But if the authority was mine, I would have to do many things against my nature. How then could being a King bring me more pleasure Than the trouble-free authority and power I have? I am not yet so much deceived As to want honours other than those which profit me. Now, I greet everyone, and now, everyone bids me well Just as, now, those who want something from you call upon me Since only in that way can they possibly have success. Why, then, would I let go of these to accept that? A traitor cannot, because of his way of thinking, have good judgement. I am not a lover of those whose nature is to reason so And would not endure them if they did act. As proof of this, first go yourself to Pytho To inquire whether the message I brought from the oracle there was true And if you detect that I and that interpreter of signs Plotted together, then kill me—not because of a single vote, But because of two, for you will receive mine as well as yours. I should not be accused because of unclear reasoning and that alone. It is not fair when the ignoble, rashly, Are esteemed as worthy or the worthy as ignoble. I say that to cast away an honourable friend is to do the same To that which is with life and which you cherish the most. It takes a while for an intuition to be made steady 301

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 For it is only after a while that a man shows if he is fair Although an ignoble one is known as such in a day. Chorus 595 Honourable words from someone cautious of falling, 600 My Lord. Those swift in their judgement are unsteady. 605 Oedipus But when there is a plot against me which is swiftly and furtively 610 Moving forward, then I must be swift in opposing that plot 615 Since if I remain at rest, then indeed What is about to be done, will be—because of my mistake. Then you still desire to cast me from this land? Creon Oedipus Not so! It is your death, not your exile, that I want! Creon When you explain to me what is the nature of this thing “envy”— Oedipus You speak without yielding and not in good faith! Creon Is it not your ‘good judgement’ that is keenly being observed? But at least it is mine! Oedipus Creon And for that very reason it is but the equal of mine. But you have a treacherous nature! Oedipus But if nothing has been proved— Creon Even so, there must be authority. Oedipus Not when that authority is defective. Creon My clan! My clan! Oedipus Creon A portion of the clan is for me—not wholly for you! Chorus My Lords, stop this! It is fortunate perhaps that I observe Jocasta approaching from her dwelling, since it is fitting for her To make right the quarrel which now excites you. [Enter Jocasta] 302

Oedipus the King Jocasta 620 You wretches! Why this ill-advised strife 625 Produced by your tongues? Are you not dishonoured—when this land 630 Is suffering—by becoming moved by personal troubles? You should go within; while you, Creon, should go to your dwelling 635 So as not to let what is only nothing become a great sorrow. 640 Creon My kin by blood! It is horrible what your husband Oedipus, From two unfair things, has decided it is right to do! To push me from this land of my ancestors—or to seize and kill me! Yes! For he was, my lady, caught trying to injure Oedipus My person by a cowardly art. Creon [looking upward] Deny me, this day, your assistance—curse and destroy me If I committed that which I am accused of doing! Jocasta Before the god, trust him, Oedipus! Chiefly because of this oath to the god And then because of me and these others here beside you. Chorus My Lord—be persuaded, having agreed to reflect on this. To what do you wish me to yield? Oedipus Chorus Respect he who before has never been weak—he now strengthened by that oath. Do you know what it is that you so desire? Oedipus I do know. Chorus Then explain what you believe it to be. Oedipus Chorus When a comrade is under oath, you should never accuse him Because of unproved rumours and brand him as being without honour. Oedipus Then attend to this well. When you seek this, it is my Destruction that is saught—or exile from this land. Chorus No! By the god who is Chief of all the gods— Helios! Bereft of gods, bereft of kin—may the extremist death Of all be mine if such a judgement was ever mine! But ill-fated would be my breath of life—which the decay in this soil 303

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Already wears down—if to those troubles of old 645 There was joined this trouble between you and him. 650 Oedipus 655 Then allow him to go—although it requires my certain death Or that I, without honour and by force, am thrown out from this land. And it is because of you, not because of him—the mercy coming from your mouth— That I do this. As for him—wherever he goes—I will detest him! Creon It is clear that you are hostile as you yield—and so dangerous, even though Your anger has gone. For natures such as yours Are deservedly painful to whose who endure them. Then go away and leave me. Oedipus Creon I shall depart. To you, I remain unknown—but to these, here, I am the same. [Exit Creon] Chorus My Lady—why do you delay in returning with him into your dwelling? Because I wish to learn what has happened. Jocasta Chorus Suspicion arising from unreasonable talk—and a wounding that was unfair. From both of them? Jocasta Chorus Indeed. 660 What was the talk? Jocasta Chorus Too much for me, too much for this land, wearied before this. Since it appears to have ceased, here—let it remain so. Oedipus 665 Observe where you have come to with your prowess in reason By me giving way and blunting my passion! Chorus 670 My Lord, I will not say this only this once: My judgement would be defective—and by my purposeless judgements Would be shown to be so—if I deserted you, You who when this land I love was afflicted And despairing, set her straight. Now be for us our lucky escort, again! 304

Oedipus the King Jocasta My Lord—before the god explain to me What act roused such wroth and made you hold onto it. Oedipus 675 It will be told. For I respect you, my lady, more than them. It was Creon—the plot he had against me. 680 685 Jocasta 690 Then speak about it—if you can clearly affix blame for the quarrel. 695 700 Oedipus He declared that it was me who had killed Laius. 705 Jocasta Did he see it, for him self—or learn of it from someone? Oedipus It was rather that he let that treacherous prophet bring it— So as to make his own mouth entirely exempt. Jocasta Therefore, and this day, acquit yourself of what was spoken about And listen to me, for you will learn for yourself That no mortal is given the skill to make prophecies. I bring to light evidence for this: An oracle came to Laius once—not I say From Phoebus himself but from a servant— That his own death was destined to come from a child Which he and I would produce. But—as it was reported—one day foreign robbers Slew him where three cart-tracks meet. As to the child—his growth had not extended to the third day When we yoked the joints of its feet And threw it—by another’s hand—upon a desolate mountain. So, in those days, Apollo did not bring about, for him, That he slay the father who begot him—nor, for Laius, That horror which he feared—being killed by his son. Such were the limits set by those words of revelation! Therefore, do not concern yourself with them: for what a god Wants others to find out, he will by himself unmistakably reveal. Oedipus As I heard you just now my lady, My judgement became muddled as the breath of life left me. Jocasta What has so divided you that you turn away to speak? I believed I heard this from you—that Laius Oedipus Was killed near where three cart-tracks meet. It was, indeed, voiced—and is so, still. Jocasta 305

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Where is the place where came his misfortune? Oedipus Jocasta The nearby land of Phocis—where the track splits To come from Delphi and from Daulia. Oedipus How many seasons have passed since that thing was done? It was just before you held this land’s authority Jocasta 710 That it was revealed by a herald to the clan. 715 720 Oedipus 725 O Zeus! What was your purpose in doing this to me? 730 What is it that burdens your heart, Oedipus? Jocasta Oedipus Do not enquire yet; rather, explain to me the appearance Laius had: Was he at the height of his vigour? Jocasta He was big—his head covered in hair but having a recent whiteness. His build was not far removed from your own. Wretch that I am! For it seems that over myself Oedipus I, without looking, threw that terrible curse! Jocasta What are you saying? My Lord—I tremble as I look at you. Oedipus My courage is replaced by fear—that the prophet possesses sight! More can be explained—if you make known one more thing. Jocasta Though I still tremble, if I have knowledge of what you ask, I shall speak it. Oedipus Did he have a slender one—or did he have many men As escort as befits a warrior chieftain? Jocasta Altogether there were five, one of those being an official— And one carriage, which conveyed Laius. Now it becomes visible. But who was he, Oedipus My lady, who gave you that report? Jocasta A servant—the very person who alone returned, having escaped harm. 306

Oedipus the King Oedipus Then perhaps he is to be found, at this moment, within our dwelling? Jocasta 735 Definitely not. For as soon as he returned here again and saw you Were the master of what the dead Laius had held, 740 He beseeched me—his hand touching mine— To send him away to the wilds as a shepherd to a herd, 745 Far away where he could not see the town. 750 And so I sent him. For I deemed him worthy, 755 As a slave, to have a greater reward than that favour. 760 765 Oedipus 770 Then swiftly—and with no delay—can he be returned here? He is around. But why do you desire it? Jocasta I fear, my lady, that far too much has already Oedipus Been said by me. Yet it is my wish to see him. Jocasta Then he shall be here. But it merits me to learn, My Lord, what burden within you is so difficult to bear. Oedipus I shall not deprive you of that—for what I fear Comes closer. Who is more important to me than you To whom I would speak when going through such an event as this? Polybus the Corinthian was my father— And the Dorian, Meropè, my mother. I was, in merit, Greater than the clansfolk there—until I was, by chance, Attacked. This, for me, was worthy of my wonder Although unworthy of my zeal: At a feast a man overfull with wine Mumbled into his chalice what I was falsely said to be my father’s. I was annoyed by this during that day—scarcely able To hold myself back. On the one following that, I saught to question My mother and father, and they were indignant At he who had let loose those words at me. Because of this, I was glad, although I came to itch from them For much did they slither about. So, unobserved by my mother and father, I travelled To Pytho. But for that which I had come, Phoebus there Did not honour me; instead—suffering and strangeness And misery were what his words foresaw: That I must copulate with my mother—and show, For mortals to behold, a family who would not endure— And also be the killer of the father who planted me. I, after hearing this—and regarding Corinth— Thereafter by the stars measured the ground I fled upon so that I would never have to face— Because of that inauspicious prophecy—the disgrace of its fulfilment. And while so travelling I arrived in those regions Where you spoke of the King himself being killed. For you, my lady, I shall declare what has not been spoken of before. 307

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 While journeying, I came near to that three-fold track, 775 And at that place an official and a carriage 780 With young horse with a man mounted in it—such as you spoke of— 785 Came toward me. And he who was in front as well as the Elder himself 790 Were for driving me vigorously from the path. 795 But the one who had pushed me aside—the carriage driver— 800 I hit in anger: and the Elder, observing this 805 From his chariot, watched for me to go past and then on the middle Of my head struck me with his forked goad. 810 He was certainly repaid with more! By a quick blow From the staff in this, my hand, he fell back 815 From the middle of the carriage and rolled straight out! And then I destroyed all the others. Yet if to that stranger And Laius there belongs a common relation Then who exists who is now as unfortunate as this man, here? Who of our race of mortals would have a daimon more hostile— He to whom it is not permitted for a stranger nor a clansman To receive into their homes, nor even speak to— But who, instead, must be pushed aside? And it is such things as these— These curses!—that I have brought upon myself. The wife of he who is dead has been stained by these hands Which killed him. Was I born ignoble? Am I not wholly unclean? For I must be exiled And in my exile never see my family Nor step into my own fatherland—or by marriage I will be yoked to my mother and slay my father Polybus, he who produced and nourished me. And would not someone who decided a savage daimon Did these things to me be speaking correctly? You awesome, powerful, gods— May I never see that day! May I go away From mortals, unobserved, before I see The stain of that misfortune come to me. Chorus I also, my Lord, would wish to draw away from such things. But surely until you learn from he who was there, you can have expectations? Oedipus Indeed. There is for me just such an expectation, And one alone—to wait for that herdsman. And when he does appear, what is your intent? Jocasta Oedipus I will explain it to you. If his report is found to be The same as yours, then I shall escape that suffering. Jocasta Did you then hear something odd in my report? Oedipus You said he spoke of men—of robbers—being the ones Who did the killing. If, therefore, he still Speaks of there being many of them, then I am not the killer For one cannot be the same as the many of that kind. 308

Oedipus the King 820 825 But if he says a solitary armed traveller, then it is clear, 830 And points to me as the person who did that work. 835 Jocasta You should know that it was announced in that way. 840 He cannot go back and cast them away 845 For they were heard, here, by the clan—not just by me. 850 Yet even if he turns away from his former report, 855 Never, my Lord, can the death of Laius 860 Be revealed as a straight fit—for it was Loxias 865 Who disclosed he would be killed by the hand of my child. But he—the unlucky one—could not have slain him For he was himself destroyed before that. Since then I have not by divination looked into What is on either side of what is next. Oedipus I find that pleasing. However, that hired hand Should be summoned here by sending someone—it should not be neglected. Jocasta I will send someone, and swiftly. But let us go into our dwelling. I would not do anything that would be disagreeable to you. [Exit Oedipus and Jocasta] Chorus May the goddess of destiny be with me So that I bear an entirely honourable attitude In what I say and in what I do— As set forth above us in those customs born and Given their being in the brightness of the heavens And fathered only by Olympus. For they were not brought forth by mortals, Whose nature is to die. Not for them the lethargy Of laying down to sleep Since the god within them is strong, and never grows old. Insolence plants the tyrant: There is insolence if by a great foolishness There is a useless over-filling which goes beyond The proper limits— It is an ascending to the steepest and utmost heights And then that hurtling toward that Destiny Where the useful foot has no use. Yet since it is good for a clan to have combat, I ask the god never to deliver us from it: As may I never cease from having the god for my champion. If someone goes forth and by his speaking Or the deeds of his hands looks down upon others With no fear of the goddess Judgement and not in awe Of daimons appearing, Then may he be seized by a destructive Fate Because of his unlucky weakness. If he does not gain what he gains fairly, Does not keep himself from being disrespectful, And in his foolishness holds onto what should not be touched, 309

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 870 875 Then how will such a man thereafter keep away those arrows of anger 880 Which will take revenge on his breath of life? For if such actions are those are esteemed, 885 Is this my respectful choral-dance required? 890 No more would I go in awe to that never to be touched sacred-stone, Nor to that Temple at Abae, 895 Nor Olympia—if those prophecies do not fit In such a way that all mortals can point it out. 900 But you whom it is right to call my master— Zeus!—you who rule over everyone: do not forget this, You whose authority is, forever, immortal. For they begin to decay—those prophecies of Laius Given long ago, and are even now set aside And nowhere does Apollo become manifest because esteemed: For the rituals of the gods are being lost. [Enter Jocasta] Jocasta Lords of this land—the belief has been given to me That I should go to the Temples of our guardian gods, my hands Holding a garland and an offering of incense. For Oedipus lets his breath of life be too much possessed by his heart Because of all his afflictions—since, unlike a man who reasons And determines the limits of what is strange by the past, He is fearful when someone, in speaking, speaks of such things. Therefore, since none of my counsels have achieved anything, I come here—to you, Lycean Apollo, since you are close to us— To petition you by asking you with these my gifts That we are cleansed of defilement by you bringing us deliverance. For now all of us are afraid as we behold That he who is guiding our vessel is wounded. [Enter Messenger] Messenger Is it from you, stranger, that I might learn where Is the dwelling of King Oedipus: Or, more particularly, if you have knowledge of where he himself is? Chorus Here are his chambers, stranger, and he himself is within. But here is his wife and mother of his children. Messenger May she always prosper in her prospering descent Since by them her marriage is complete. Jocasta And may you, also, stranger, because of your worthy eloquence. But explain to me what you seek in arriving here Or what it is that you wish to make known. Messenger What is profitable, my lady, for both your family and your husband. 310

Oedipus the King What is it? And who sent you here, to us? Jocasta 905 910 Messenger I am from Corinth. And when, presently, I have said my speech, 915 There will be joy—of that I have no doubt—but also an equal sorrowing. 920 925 Jocasta How can that be? What has a double strength that it could cause that? Messenger He, as their King: for they who inhabit the land Of Isthmia would make him so—so they have said. Jocasta How is that? For is not Polybus, the Elder, their Master? Messenger Not now—because death holds him in a tomb. Jocasta What are you saying? That the father of Oedipus—has died? Is my report is not correct, then I merit death. Messenger Jocasta Swiftly—my handmaiden—go to your master To tell him this. You prophecies from the gods!— Where is your reality? This was the man whom Oedipus long ago from fear Avoided lest he kill him. And now it is because Of his own destiny that he died rather than through that of another. [Enter Oedipus] Oedipus My Lady, Jocasta: Why did you summon me here from my chamber? Jocasta Hear this man and, as you listen, watch to where It is that those solemn prophecies of the gods lead. Oedipus What report has he—wherever he is from—for me? Jocasta He is from Corinth with the message that your father Polybus is no more—he is dead. Oedipus Then announce it, stranger—leading it out yourself, old one. Messenger If that is what I must relate first and clearly Then know well that his death has come upon him. 311

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Oedipus 930 Was it by treachery—or by dealing with sickness? 935 Messenger 940 A small turn downwards, and the ageing body lies in sleep. 945 Oedipus 950 Am I to assume that he unfortunately perished from a sickness? 955 Messenger Indeed—for he had been allocated a great many seasons. Oedipus Ah! Then why, my lady, look toward The altar of some Pythian prophet, or above to those Screeching birds—whose guidance was that I would Assuredly kill my father? But he is dead And hidden within the earth, while I am here Without having to clean my spear. Unless—it was a longing for me Which destroyed him, and thus he is dead because of me. But then—that divine prophecy has been, by that circumstance, taken away By Polybus lying in Hades, and thus has no importance. Did I not declare such things to you, just now? Jocasta Oedipus Such was said—but I turned away because of my fear of them. Jocasta Do not anymore wound your heart by such things. Oedipus But how can I not distance myself from that intercourse with my mother? Jocasta What is there for mortals to fear, for it is chance Which rules over them, and who can clearly foresee what does not exist? It is most excellent to live without a plan—according to one’s ability. You should not fear being married to your mother: For many are the mortals who have—in dreams also— Lain with their mothers, and he to whom such things as these Are as nothing, provides himself with a much easier life. Oedipus All that you expressed is fine, except for this: She who gave me birth is alive, and since she is now still living, It is necessary that I—despite your fine words—distance myself from her. Jocasta Yet the death of your father is a great revelation for you. Yes—a great one. But I fear she who is living. Oedipus Who is this woman that you so fear? Messenger 312

Oedipus the King Oedipus 960 Meropè, old one: she who belonged with Polybus. 965 970 Messenger 975 And what, concerning her, could produce fear in you? 980 A strange god-inspired prophecy. Oedipus Messenger Is it forbidden for someone else to know—or can it be told? Oedipus Certainly. Once, Loxias said to me That I must copulate with my own mother And by my own hands take my father’s blood. Therefore, and long ago, I left Corinth And have kept far away from there. And good fortune has been mine, Although it is very pleasing to behold the eye’s of one’s parents. Messenger Was that what distanced you from your clan? Oedipus Yes, old one: I did not want to slaughter my father. Messenger Then why, my Lord, have I not released you from that fear— Since I came here as a favour to you? Oedipus Certainly you would merit receiving a reward from me. Messenger And that was chiefly why I came here— That on your arrival home I would obtain something useful. But I will not rejoin those who planted me. Oedipus Messenger My son! It is clearly evident you cannot see what you are doing— Why, old one? Before the gods, enlighten me! Oedipus Messenger —If it was because of that, that you avoided returning to your home. Oedipus Yes, out of respect for Phoebus so that what he explained could not be fulfilled. Messenger A defilement brought to you by they who planted you? That, Elder, is the thing I have always feared. Oedipus 313

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Messenger Then you should know that there is nothing to make you tremble. Oedipus 985 Nothing? Why—if I was the child born to them? 990 995 Messenger 1000 Because you and Polybus are not kin by blood. Are you saying that Polybus did not sire me? Oedipus The same as but no more than this man, here! Messenger Oedipus How can he who sired me be the same as he who did not? Because he did not beget you—as I did not. Messenger But then why did he name me as his son? Oedipus Messenger Know that you were accepted from my hands as a gift. Oedipus And he strongly loved what came from the hand of another? Messenger He was persuaded because before then he was without children. Oedipus When I was given to him—had you purchased or begotten me? Messenger You were found in a forest valley on Cithaeron. And why were you travelling in that region? Oedipus I was there to oversee the mountain sheep. Messenger A shepherd—who wandered in search of work? Oedipus Messenger Yes—and that season the one who, my son, was your saviour. Oedipus What ailment possessed me when you took me into your hands? The joints of your feet are evidence of it. Messenger 314

Oedipus the King What makes you speak of that old defect? Oedipus I undid what held and pierced your ankles. Messenger Oedipus 1005 A strange disgrace—to carry such a token with me. 1010 Messenger Such was the fortune that named you who you are. 1015 1020 Oedipus 1025 Before the gods, tell me whether that thing was done by my father or my mother. Messenger I do not know—he who gave you to me would be the best judge of that. Oedipus What? From someone else? Then it was not by chance you found me? No—another shepherd gave you to me. Messenger Oedipus Who was it? Can you point him out? Tell whom you saw? He was perhaps named among those of Laius. Messenger Oedipus He who once and long ago was King of this land? Yes—that man was his shepherd. Messenger Oedipus Is he then still living? Is it possible for me to see him? Messenger You who are of this region would know that best. Oedipus Is there among you here, anyone Whoever he might be, who knows this shepherd he speaks of Or who has seen him either here or in the wilds? If so, declare it—for here is the opportunity to find out about these things. Chorus I believe he is that one in the wilds Whom you saught before to see. But it is Jocasta—for certain—who could tell of him. Oedipus My lady—do you know if it is he who, before, We desired to return to here? Is that the one about whom this person speaks? 315

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Jocasta The one he spoke about? Why? Do not return to it Nor even desire to attend again to this idle talk! Oedipus It could never be that I would fail to grasp These proofs which will shed light upon my origin. Before the gods! If you value your own life, Jocasta 1030 Do not seek that. I have enough pain now. 1035 Oedipus 1040 Have courage—for even if my three mothers past 1045 Were shown to be three slaves, you would not be the one exposed as low-born. 1050 Jocasta I beseech you to be persuaded by me. Do not do this. Oedipus I cannot be persuaded not to learn of this for certain. Jocasta Yet my judgement is for your good—it is said for the best. Oedipus This “for the best” pained me before and does so again. Jocasta You, the unlucky one—may you never find out who you are. Oedipus Someone go and bring that Shepherd here to me, For she can still rejoice in her distinguished origins. You are doomed: this and this alone will I Jocasta Say to you—and nothing hereafter! [Exit Jocasta] Chorus Why, Oedipus, has your lady gone, taken away By some wild affliction? I am in awe Of a misfortune bursting forth because of her silence about this. Oedipus It is necessary that it does burst forth. However lowly My seed may be, it is my wish to know about it. Although she is a woman, she has a mature judgement— But even so, perhaps she is ashamed of my low-born origins. But I—who apportion myself a child of the goddess, Fortuna, She of beneficence—will not become dishonoured, For She was the mother who gave me birth: my kinsfolk The moons which separated my greatness and my lowness. As this is the nature of my being, I cannot ever go away from it 316

Oedipus the King 1055 1060 To another, and so not learn about my birth. 1065 Chorus 1070 1075 If indeed I am a prophet or skillful in reason, Then—by Olympus!—you shall not be without the experience, 1080 O Cithaeron, on the rising of the full moon, Of me exalting you—the kinsfolk of Oedipus, 1085 His mother and provider—by my choral-dance Since a joy has been brought to my King. Phoebus—I invoke you, that this may also be pleasing to you! Who, my son, of those whose living in years is long, Did the mountain-wanderer Pan come down upon To be your father? Or was it Loxias who slept with a woman? For agreeable to him are all those who inhabit the wilds! Or perhaps it was he who is the sovereign of Cyllene: Or he the mountain-summit dwelling god of those Bacchinites Who gladly received you who was found by one of those Helicon Nymphs With whom he so often plays! Oedipus If it fitting for me—who has never had dealings with him— To make an estimate, Elders, then I believe I see that Shepherd Whom we saught before. For his great age Would conform and be in accord with that of this man. Also, those who are escorting him are servants Of my own family. But, about this, your experience Has the advantage over mine since you have seen that Shepherd before. Chorus I see him clearly—and, yes, I know him. For if Laius ever had A faithful Shepherd, it was this man. [Enter Shepherd] Oedipus You, the stranger from Corinth, I question you first— Is this he whom you talked about. Indeed—you behold him. Messenger You there, old man! Here, look at me, and answer Oedipus My questions. Did you once belong to Laius? Shepherd Yes—nourished by him, not purchased as a slave. Oedipus What work did you share in or was your livelihood? Shepherd For the greater part, my living was the way of a shepherd. Oedipus And in what region did you mostly dwell with them? 317

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Shepherd It was Cithaeron—and also neighbouring regions. Oedipus 1090 This man here—did you ever observe him there and come to know him? 1095 Doing what? Which is the man you speak of? Shepherd 1100 1105 Oedipus This one, standing there. Did you have dealings with him? 1110 Not as I recall—so as to speak about now. Shepherd Messenger That is no wonder, your Lordship. But I shall bring light Upon those things which are now unknown. For well do I know That he will see again that region of Cithaeron when he With a double flock and I with one Were neighbours and comrades for three entire six month Durations from Spring to Arcturus. Then for the Winter I would drive mine to my stables And he, his, to the pens of Laius. Was this, of which I have spoken, done or not as I have spoken? Shepherd Your words disclose it—although it is from long ago. Messenger Well, now say you know that you offered me a boy, A nursling to rear as my own. What do you mean? What do you ask me for? Shepherd This, sir, is he who was that youngster! Messenger Shepherd May misfortune come to you! Why do you not keep silent? Oedipus You—old man. Do not restrain him for it is your speech Which should be more restrained, not his. Most noble Lord—what is my fault? Shepherd In not telling of the child he asked about. Oedipus Shepherd But he speaks without looking as he toils without an aim. Oedipus If you will not speak as a favour, you will when you cry-out. 318

Oedipus the King Shepherd 1115 Before the gods, do not strike someone who is old. 1120 1125 Oedipus 1130 Swiftly, one of you, twist his hands behind his back. Shepherd You unlucky one! What more do you desire to learn from me? Did you give him that child he asked about? Oedipus Shepherd I did. And it would have been to my advantage to die that day. It will come to that if your words are not true. Oedipus Yet much more will be destroyed if I do speak. Shepherd This man, it seems, pushes for a delay. Oedipus I do not. Just now I said I gave him. Shepherd Oedipus Taken from where? Your abode—or from that of another? Shepherd Not from my own; I received him from someone. Oedipus Who—of these clansmen here? From whose dwelling? Shepherd Your lordship, before the gods do not ask me more. Oedipus You die if I have to put that question to you again. Then—it was one of those fathered by Laius. Shepherd Oedipus From a slave? Or born from one of his own race? Shepherd Ah! Here before me is what I dread. Of speaking it... And I, of hearing it, although hear it I must. Oedipus Shepherd It was said to be his own child. But of these things, It is your lady—who is within—who could best speak of them. 319

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Why? Because she gave it to you? Oedipus 1135 Indeed, Lord. Shepherd 1140 Why did she want that? Oedipus 1145 1150 So it would be destroyed. Shepherd 1155 1160 How grievous for she who bore the child! Oedipus 1165 Shepherd Yes—but she dreaded divine prophecies of ill-omen. Which were? Oedipus The word was that he would kill his parents. Shepherd Then why did you let this elderly one take him. Oedipus Messenger Because, your lordship, of mercy—so that to another land He might fittingly convey it: to where he himself came from. But he saved him for this mighty wound. If then you are The one he declares you to be, know how unlucky was your birth! Oedipus Ah! All that was possible has, with certainty, passed away. You—daylight—I now look my last at what I behold by you: I, exposed as born from those who should not have borne me— As having been intimate with those I should not, and killed those I should not. [Exit Oedipus, Shepherd and Messenger] Chorus You descendants of mortals— I count your zest as being equivalent to nothing, For where is the person Who has won more from a lucky daimon Than just that appearance of fame Which later is peeled away? Yours—your daimon, Oedipus the unlucky— We hold as an example That nothing mortal is favoured. For, O Zeus, it was beyond the bounds of others That he shot his arrow to win An all-prospering lucky daimon: He who in destroying that virginal chantress of oracles With the curved claws, 320

Oedipus the King 1170 1175 Arose in my country as a defence against death. 1180 And who since then has been called my Lord 1185 And greatly honoured as the chief of Thebes the magnificent! But now—who has heard of a greater misfortune? 1190 Who is there so savagely ruined that he dwells with such troubles 1195 With his life so changed? Alas—Oedipus, the renowned! A mature haven 1200 Was enough for you 1205 As child and father when you fell upon That woman in her inner chamber! How, how could what your father pushed into Have the vigour for you for so long and in silence? Chronos, the all-seeing, has found you, beyond your own will, For long ago it was determined that from that marriage which was no marriage Those children who have been born were the children that would be born. But—as being the son of Laius, I wish, I wish that I had never known this. For I lament, and my cry is above all the others As it comes forth from my mouth. To speak straight: you gave me breath again But I allowed my eyes to sleep. [Enter Second Messenger] Messenger You who in this land have always been esteemed the most! What deeds you are to hear—what behold!—and how much grief Will weigh upon you if, on fidelity to your origins, Your concern is still for the family of Labdacus! For, alas, neither the Ister nor the Phasis Can wash clean these chambers, so much suffering Do they conceal—soon to be exposed to the light As willed, not done outside the aid of will. Those injuries Which bring the most grieving, are those shown to be of our own choice. Chorus What I knew before could not fail to make my grieving Anything but grave; after that—what could you announce? Messenger What is a quick tale to say And to understand: the divinity, Jocasta, is dead. A misfortune! From what cause? Chorus Messenger By she herself. But, of those events, What was most painful is not for you—for you did not view them. Yet—as long as my Muse is with me— You can learn of the sufferings of her fate. She—coloured by emotion—passed within the hall To run straight to that bridal-bed of hers Tearing at her hair with the fingers of both her hands. Then, she went within—thrusting the doors closed— To invoke Laius, he who long ago was a corpse, 321

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Recalling that seed she received long ago by which 1210 He was killed, to leave her to produce 1215 Unlucky children from his own begotten child. 1220 She lamented the bed of her double misfortune: 1225 From her husband, a husband—and children from that child. 1230 How, after that, she perished, I did not see 1235 For with a war-cry Oedipus pushed in—and, because of him, 1240 We did not behold the end of her suffering. 1245 To him, we looked as he ploughed around For wildly he ranged about, demanding his spear, 1250 His lady who was not his lady, and where he might find that maternal Double-womb which produced he himself and his children. 1255 He was frenzied, and a daimon guided him— For it was no man who was standing nearby— And with a fearful shout—as if someone led the way— He was propelled into those double-doors and, from their supports, Bent those hollow barriers to fall into her chamber. And there we beheld that lady suspended In the swinging braided cords by which she had stricken herself. He, seeing this, with a fearful roar of grief Let down the cords which suspended her. Then when she the unfortunate Was lain on the ground, there was something dreadful to behold: For he tore from her those gold brooches With which she had adorned herself And raised them to assault his own circular organs, Speaking such as this: that they would not have sight of Those troubles he had suffered or had caused But would henceforth and in darkness have sight of what They should not and what he himself should not have had knowledge of. Then with a awesome lament not once but frequently He raised them to strike into his eyes. At each, blood From his eyes dropped to his beard, not releasing blood Drop by drop—but all at once: A dark storm hailing drops of blood. From those two has this burst forth—not on one But on that man and his lady, joined by these troubles. That old prosperity anciently theirs was indeed once A worthy prosperity—but now, on this day, there is Lamentation, misfortune, death, disgrace, and of all those troubles That exist and which have names, there is not one which is not here. Does he who suffers now rest from injury? Chorus Messenger He shouts for the barriers to be opened to expose To all who are of Cadmus, this patricide, This mother...—I will not say the profanity he speaks— So he can cast himself from this land, and not remain For this dwelling to become cursed because of his curse. But he requires strength and a guide For too great for him to carry is that burden Which he will make known to you. You will behold a spectacle Which even those to whom it is horrible, will make lament for. [Enter the blind Oedipus] 322

Oedipus the King Chorus 1260 How strange for mortals to see such an accident as this! 1265 It is the strangest thing of all ever 1270 To come before me. You—who suffer this— What fury came upon you? What daimon 1275 With great leaps from a great height Came upon you bringing such an unfortunate fate? 1280 I lament for your bad-luck. 1285 Though I am not able to look at you— There is much I wish to ask, much to understand, 1290 Much to know Even though I am here, shivering. 1295 Oedipus I am in agony! To where, in my misery, am I carried? To where Is my voice conveyed as it flees from me? You—that daimon! To where have you brought me? Chorus Somewhere strange with nothing to be heard and nothing to be seen. Oedipus Nothing announced the arrival of this dark cloud shrouding me! Something unconquerable—brought by an unfavourable wind. As one do the stings of those goads, And the recalling of those troubles, pierce me! Chorus It is no surprise that because of such injuries You endure a double mourning and a double misfortune. Oedipus My friend! You, at least, are my steadfast comrade Because you have the endurance to attend to the blind. For you are not hidden from me—I clearly know, Even in this darkness, that it is your voice. Chorus You of strange deeds—how did you bear To so extinguish your sight? What daimon carried you away? Oedipus It was Apollo—Apollo, my friend, Who brought such troubles to such a troubled end. But it was my own hand, and no other, which made the assault— I, who suffer this. For why should I have sight When there was nothing pleasing to see? These things are as you have said they are. Chorus Who could I behold? Oedipus Who could be loved—or whose greeting, My friend, would be delightful to hear? 323

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 So, and swiftly, send me away from this place. 1300 Send away, my friend, this great pest— This bringer of a curse: the mortal whom our gods 1305 Detest the most. 1310 Chorus 1315 You are as helpless in that resolve as you were in your misfortune: Thus I wish you had never come to know of those things! 1320 1325 Oedipus 1330 May death come to whosoever while roaming those grasslands loosened 1335 Those cruel fetters and so safely pulled me away from death! 1340 For it was not a favourable deed. For had I died then no grief such as this Would have been caused to either me or my kin. I also wish that. Chorus Oedipus I would not, then, have shed the blood of my father As I journeyed, and not be named by mortals As the husband of she who gave me my birth. I am without a god—an unconsecrated child— And now of the same kind as he who gave me this miserable existence! If there is a trouble which is even older than these troubles, Then it will be the lot of Oedipus. Chorus I do not know if I could say that your intentions were right, For it is perhaps better to no longer exist than to live, blind. Oedipus But as to this being done for the best— You should not instruct me, nor offer me more advice. For, if I had eyes, I would not know where to look When I went to Hades and saw my father Or my unfortunate mother, since to both I have done what is so outstanding that a strangling is excluded. Perhaps the sight of children is desirable: To behold how those buds are mine will grow— But it would certainly not be to these eyes of mine. Nor would that of this town, or its towers, or the sacrifices Offered to daimons. For it was most unfortunate that I— Who as no one else in Thebes prospered most excellently— Bereaved myself of such things by my own declaration That everyone must push aside the profane one—the one the gods Have exposed as unclean and of the clan of Laius. After I have made known this, my stain, How could I look those here straight in the eye? Certainly I could not. And if what is heard could be blocked out At that source in my ears, I would not have held myself back From this miserable body and thus would be blind and also hear nothing! For it is pleasing to dwell away from concern about injury. Why, Cithaeron—why did you receive me, and having accepted, Not directly kill me so I would never make known To mortals whence I was born? 324

Oedipus the King 1345 1350 O Polybus and Corinth—and you that others called the ancient clan-home 1355 Of my ancestors—I, the beauty that you reared 1360 Had bad wounds festering underneath! For I am found to be defective having been defective from my birth. 1365 You three routes and concealed valley, 1370 You grove and narrow place of the three-fold paths: You took in from my hands that blood which was my father’s 1375 But also mine—so perhaps you can still recall 1380 Those deeds that I did there, and then, when here, What I also achieved? You—those rites of joy Which gave me my birth and which planted me anew By the same seed being shot up to manifest fathers, Brothers, sons—the blood of a kinsman— Brides, wives, mothers: as much shame As can arise from deeds among mortals. No one should speak about things they do not favour doing. Swiftly then—before the gods and beyond here— Hide me away or kill me or upon the sea cast me So that you will never look upon me again. Come, and dignify this unhappy man by your touch. Be persuaded—do not fear. For this misfortune is mine alone And no mortal except me can bear it. [Enter Creon] Chorus As to this request of yours—it is fitting that here is Creon To act and give advice, For he alone is left to be guardian of this region in your place. Oedipus But what is there than I can say to him? What trust can with fairness be shown to me? For I am discovered as being false to him, previously, in everything. I did not come here, Oedipus, to laugh Creon Nor to blame you for your previous error. [Creon turns to speak to the crowd who have gathered] You—there—even if you do not honour those descended from mortals, Have respect for the all-nourishing flames of the Lord Helios So that this stain is not looked upon when it is uncovered— This which neither our soil nor the sacred waters Nor daylight will welcome. Swiftly now take him into his chambers: For the most proper conduct is that only kinfolk Look at and hear a kinsman’s faults. Oedipus Before the gods—since you have torn from me a dread By you coming here—you, the most noble—to me, a most ignoble man, Yield me something. I say this not for myself, but for you. What favour do you request so earnestly? Creon 325

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Oedipus 1385 That you throw me from this land as swiftly as you can To where it is known there will be not one mortal to greet me. 1390 Creon 1395 Know that this would certainly have been done—were it not necessary 1400 For me first to learn from the god what I should do. 1405 1410 Oedipus 1415 But his saying was completely clear— 1420 That I, the disrespectful one, the patricide, must depart. 1425 Creon Those were the words—but since our needs have changed It is better to learn what must be done. Oedipus But you will enquire of behalf of this unhappy man? Yes—as you should now pay tribute to the god. Creon Oedipus Certainly—and I rely on you for this supplication: That you give to she who is within, a tomb such as you might desire To lay yourself in—for it is correct to so perform this on behalf of your own. As for me—never once let it be deemed fitting, while I happen to live, For this my father’s town to have me within it. Instead, let me dwell in the mountains—to where is Cithaeron Renowned because of me; for my mother and my father While they lived appointed it the tomb I would lay in. Thus, there I will depart, killed as they desired. Yet I do know that neither a sickness Nor anything similar will destroy me, for I would never have been saved From that death unless it was for some horrible injury. Hence I shall await that destiny which is mine—whatever its nature. As for my sons—do not, Creon, add them To your care. For they are men, and therefore will never Lack the ability—wherever they are—to survive. But as for those unfortunate ones, my girls For whom my table of food was never separate from Nor who were ever without me, so that whatever I touched Would be shared between us— Attend to them, for me. Would that you could let my hands touch them And they lament for my injuries. Let these things be, Lord— Let them be so, you of this noble race. For if my hands could reach them I would believe they were mine just as when I had my sight. [Enter Antigone and Ismene] What is this? Before the gods!—Do I not hear those whom I love, Weeping? Has Creon let them make lament for me, Sending here those who are dearest to me—my daughters? Is this right? 326

Oedipus the King Creon It is right. For I prepared this for you. I conjectured this—your present delight—since it has possessed you before. Oedipus 1430 Then good fortune to you on your path— 1435 And may you be guarded by a better daimon than was my fate! 1440 My children—where are you? Come here—here 1445 To these my hands of he who is your brother: 1450 These of he who planted you and which assisted your father 1455 To see in this way with what before were clear eyes. 1460 He, my children, who sees nothing, who enquires about nothing— 1465 He who is exposed as fathering you from where he himself was sown. Even though I cannot behold you, I lament for you 1470 Because I know of the bitter life left to you Which mortals will cause you to live. For what gathering of townsfolk could you go to? What festivals—from where you would not return, lamenting, To your dwelling instead of watching the spectacle? And when you become ripe for marriage Who is there who exists, my children, who would chance it— Accepting the rebukes that will as painful for they who begat me As they will be for you? For what injury is not here? Your father killed his father; He seeded her who had brought him forth And from where he himself was sown You were born—in the same way he himself was acquired. Such as this will you be rebuked with. Who then will marry you? Such a person does not exist. No, my children, it is without doubt That you must go to waste unsown and unmarried. Son of Menoeceus! You are the only father Who is left to them, for we who planted them are destroyed: Both of us. Watch that they do not wander As beggars, without a man, since they are of your family— Or that they become the equal of me in misfortune. Rather, favour them because you see them at such an age as this, Deserted by everyone—except for yourself. Agree to this, noble lord, and touch me with your hand. And you, my children—had you judgement, I would even now Have given you much advice. As it is, let your supplication be To live where it is allowed and to obtain a life more agreeable Than that of the father who planted you. Creon Let this abundance of lamentation pass away—and go into those chambers. I shall obey, although it is not pleasing. Oedipus All fine things have their season. Creon Do you know my conditions for going? Oedipus Creon Speak them—and I, having heard them, will know. 327

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Send me far from this land. Oedipus That gift comes from the gods. Creon But the gods must detest me! Oedipus Then swiftly will your wish be fulfilled. Creon But do you grant this? Oedipus 1475 Creon 1480 I have no desire to speak idly about things I cannot judge. 1485 Then now lead me from here. Oedipus Move away from your children—and go. Creon But do not take them from me. Oedipus Creon Do not desire to be master in all things: For you are without the strength which assisted you during your life. Chorus You who dwell in my fatherland, Thebes, observe—here is Oedipus, He who understood that famous enigma and was a strong man: What clansman did not behold that fortune without envy? But what a tide of problems have come over him! Therefore, look toward that ending which is for us mortals To observe that particular day—calling no one lucky until, Without the pain of injury, they are conveyed beyond life’s ending. 328

Oedipus the King Image 1.12: Oedipus | Oedipus displaying his injuries after the climax of his drama. Author: Albert Greiner Source: Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 3.0 329

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 The Apology Plato (428-347) Written ca. 399-389 BCE Greece “The Apology” (which means, simply, “defense”) is Plato’s account of the three speeches that Socrates gave at his trial in 399 B.C.E. At the age of 71, Socrates was charged by the prosecutors Anytus and Miletus with corruption of the youth of Athens, sophistry (fraudulent teaching practices), and heresy. We do not know exactly what the pros- ecution said in its presentation, because that has not been recorded for us, but it can be assumed that mention was made of some of Socrates’ students, like the politician Critias (one of the Thirty Tyrants) and the general Alcibiades, both of whom supported Athens’ rival Sparta and were regarded as traitors. It had therefore been rumored for some time that Socrates’ teachings were dangerous because they led men to rebel against the state. In his defense, Socrates argued that he only questioned authority in an effort to keep the state healthy and that he himself had nearly been the victim of Critias for refusing to do the bidding of the Thirty Tyrants. “The Apology” consists of the following three speeches: 1. The defense proper: Socrates answered the charges levelled against him. 2. The sentencing plea: Having been found guilty, Socrates was expected to request exile, but he refused to do so. 3. Socrates’s farewell to Athens: After being sentenced to death, Socrates spoke to both his detractors and his supporters. Plato, Socrates’ faithful student, was an attendant at both his trial and his subsequent execution, and he gifted to us “The Apology” which stands over two millennia later as a monument to freedom and justice and truth. Questions to consider while reading this selection: • What is Socrates attitude toward the trial and his prosecutors? What about the judges? • You will notice as you read that Socrates has to ask the 500 judges to settle down periodically. What is that the audience is feeling? Are they cheering or booing him? How can you tell? Does he agitate them on pur- pose? • Some have said that Socrates behaves arrogantly. Do you agree? Why or why not? • Looking at “The Apology” as Socrates’ last chance to teach the Athenians something, what do you think he tried to teach them? Written by Rhonda L. Kelley The Apology of Socrates License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Socrates, translated by Henry Cary Edited, annotated, and compiled by Rhonda L. Kelley The Defense77 “I am Not Eloquent” I know not, O Athenians! 78 how far you have been influenced by my accusers79 for my part, in listening to them I almost forgot myself, so plausible were their arguments however, so to speak, they have said nothing true. But of the many falsehoods which they uttered I wondered at one of them especially, that in which they said that 77 “Apology” means “defense”. The trial of Socrates took place in 399 BC. Whether this speech represents the exact or nearly exact words of Socrates offered in his own defense or is Plato’s posthumous defense of his master put in his master’s mouth is unknowable. 78 The 500 jurors/judges who will decide the fate of Socrates are Athenian men required to serve on the Heliaia. 79 Anytus and Meletus, the prosecutors or presenters of the case against Socrates. 330

The Apology you ought to be on your guard lest you should be deceived by me, as being eloquent in speech. For that they are not ashamed of being forthwith convicted by me in fact, when I shall show that I am not by any means eloquent, this seemed to me the most shameless thing in them, unless indeed they call him eloquent who speaks the truth. For, if they mean this, then I would allow that I am an orator, but not after their fashion80 for they, as I affirm, have said nothing true, but from me you shall hear the whole truth. Not indeed, Athenians, arguments highly wrought, as theirs were, with choice phrases and expressions, nor adorned, but you shall hear a speech uttered without premed- itation in such words as first present themselves. 81 For I am confident that what I say will be just, and let none of you expect otherwise, for surely it would not become my time of life to come before you like a youth with a got up82 speech. Above all things, therefore, I beg and implore this of you, O Athenians! if you hear me defending myself in the same language as that in which I am accustomed to speak both in the forum83 at the counters, where many of you have heard me, and elsewhere, not to be surprised or disturbed84 on this account. For the case is this: I now for the first time come before a court of justice, though more than seventy years old; I am therefore utterly a stranger to the language here. As, then, if I were really a stranger, you would have pardoned me if I spoke in the language and the manner in which I had been educated, so now I ask this of you as an act of justice, as it appears to me, to disregard the manner of my speech, for perhaps it may be somewhat worse, and perhaps better, and to consider this only, and to give your attention to this, whether I speak what is just or not; for this is the virtue of a judge, but of an orator to speak the truth. “My First Accusers” 2. First, then, O Athenians! I am right in defending myself against the first false accusations alleged against me, and my first accusers, and then against the latest accusations, and the latest accusers. For many have been accus- ers of me to you, and for many years, who have asserted nothing true, of whom I am more afraid than of Anytus85 and his party, although they too are formidable; but those are still more formidable, Athenians, who, laying hold of many of you from childhood, have persuaded you, and accused me of what is not true: “that there is one Socrates, a wise man, who occupies himself about celestial matters, and has explored everything under the earth, 86 and makes the worse appear the better reason.” 87 Those, O Athenians! who have spread abroad this report are my formidable accusers; for they who hear them think that such as search into these things do not believe that there are gods. In the next place, these accusers are numerous, and have accused me now for a long time; moreover, they said these things to you at that time of life in which you were most credulous, when you were boys and some of you youths, and they accused me altogether in my absence, when there was no one to defend me. But the most unreasonable thing of all is, that it is not possible to learn and mention their names, except that one of them happens to be a com- ic poet.88 Such, however, as, influenced by envy and calumny, have persuaded you, and those who, being themselves persuaded, have persuaded others, all these are most difficult to deal with; for it is not possible to bring any of them forward here, nor to confute any; 89 but it is altogether necessary to fight, as it were with a shadow, in making my defense, and to convict when there is no one to answer. Consider, therefore, as I have said, that my accusers are twofold, some who have lately accused me, and others long since, whom I have made mention of; and believe that I ought to defend myself against these first; for you heard them accusing me first, and much more than these last. Well. I must make my defense, then, O Athenians! and endeavor in this so short a space of time to remove from your minds the calumny which you have long entertained. I wish, indeed, it might be so, if it were at all better both for you and me, and that in making my defense I could affect something more advantageous still: I think, however, that it will be difficult, and I am not entirely ignorant what the difficulty is. Nevertheless, let this turn out as may be pleasing to God, I must obey the law and make my defense. 80 Planned, pre-written speeches with rhetorical flourishes, which Socrates sees as essentially dishonest. 81 Extempore; Socrates’ refusal to plan a defense or even speak in defense of himself could be seen as arrogant, dismissive of author- ity, and contemptuous of Athenian justice. In fact, that is likely how the jurors who found him guilty and sentenced him to death took his informal approach. 82 Pre-planned. 83 The agora or the assembly place; an outdoor communal space. 84 Apparently, it was common for the dikasts (the jurors) to interrupt witnesses (in fact, questioning witnesses was one of the duties of the dikasts), but as you will see these jurors interrupt Socrates with angry interjections or erupt into arguing amongst themselves during his defense. 85 The prosecutor. 86 Philosophical materialism: that reality is composed of matter (particles or atoms) and that all phenomena have a natural, scientific explanation; philosophical materialism is essentially atheistic as it rejects the possibility of a spiritual reality. 87 Sophistry: as Aristophanes’ depiction of Socrates in the Clouds attests, many believed Socrates was a sophist, a teacher who made money teaching young men how to make specious and morally unsound arguments. 88 Aristophanes. 89 Examine them as a witnesses; in other words Socrates asserts that he is being denied the ability to confront witnesses and these first accusers, as was his natural and civil right. 331

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 3. Let us, then, repeat from the beginning what the accusation is from which the calumny against me has aris- en, and relying on which Meletus has preferred this indictment against me. Well. What, then, do they90 who charge me say in their charge? For it is necessary to read their deposition as of public accusers. “Socrates acts wickedly, and is criminally curious in searching into things under the earth, and in the heavens, 91 and in making the worse appear the better cause, 92 and in teaching these same things to others.” 93 Such is the accusation: for such things you have yourselves seen in the comedy of Aristophanes, 94 one Socrates there carried about, saying that he walks in the air, 95 and acting many other buffooneries, of which I understand nothing whatever. Nor do I say this as disparaging such a science, if there be any one skilled in such things, only let me not be prosecuted by Meletus on a charge of this kind; but I say it, O Athenians! because I have nothing to do with such matters. And I call upon most of you as wit- nesses of this, and require you to inform and tell each other, as many of you as have ever heard me conversing; and there are many such among you. 96 Therefore tell each other, if any one of you has ever heard me conversing little or much on such subjects. 97 And from this you will know that other things also, which the multitude assert of me, are of a similar nature. 4. However not one of these things is true; nor, if you have heard from any one that I attempt to teach men, and require payment, 98 is this true. Though this, indeed, appears to me to be an honorable thing, if one should be able to instruct men, like Gorgias of Leontium,99 and Prodicus of Ceos,100 and Hippias of Elis.101 For each of these, O Athenians! is able, by going through the several cities, to persuade the young men, who can attach themselves gratuitously to such of their own fellow-citizens as they please, to abandon their fellow-citizens and associate with them, giving them money and thanks besides. There is also another wise man here, a Parian, who, I hear, is stay- ing in the city. For I happened to visit a person who spends more money on the sophists than all others together: I mean Callias, son of Hipponicus. I therefore asked him, for he has two sons, “Callias,” I said, “if your two sons were colts or calves, we should have had to choose a master for them, and hire a person who would make them excel in such qualities as belong to their nature; and he would have been a groom or an agricultural laborer. But now, since your sons are men, what master do you intend to choose for them? Who is there skilled in the qualities that become a man and a citizen? For I suppose you must have considered this, since you have sons. Is there any one,” I said, “or not?” “Certainly,” he answered. “Who is he?” said I, “and whence does he come? and on what terms does he teach?” He replied, “Evenus the Parian, Socrates, for five minæ.”102 And I deemed Evenus happy, if he really possesses this art, and teaches admirably. 103 And I too should think highly of myself, and be very proud, if I possessed this knowl- edge, but I possess it not, O Athenians. “Why I Am Called Wise” 5. Perhaps, one of you may now object: “But, Socrates, what have you done, then? Whence have these calum- nies104 against you arisen? For surely if you had not busied yourself more than others, such a report and story would never have got abroad, unless you had done something different from what most men do. Tell us, therefore, what it is, that we may not pass a hasty judgment on you.” He who speaks thus appears to me to speak justly, and I will endeavor to show you what it is that has occasioned me this character and imputation. Listen, then: to some of you perhaps I shall appear to jest, yet be assured that I shall tell you the whole truth. For I, O Athenians! have acquired this character through nothing else than a certain wisdom. Of what kind, then, is this wisdom? Perhaps it is merely human wisdom. For in this, in truth, I appear to be wise. They probably, whom I have just now mentioned, pos- sessed a wisdom more than human, otherwise I know not what to say about it; for I am not acquainted with it, and 90 That is the slanderers, his first accusers. 91 Philosophical materialism or natural philosophy. 92 Sophistry. 93 Corruption of the youth of Athens (one of the official charges against Socrates). 94 Aristophanes’ The Clouds (423 BC) is a comedic and satirical examination of the conflict of ideas, old and new; Socrates is paro- died as the worst kind of sophist who, at his school The Thinkery, turns an athletic young man into a weak nerd who attacks his own father and threatens his mother. 95 In The Clouds, Socrates is introduced in a hanging basket trying to use the height to help him better investigate the sky. 96 Socrates has friends on the jury. 97 Socrates pauses so that his friends and students can respond. 98 Sophists famously grew wealthy off of their students. 99 The Nihilist and Father of Sophistry: “Nothing exists and even if it does it can be proven to exist.” 100 A sophist and natural philosopher who taught ethics and was a friend of Socrates. 101 Regarded by many to be an expert on everything. 102 A mina is the equivalent of about 100 drachmae, and was an exorbitant sum of money. 103 Socrates is not being facetious; he seems to be saying that knowledge is quite valuable and should be valued. 104 Slanders. 332

The Apology whosoever says I am, speaks falsely, and for the purpose of calumniating105 me. But, O Athenians! do not cry out against me, even though I should seem to you to speak somewhat arrogantly. For the account which I am going to give you is not my own; but I shall refer to an authority whom you will deem worthy of credit. For I shall adduce to you the god at Delphi106 as a witness of my wisdom, if I have any, and of what it is. You doubtless know Chære- pho: he was my associate from youth, and the associate of most of you; he accompanied you in your late exile, and returned with you.107 You know, then, what kind of a man Chærepho was, how earnest in whatever he undertook. Having once gone to Delphi, he ventured to make the following inquiry of the oracle (and, as I said, O Athenians! do not cry out), for he asked if there was any one wiser than I. The Pythian [oracle] thereupon answered that there was not one wiser; and of this, his brother here will give you proofs, since he himself is dead. “The Origin of My Method” 6. Consider, then, why I mention these things: it is because I am going to show you whence the calumny against me arose. For when I heard this, I reasoned thus with myself, What does the god mean? What enigma is this? For I am not conscious to myself that I am wise, either much or little. What, then, does he108 mean by saying that I am the wisest? For assuredly he does not speak falsely: that he could not do. And for a long time I was in doubt what he meant; afterward, with considerable difficulty, I had recourse to the following method of searching out his meaning. I went to one of those who have the character of being wise, thinking that there, if anywhere, I should confute109 the oracle, and show in answer to the response that this man is wiser than I, though you110 affirmed that I was the wisest. Having, then, examined this man (for there is no occasion to mention his name; he was, however, one of our great politicians, in examining whom I felt as I proceed to describe, O Athenians!), having fallen into conversa- tion with him, this man appeared to be wise in the opinion of most other men, and especially in his own opinion, though in fact he was not so. I thereupon endeavored to show him that he fancied himself to be wise, but really was not. Hence I became odious,111 both to him and to many others who were present. When I left him, I reasoned thus with myself: I am wiser than this man, for neither of us appears to know anything great and good; but he fancies he knows something, although he knows nothing; whereas I, as I do not know anything, so I do not fancy I do. In this trifling particular, then, I appear to be wiser than he, because I do not fancy I know what I do not know. After that I went to another who was thought to be wiser than the former, and formed the very same opinion. Hence I became odious to him and to many others. 7. After this I went to others in turn, perceiving indeed, and grieving and alarmed, that I was making myself odious; however, it appeared necessary to regard the oracle of the god as of the greatest moment, and that, in order to discover its meaning, I must go to all who had the reputation of possessing any knowledge. And by the god, O Athenians! for I must tell you the truth, I came to some such conclusion as this: those who bore the highest repu- tation appeared to me to be most deficient, in my researches in obedience to the god, and others who were consid- ered inferior more nearly approaching to the possession of understanding. But I must relate to you my wandering, and the labors which I underwent, in order that the oracle might prove incontrovertible. For after the politicians I went to the poets, as well the tragic as the dithyrambic and others, expecting that here I should in very fact find myself more ignorant than they. Taking up, therefore, some of their poems, which appeared to me most elaborately finished, I questioned them as to their meaning, that at the same time I might learn something from them. I am ashamed, O Athenians! to tell you the truth; however, it must be told. For, in a word, almost all who were present could have given a better account of them than those by whom they had been composed. I soon discovered this, therefore, with regard to the poets, that they do not affect their object by wisdom, but by a certain natural inspi- ration, and under the influence of enthusiasm, like prophets and seers; for these also say many fine things, but they understand nothing that they say. The poets appeared to me to be affected in a similar manner; and at the same time I perceived that they considered themselves, on account of their poetry, to be the wisest of men in other things, in which they were not. I left them, therefore, under the persuasion that I was superior to them, in the same way that I was to the politicians. 8. At last, therefore, I went to the artisans.112 For I was conscious to myself that I knew scarcely anything, but I was sure that I should find them possessed of much beautiful knowledge. And in this I was not deceived; for they 105 Slandering. 106 Apollo; Delphi was a famed temple where the Oracle (a prophetic priestess) would channel the words of Apollo. 107 Unlike Socrates, Chaerephon and other supporters of the democracy suffered a temporary exile from Athens following its defeat by Sparta. 108 The god Apollo. 109 Disprove. 110 The oracle. 111 Hated. 112 Craftsmen and fine artists. 333

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 knew things which I did not, and in this respect they were wiser than I. But, O Athenians! even the best workmen appeared to me to have fallen into the same error as the poets; for each, because he excelled in the practice of his art, thought that he was very wise in other most important matters, and this mistake of theirs obscured the wisdom that they really possessed. I therefore asked myself, in behalf of the oracle, whether I should prefer to continue as I am, possessing none, either of their wisdom or their ignorance, or to have both as they have. I answered, therefore, to myself and to the oracle, that it was better for me to continue as I am. 9. From this investigation, then, O Athenians! many enmities have arisen against me, and those the most griev- ous and severe, so that many calumnies have sprung from them, and among them this appellation of being wise; for those who are from time to time present think that I am wise in those things, with respect to which I expose the ignorance of others. The god, however, O Athenians! appears to be really wise, and to mean this by his oracle: that human wisdom is worth little or nothing; and it is clear that he did not say this to Socrates, but made use of my name, putting me forward as an example, as if he had said, that man is the wisest among you, who, like Socrates, knows that he is in reality worth nothing with respect to wisdom. Still, therefore, I go about and search and inquire into these things, in obedience to the god, both among citizens and strangers, if I think any one of them is wise; and when he appears to me not to be so, I take the part of the god, and show that he is not wise. And, in consequence of this occupation, I have no leisure to attend in any considerable degree to the affairs of the state or my own; but I am in the greatest poverty through my devotion to the service of the god. 10. In addition to this, young men, who have much leisure and belong to the wealthiest families, following me of their own accord, take great delight in hearing men put to the test, and often imitate me, and themselves attempt to put others to the test; and then, I think, they find a great abundance of men who fancy they know something, although they know little or nothing. Hence those who are put to the test by them are angry with me, and not with them, and say that “there is one Socrates, a most pestilent fellow, who corrupts the youth.” And when any one asks them by doing or teaching what, they have nothing to say, for they do not know; but, that they may not seem to be at a loss, they say such things as are ready at hand against all philosophers: “that he searches into things in heaven and things under the earth, that he does not believe there are gods, and that he makes the worse appear the better reason.” For they would not, I think, be willing to tell the truth that they have been detected in pretending to pos- sess knowledge, whereas they know nothing. Therefore, I think, being ambitious and vehement and numerous, and speaking systematically and persuasively about me, they have filled your ears, for a long time and diligently calum- niating me. From among these, Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon113 have attacked me; Meletus being angry on account of the poets, Anytus on account of the artisans and politicians, and Lycon on account of the rhetoricians.114 So that, as I said in the beginning, I should wonder if I were able in so short a time to remove from your minds a calumny that has prevailed so long. This, O Athenians! is the truth; and I speak it without concealing or disguising anything from you, much or little; though I very well know that by so doing I shall expose myself to odium. This, however, is a proof that I speak the truth, and that this is the nature of the calumny against me, and that these are its causes. And if you will investigate the matter, either now or hereafter, you will find it to be so. “Tell Me Meletus…” 11. With respect, then, to the charges which my first accusers have alleged against me, let this be a sufficient apology115 to you. To Meletus, that good and patriotic man, as he says, and to my later accusers, I will next endeavor to give an answer; and here, again, as there are different accusers, let us take up their deposition. It is pretty much as follows: “Socrates,” it says, “acts unjustly in corrupting the youth, and in not believing in those gods in whom the city believes, but in other strange divinities.”116 Such is the accusation; let us examine each particular of it. It says that I act unjustly in corrupting the youth. But I, O Athenians! say that Meletus117 acts unjustly, because he jests on serious subjects, rashly putting men upon trial, under pretense of being zealous and solicitous about things in which he never at any time took any concern. But that this is the case I will endeavor to prove to you. 12. Come, then, Meletus, tell me, do you not consider it of the greatest importance that the youth should be made as virtuous as possible? Mel. I do. 113 A third prosecutor. 114 Persuasive speakers or debaters. 115 Again, in the sense of “defense” and not “regretful acknowledgement of guilt”. 116 These are the official charges against Socrates, levied by the three prosecutors. 117 Of the three prosecutors, Socrates singles out Meletus, who is the youngest of the three, a poet, and a religious zealot. It appears that Meletus is the softest of the three targets, making him an interesting choice. 334

The Apology Socr. Well, now, tell the judges who it is that makes them better, for it is evident that you know, since it con- cerns you so much; for, having detected me in corrupting them, as you say, you have cited me here, and accused me: come, then, say, and inform the judges who it is that makes them better. [Meletus does not answer.] Do you see, Meletus, that you are silent, and have nothing to say? But does it not appear to you to be disgrace- ful, and a sufficient proof of what I say, that you never took any concern about the matter? But tell me, friend, who makes them better? Mel. The laws. Socr. I do not ask this, most excellent sir, but what man, who surely must first know this very thing, the laws? Mel. These, Socrates, the judges.118 Socr. How say you, Meletus? Are these able to instruct the youth, and make them better? Mel. Certainly. Socr. All [of the judges], or some of them, and others not? Mel. All. Socr. You say well, by Juno! and have found a great abundance of those that confer benefit. But what further? Can these hearers119 make them better, or not? Mel. They, too, can. Socr. And what of the senators? Mel. The senators, also. Socr. But, Meletus, do those who attend the public assemblies corrupt the younger men? or do they all make them better? Mel. They too. Socr. All the Athenians, therefore, as it seems, make them honorable and good, except me; but I alone corrupt them. Do you say so? Mel. I do assert this very thing. Socr. You charge me with great ill-fortune. But answer me: does it appear to you to be the same, with respect to horses? Do all men make them better, and is there only some one that spoils them? or does quite the contrary of this take place? Is there some one person who can make them better, or very few; that is, the trainers? But if the generality of men should meddle with and make use of horses, do they spoil them? Is not this the case, Meletus, both with respect to horses and all other animals? It certainly is so, whether you and Anytus deny it or not. For it would be a great good-fortune for the youth if only one person corrupted, and the rest benefited them. However, Meletus, you have sufficiently shown that you never bestowed any care upon youth; and you clearly evince your own negligence, in that you have never paid any attention to the things with respect to which you accuse me. 13. Tell us further, Meletus, in the name of Zeus, whether is it better to dwell with good or bad citizens? [Meletus does not respond.] Answer, my friend; for I ask you nothing difficult. Do not the bad work some evil to those that are continually near them, but the good some good? Mel. Certainly. 118 The 500 dikasts. 119 The audience. 335

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 Socr. Is there any one that wishes to be injured rather than benefited by his associates? [Meletus does not respond.] Answer, good man; for the law requires you to answer. Is there any one who wishes to be injured? Mel. No, surely. Socr. Come, then, whether do you accuse me here, as one that corrupts the youth, and makes them more de- praved, designedly or undesignedly?120 Mel. Designedly, I say. Socr. What, then, Meletus, are you at your time of life so much wiser than I at my time of life, as to know that the evil are always working some evil to those that are most near to them, and the good some good; but I have arrived at such a pitch of ignorance as not to know that if I make any one of my associates depraved, I shall be in danger of receiving some evil from him; and yet I designedly bring about this so great evil, as you say? In this I can- not believe you, Meletus, nor do I think would any other man in the world. But either I do not corrupt the youth, or, if I do corrupt them, I do it undesignedly: so that in both cases you speak falsely. But if I corrupt them undesign- edly, for such involuntary offenses it is not usual to accuse one here, but to take one apart, and teach and admonish one. For it is evident that if I am taught, I shall cease doing what I do undesignedly. But you shunned me, and were not willing to associate with and instruct me; but you accuse me here, where it is usual to accuse those who need punishment, and not instruction.121 14. Thus, then, O Athenians! this now is clear that I have said; that Meletus never paid any attention to these matters, much or little. However, tell us, Meletus, how you say I corrupt the youth? Is it not evidently, according to the indictment which you have preferred, by teaching them not to believe in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other strange deities? Do you not say that, by teaching these things, I corrupt the youth? Mel. Certainly I do say so. Socr. By those very gods, therefore, Meletus, of whom the discussion now is, speak still more clearly both to me and to these men. For I cannot understand whether you say that I teach them to believe that there are certain gods (and in that case I do believe that there are gods, and am not altogether an atheist, nor in this respect to blame), not, however, those which the city believes in, but others; and this it is that you accuse me of, that I introduce others. Or do you say outright that I do not myself believe that there are gods, and that I teach others the same? Mel. I say this: that you do not believe in any gods at all. Socr. O wonderful Meletus, how come you to say this? Do I not, then, like the rest of mankind, believe that the sun and moon are gods? Mel. No, by Zeus, O judges! for he says that the sun is a stone, and the moon an earth.122 Socr. You fancy that you are accusing Anaxagoras,123 my dear Meletus, and thus you put a slight on124 these men, and suppose them to be so illiterate as not to know that the books of Anaxagoras of Clazomene are full of such assertions. And the young, moreover, learn these things from me? Things which they might purchase for a drachma, at most, in the orchestra, and so ridicule Socrates, if he pretended they were his own, especially since they are so absurd? I ask then, by Zeus, do I appear to you to believe that there is no god? Mel. No, by Zeus, none whatever. Socr. You say what is incredible, Meletus, and that, as appears to me, even to yourself. For this man, O Athe- 120 Intentionally or unintentionally. 121 Socrates is erroneously and perhaps cynically equating ignorance (in the moral sense) with innocence (in the legal sense). He is, in other words, employing a common (and infuriating) sophistic method. 122 Philosophical materialist speculation. 123 Anaxagoras (510 – 428 BC) was a philosophical materialist and teacher of Pericles. 124 Insult. 336

The Apology nians! appears to me to be very insolent and intemperate and to have preferred this indictment through downright insolence, intemperance, and wantonness. For he seems, as it were, to have composed an enigma for the purpose of making an experiment: “Will Socrates the Wise know that I am jesting, and contradict myself, or shall I deceive him and all who hear me?” For, in my opinion, he clearly contradicts himself in the indictment, as if he should say, “Soc- rates is guilty of wrong in not believing that there are gods, and in believing that there are gods.” And this, surely, is the act of one who is trifling. 15. Consider with me now, Athenians, in what respect he appears to me to say so. And do you, Meletus, answer me; and do ye,125 as I besought you at the outset, remember not to make an uproar if I speak after my usual manner. Is there any man, Meletus, who believes that there are human affairs, but does not believe that there are men? Let him answer, judges, and not make so much noise.126 Is there any one who does not believe that there are horses, but that there are things pertaining to horses? or who does not believe that there are pipers, but that there are things pertaining to pipes? [Meletus does not respond.] There is not, O best of men! for since you are not willing to answer, I say it to you and to all here present. But answer to this at least: is there any one who believes that there are things relating to daimons,127 but does not believe that there are daimons? Mel. There is not. Socr. How obliging you are in having hardly answered; though compelled by these judges! You assert, then, that I do believe and teach things relating to daimons, whether they be new or old;128 therefore, according to your admission, I do believe in things relating to daimons, and this you have sworn in the bill of indictment. If, then, I believe in things relating to daimons, there is surely an absolute necessity that I should believe that there are daimons. Is it not so? [Meletus does not respond.] It is. For I suppose you to assent, since you do not answer. But with respect to daimons, do we not allow that they are gods, or the children of gods? Do you admit this or not? Mel. Certainly. Socr. Since, then, I allow that there are daimons, as you admit, if daimons are a kind of gods, this is the point in which I say you speak enigmatically and divert yourself in saying that I do not allow there are gods, and again that I do allow there are, since I allow that there are daimons? But if daimons are the children of gods, spurious ones, either from nymphs or any others, of whom they are reported to be, what man can think that there are sons of gods, and yet that there are not gods? For it would be just as absurd as if any one should think that there are mules, the offspring of horses and asses, but should not think there are horses and asses. However, Meletus, it cannot be other- wise than that you have preferred this indictment for the purpose of trying me, or because you were at a loss what real crime to allege against me; for that you should persuade any man who has the smallest degree of sense that the same person can think that there are things relating to daimons and to gods, and yet that there are neither daimons, nor gods, nor heroes, is utterly impossible. “I Cannot Abandon My Post” 16. That I am not guilty, then, O Athenians! according to the indictment of Meletus, appears to me not to require a lengthened defense; but what I have said is sufficient. And as to what I said at the beginning, that there is a great enmity toward me among the multitude, be assured it is true. And this it is which will condemn me, if I am condemned, not Meletus, nor Anytus, but the calumny and envy of the multitude, which have already condemned many others, and those good men, and will, I think, condemn others also; for there is no danger that it will stop with me. Perhaps, however, someone may say, “Are you not ashamed, Socrates, to have pursued a study from which you are now in danger of dying?” To such a person I should answer with good reason, you do not say well, friend, if you think that a man, who is even of the least value, ought to take into the account the risk of life or death, and ought not to consider that he is alone when he performs any action, whether he is acting justly or unjustly, and the part 125 The dikasts and the audience who are now in an uproar thanks to Socrates’ courtroom dramatics. 126 The audience is still not settled, or it erupts again. The latter would make sense as Socrates asks a seemingly unrelated question. 127 Nature spirits or spirit guides. 128 These daimons are the unapproved gods referenced in the indictment; Socrates claimed to be under the guidance of daimons who would prevent him from doing evil things. 337

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 of a good man or bad man. For, according to your reasoning, all those demi-gods129 that died at Troy130 would be vile characters, as well as the son of Thetis,131 who so far despised danger in comparison of submitting to disgrace, that when his mother, who was a goddess, spoke to him, in his impatience to kill Hector, something to this effect, as I think, ”My son, if you revenge the death of your friend Patroclus, and slay Hector, you will yourself die, for,” she said, “death awaits you immediately after Hector;” but he, on hearing this, despised death and danger, and dreading much more to live as a coward, and not avenge his friend, said, “May I die immediately when I have inflicted pun- ishment on the guilty, that I may not stay here an object of ridicule, by the curved ships, a burden to the ground?” Do you think that he cared for death and danger? For thus it is, O Athenians! in truth: wherever any one has posted himself, either thinking it to be better, or has been posted by his chief, there, as it appears to me, he ought to remain and meet danger, taking no account either of death or anything else in comparison with disgrace. 17. I then should be acting strangely, O Athenians! if, when the generals whom you chose to command me assigned me my post at Potidaea, at Amphipolis, and at Delium,132 I then remained where they posted me, like any other person, and encountered the danger of death; but when the deity,133 as I thought and believed, assigned it as my duty to pass my life in the study of philosophy, and examining myself and others, I should on that occasion, through fear of death or anything else whatsoever, desert my post, strange indeed would it be; and then, in truth, any one might justly bring me to trial, and accuse me of not believing in the gods, from disobeying the oracle, fearing death, and thinking myself to be wise when I am not. For to fear death, O Athenians! is nothing else than to appear to be wise, without being so; for it is to appear to know what one does not know. For no one knows but that death is the greatest of all good to man; but men fear it, as if they well knew that it is the greatest of evils. And how is not this the most reprehensible ignorance, to think that one knows what one does not know? But I, O Athenians! in this, perhaps, differ from most men; and if I should say that I am in anything wiser than another, it would be in this, that not having a competent knowledge of the things in Hades,134 I also think that I have not such knowledge. But to act unjustly, and to disobey my superior, whether God or man, I know is evil and base. I shall never, there- fore, fear or shun things which, for aught I know, maybe good, before evils which I know to be evils. So that, even if you should now dismiss me, not yielding to the instances of Anytus, who said that either I should not appear here at all, or that, if I did appear, it was impossible not to put me to death, telling you that if I escaped, your sons, studying what Socrates teaches, would all be utterly corrupted; if you should address me thus, “Socrates, we shall not now yield to Anytus, but dismiss you, on this condition, however, that you no longer persevere in your researches nor study philosophy; and if hereafter you are detected in so doing, you shall die”—if, as I said, you should dismiss, me on these terms, I should say to you, “O Athenians! I honor and love you; but I shall obey God rather than you; and so long as I breathe and am able, I shall not cease studying philosophy, and exhorting you and warning any one of you I may happen to meet, saying, as I have been accustomed to do: ‘O best of men! seeing you are an Athenian, of a city the most powerful and most renowned for wisdom and strength, are you not ashamed of being careful for riches, how you may acquire them in greatest abundance, and for glory, and honor, but care not nor take any thought for wisdom and truth, and for your soul, how it maybe made most perfect?’“ And if any one of you should question my assertion, and affirm that he does care for these things, I shall not at once let him go, nor depart, but I shall question him, sift and prove him. And if he should appear to me not to possess virtue, but to pretend that he does, I shall reproach him for that he sets the least value on things of the greatest worth, but the highest on things that are worthless. Thus I shall act to all whom I meet, both young and old, stranger and citizen, but rather to you, my fellow-citizens, because ye are more nearly allied to me. For be well assured, this the deity commands. And I think that no greater good has ever befallen you in the city than my zeal for the service of the god. For I go about doing nothing else than persuading you, both young and old, to take no care either for the body, or for riches, prior to or so much as for the soul, how it may be made most perfect, telling you that virtue does not spring from rich- es, but riches and all other human blessings, both private and public, from virtue. If, then, by saying these things, I corrupt the youth, these things must be mischievous; but if any one says that I speak other things than these, he misleads you. Therefore I must say, O Athenians! either yield to Anytus, or do not, either dismiss me or not, since I shall not act otherwise, even though I must die many deaths. “I Am God’s Gift To Athens” 18. Murmur not, O Athenians! but continue to attend to my request, not to murmur at what I say, but to listen, 129 Heroes. 130 The Trojan War. 131 Achilles. 132 Famous battles of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) where Socrates fought with distinction. 133 Apollo. 134 The Greek afterlife. 338

The Apology for, as I think, you will derive benefit from listening. For I am going to say other things to you, at which, perhaps, you will raise a clamor; but on no account do so. Be well assured, then, if you put me to death, being such a man as I say I am, you will not injure me more than yourselves. For neither will Meletus nor Anytus harm me; nor have they the power; for I do not think that it is possible for a better man to be injured by a worse. He may perhaps have me condemned to death, or banished, or deprived of civil rights; and he or others may perhaps consider these as mighty evils; I, however, do not consider them so, but that it is much more so to do what he is now doing, to en- deavor to put a man to death unjustly. Now, therefore, O Athenians! I am far from making a defense on my behalf, as any one might think, but I do so on your own behalf, lest by condemning me you should offend at all with re- spect to the gift of the deity to you. For, if you should put me to death, you will not easily find such another, though it may be ridiculous to say so, altogether attached by the deity to this city as to a powerful and generous horse, somewhat sluggish from his size, and requiring to be roused by a gad-fly; so the deity appears to have united me, being such a person as I am, to the city, that I may rouse you, and persuade and reprove every one of you, nor ever cease besetting you throughout the whole day. Such another man, O Athenians! will not easily be found; therefore, if you will take my advice, you will spare me. But you, perhaps, being irritated like drowsy persons who are roused from sleep, will strike me, and, yielding to Anytus, will unthinkingly condemn me to death; and then you will pass the rest of your life in sleep, unless the deity, caring for you, should send someone else to you. But that I am a per- son who has been given by the deity to this city, you may discern from hence; for it is not like the ordinary conduct of men, that I should have neglected all my own affairs, and suffered my private interest to be neglected for so many years, and that I should constantly attend to your concerns, addressing myself to each of you separately, like a fa- ther, or elder brother, persuading you to the pursuit of virtue. And if I had derived any profit from this course, and had received pay for my exhortations, there would have been some reason for my conduct; but now you see your- selves that my accusers, who have so shamelessly calumniated me in everything else, have not had the impudence to charge me with this, and to bring witnesses to prove that I ever either exacted or demanded any reward. And I think I produce a sufficient proof that I speak the truth, namely, my poverty. “Why I Teach But Do Not Engage In Political Life” 19. Perhaps, however, it may appear absurd that I, going about, thus advise you in private and make myself busy, but never venture to present myself in public before your assemblies and give advice to the city. The cause of this is that which you have often and in many places heard me mention; because I am moved by a certain divine and spiritual influence, which also Meletus, through mockery, has set out in the indictment. This began with me from childhood, being a kind of voice which, when present, always diverts me from what I am about to do, but never urges me on.135 This it is which opposed my meddling in public politics; and it appears to me to have opposed me very properly. For be well assured, O Athenians! if I had long since attempted to intermeddle with politics, I should have perished long ago, and should not have at all benefited you or myself. And be not angry with me for speaking the truth. For it is not possible that any man should be safe who sincerely opposes either you, or any other multitude, and who prevents many unjust and illegal actions from being committed in a city; but it is necessary that he who in earnest contends for justice, if he will be safe for but a short time, should live privately, and take no part in public affairs. 20. I will give you strong proofs of this, not words, but what you value, facts. Hear, then, what has happened to me, that you may know that I would not yield to any one contrary to what is just, through fear of death, at the same time by not yielding I must perish. I shall tell you what will be displeasing and wearisome, yet true. For I, O Athenians! never bore any other magisterial office in the city, but have been a senator,136 and our Antiochean tribe happened to supply the Prytanes when you chose to condemn in a body the ten generals who had not taken off those that perished in the sea-fight, in violation of the law, as you afterward all thought. At that time I alone of the Prytanes opposed your doing anything contrary to the laws, and I voted against you; and when the orators were ready to denounce me, and to carry me before a magistrate, and you urged and cheered them on, I thought I ought rather to meet the danger with law and justice on my side, than through fear of imprisonment or death, to take part with you in your unjust designs. And this happened while the city was governed by a democracy. But when it became an oligarchy, the Thirty,137 having sent for me with four others to the Tholus, ordered us to bring Leon the Salaminian from Salamis, that he might be put to death; and they gave many similar orders to many others, wish- ing to involve as many as they could in guilt. Then, however, I showed, not in word but in deed, that I did not care for death, if the expression be not too rude, in the smallest degree; but that all my care was to do nothing unjust or unholy. For that government, strong as it was, did not so overawe me as to make me commit an unjust action; but 135 The daemons. 136 He was the head (Epistates) of his tribal council (Boule) in 406 BC. 137 The Thirty Tyrants. Despite Socrates’ principled stand against the Thirty, the fact that their leader, Critias, was his student was arguably the real reason for the Athenians’ persecution of the Socrates. 339

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 when we came out from the Tholus, the four went to Salamis, and brought back Leon; but I went away home. And perhaps for this I should have been put to death, if that government had not been speedily broken up. And of this you can have many witnesses. 21. Do you think, then, that I should have survived so many years if I had engaged in public affairs, and, acting as becomes a good man, had aided the cause of justice, and, as I ought, had deemed this of the highest importance? Far from it, O Athenians! nor would any other man have done so. But I, through the whole of my life, if I have done anything in public, shall be found to be a man, and the very same in private, who has never made a concession to any one contrary to justice, neither to any other, nor to any one of these whom my calumniators say are my dis- ciples. I, however, was never the preceptor of any one; but if any one desired to hear me speaking, and to see me busied about my own mission, whether he were young or old, I never refused him. Nor do I discourse when I re- ceive money, and not when I do not receive any, but I allow both rich and poor alike to question me, and, if any one wishes it, to answer me and hear what I have to say. And for these, whether any one proves to be a good man or not, I cannot justly be responsible, because I never either promised them any instruction or taught them at all. But if any one says that he has ever learned or heard anything from me in private which all others have not, be well assured that he does not speak the truth. 22. But why do some delight to spend so long a time with me? Ye have heard, O Athenians! I have told you the whole truth, that they delight to hear those closely questioned who think that they are wise but are not; for this is by no means disagreeable. But this duty, as I say, has been enjoined me by the deity, by oracles, by dreams, and by every mode by which any other divine decree has ever enjoined anything to man to do. These things, O Athenians! are both true, and easily confuted if not true. For if I am now corrupting some of the youths, and have already cor- rupted others, it were fitting, surely, that if any of them, having become advanced in life, had discovered that I gave them bad advice when they were young, they should now rise up against me, accuse me, and have me punished; or if they were themselves unwilling to do this, some of their kindred, their fathers, or brothers, or other relatives, if their kinsman have ever sustained any damage from me, should now call it to mind. Many of them, however, are here present, whom I see: first, Crito, my contemporary and fellow-burgher,138 father of this Critobulus; then Lysanias of Sphettus, father of this Æschines; again, Antiphon of Cephisus, father of Epigenes. There are those oth- ers, too, whose brothers maintained the same intimacy with me, namely, Nicostratus, son of Theodotus, brother of Theodotus (Theodotus indeed is dead, so that he could not deprecate his brother’s proceedings), and Paralus here, son of Demodocus, whose brother was Theages; and Adimantus, son of Ariston, whose brother is this Plato;139 and Æantodorus, whose brother is this Apollodorus.140 I could also mention many others to you, some one of whom certainly Meletus ought to have adduced in his speech as a witness. If, however, he then forgot to do so, let him now adduce them; I give him leave to do so, and let him say it, if he has anything of the kind to allege. But, quite contrary to this, you will find, O Athenians! all ready to assist me, who have corrupted and injured their relatives,141 as Meletus and Anytus say. For those who have been themselves corrupted might perhaps have some reason for assisting me; but those who have not been corrupted, men now advanced in life, their relatives, what other reason can they have for assisting me, except that right and just one, that they know that Meletus speaks falsely, and that I speak the truth. “Why I Will Not Beg For Mercy” 23. Well, then, Athenians, these are pretty much the things I have to say in my defense, and others perhaps of the same kind. Perhaps, however, some among you will be indignant on recollecting his own case, if he, when en- gaged in a cause far less than this, implored and besought the judges with many tears, bringing forward his children in order that he might excite their utmost compassion, and many others of his relatives and friends, whereas I do none of these things, although I may appear to be incurring the extremity of danger. Perhaps, therefore, someone, taking notice of this, may become more determined against me, and, being enraged at this very conduct of mine, may give his vote under the influence of anger. If, then, any one of you is thus affected (I do not, however, suppose that there is, but if there should be), I think I may reasonably say to him: “I, too, O best of men, have relatives; for, to make use of that saying of Homer, I am not sprung from an oak, nor from a rock, but from men,142 so that I, too, O Athenians! have relatives, and three sons, one now grown up, and two boys: I shall not, however, bring any one of them forward and implore you to acquit me.” Why, then, shall I not do this? Not from contumacy,143 O Athenians! 138 Crito was Socrates’ life-long friend; both men were from the deme Alopece. 139 One of only three references to himself in the Dialogues. 140 Apollodorus is the narrator of the Symposium and a Socrates’ fan-boy. 141 This phrase is dripping with sarcasm; Socrates asserts that had he corrupted the relatives of these men surely they would have the best reason to testify against him, and yet they rally to his defense. 142 Odyssey 19. 143 Contempt, in the legal sense. 340

The Apology nor disrespect toward you. Whether or not I am undaunted at the prospect of death is another question; but, out of regard to my own character, and yours, and that of the whole city, it does not appear to me to be honorable that I should do anything of this kind at my age, and with the reputation I have, whether true or false. For it is commonly agreed that Socrates in some respects excels the generality of men. If, then, those among you who appear to excel either in wisdom, or fortitude, or any other virtue whatsoever, should act in such a manner as I have often seen some when they have been brought to trial, it would be shameful, who appearing indeed to be something, have conducted themselves in a surprising manner, as thinking they should suffer something dreadful by dying, and as if they would be immortal if you did not put them to death. Such men appear to me to bring disgrace on the city, so that any stranger might suppose that such of the Athenians as excel in virtue, and whom they themselves choose in preference to themselves for magistracies and other honors, are in no respect superior to women. For these things, O Athenians! neither ought we to do who have attained to any height of reputation, nor, should we do them, ought you to suffer us; but you should make this manifest, that you will much rather condemn him who introduces these piteous dramas, and makes the city ridiculous, than him who quietly awaits your decision. 24. But, reputation apart, O Athenians! it does not appear to me to be right to entreat a judge, or to escape by entreaty; but one ought to inform and persuade him. For a judge does not sit for the purpose of administering justice out of favor, but that he may judge rightly, and he is sworn not to show favor to whom he pleases, but that he will decide according to the laws. It is, therefore, right that neither should we accustom you, nor should you accus- tom yourselves, to violate your oaths; for in so doing neither of us would act righteously. Think not then, O Athe- nians! that I ought to adopt such a course toward you as I neither consider honorable, nor just, nor holy, as well, by Zeus! on any other occasion, and now especially when I am accused of impiety by this Meletus. For clearly, if I should persuade you, and by my entreaties should put a constraint on you who are bound by an oath, I should teach you to think that there are no gods, and in reality, while making my defense, should accuse myself of not believing in the gods. This, however, is far from being the case; for I believe, O Athenians! as none of my accusers do, and I leave it to you and to the deity to judge concerning me in such way as will be best both for me and for you.144 The Penalty Phase “A Close Vote” 25. That I should not be grieved, O Athenians! at what has happened (namely, that you have condemned me) as well many other circumstances concur in bringing to pass; and, moreover this, that what has happened has not happened contrary to my expectation; but I much rather wonder at the number of votes on either side. For I did not expect that I should be condemned by so small a number, but by a large majority; but now, as it seems, if only thirty more votes had changed sides, I should have been acquitted. So far as Meletus is concerned, as it appears to me, I have been already acquitted; and not only have I been acquitted, but it is clear to everyone that had not Anytus and Lycon come forward to accuse me, he would have been fined a thousand drachmas, for not having obtained a fifth part of the votes. “What Do I Deserve?” 26. The man, then, awards me the penalty of death. Well. But what shall I, on my part, O Athenians! award myself? Is it not clear that it will be such as I deserve? What, then, is that? Do I deserve to suffer, or to pay a fine? for that I have purposely during my life not remained quiet, but neglecting what most men seek after, money-mak- ing, domestic concerns, military command, popular oratory, and, moreover, all the magistracies, conspiracies, and cabals that are met with in the city, thinking that I was in reality too upright a man to be safe if I took part in such things, I therefore did not apply myself to those pursuits, by attending to which I should have been of no service ei- ther to you or to myself; but in order to confer the greatest benefit on each of you privately, as I affirm, I thereupon applied myself to that object, endeavoring to persuade every one of you not to take any care of his own affairs before he had taken care of himself in what way he may become the best and wisest, nor of the affairs of the city before he took care of the city itself; and that he should attend to other things in the same manner. What treatment, then, do I deserve, seeing I am such a man? Some reward, O Athenians! if, at least, I am to be estimated according to my real deserts; and, moreover, such a reward as would be suitable to me. What, then, is suitable to a poor man, a benefac- tor, and who has need of leisure in order to give you good advice? There is nothing so suitable, O Athenians! as that such a man should be maintained in the Prytaneum,145 and this much more than if one of you had been victorious at the Olympic games in a horserace, or in the two or four horsed chariot race: for such a one makes you appear to be happy, but I, to be so; and he does not need support, but I do. If, therefore, I must award a sentence according to 144 The dikasts find Socrates guilty 280 to 220. Meletus followed the guilty verdict with the recommendation of the death penalty. It was expected that Socrates would request exile. 145 Socrates believes he deserves to be treated to free meals and shelter at the communal hearth. 341

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 my just deserts, I award this, maintenance in the Prytaneum. 27. Perhaps, however, in speaking to you thus, I appear to you to speak in the same presumptuous manner as I did respecting commiseration and entreaties; but such is not the case, O Athenians! it is rather this: I am persuaded that I never designedly injured any man, though I cannot persuade you of this, for we have conversed with each other but for a short time. For if there were the same law with you as with other men,146 that in capital cases the trial should list not only one day, but many, I think you would be persuaded; but it is not easy in a short time to do away with, great calumnies. Being persuaded, then, that I have injured no one, I am far from intending to injure myself, and of pronouncing against myself that I am deserving of punishment, and from awarding myself anything of the kind. Through fear of what? Lest I should suffer that which Meletus awards me,147 of which I say I know not whether it be good or evil? Instead of this, shall I choose what I well know to be evil, and award that? Shall I choose imprisonment? And why should I live in prison, a slave to the established magistracy, the Eleven?148 Shall I choose a fine, and to be imprisoned until I have paid it? But this is the same as that which I just now mentioned, for I have not money to pay it. Shall I, then, award myself exile? For perhaps you would consent to this award. I should indeed be very fond of life, O Athenians! if I were so devoid of reason as not to be able to reflect that you, who are my fellow-citizens, have been unable to endure my manner of life and discourses, but they have become so burdensome and odious to you that you now seek to be rid of them: others, however, will easily bear them. Far from it, O Athe- nians! A fine life it would be for me at my age to go out wandering, and driven from city to city, and so to live. For I well know that, wherever I may go, the youth will listen to me when I speak, as they do here. And if I repulse them, they will themselves drive me out, persuading the elders; and if I do not repulse them, their fathers and kindred will banish me on their account. 28. Perhaps, however, someone will say, “Can you not, Socrates, when you have gone from us, live a silent and quiet life?” This is the most difficult thing of all to persuade some of you. For if I say that that would be to disobey the deity, and that, therefore, it is impossible for me to live quietly, you would not believe me, thinking I spoke ironically. If, on the other hand, I say that this is the greatest good to man, to discourse daily on virtue, and other things which you have heard me discussing, examining both myself and others, but that a life without investigation is not worth living for, still less would you believe me if I said this. Such, however, is the case, as I affirm, O Athe- nians! though it is not easy to persuade you. And at the same time I am not accustomed to think myself deserving of any ill. If, indeed, I were rich, I would amerce149 myself in such a sum as I should be able to pay; for then I should have suffered no harm, but now—for I cannot, unless you are willing to amerce me in such a sum as I am able to pay. But perhaps I could pay you a mina of silver: in that sum, then, I amerce myself. But Plato150 here, O Athenians! and Crito Critobulus, and Apollodorus bid me amerce myself in thirty minæ, and they offer to be sureties. I amerce myself, then, to you in that sum; and they will be sufficient sureties for the money.151 Farewell to Athens “You Have Condemned Yourselves” 29. For the sake of no long space of time, O Athenians! you will incur the character and reproach at the hands of those who wish to defame the city, of having put that wise man, Socrates, to death. For those who wish to defame you will assert that I am wise, though I am not. If, then, you had waited for a short time, this would have happened of its own accord; for observe my age, that it is far advanced in life, and near death. But I say this not to you all, but to those only who have condemned me to die. And I say this, too, to the same persons. Perhaps you think, O Athenians! that I have been convicted through the want of arguments, by which I might have persuaded you, had I thought it right to do and say anything, so that I might escape punishment. Far otherwise: I have been convict- ed through want indeed, yet not of arguments, but of audacity and impudence, and of the inclination to say such things to you as would have been most agreeable for you to hear, had I lamented and bewailed and done and said many other things unworthy of me, as I affirm, but such as you are accustomed to hear from others. But neither did I then think that I ought, for the sake of avoiding danger, to do anything unworthy of a freeman, nor do I now re- pent of having so defended myself; but I should much rather choose to die, having so defended myself, than to live in that way. For neither in a trial nor in battle is it right that I or any one else should employ every possible means whereby he may avoid death; for in battle it is frequently evident that a man might escape death by laying down his arms, and throwing himself on the mercy of his pursuers. And there are many other devices in every danger, by 146 Namely, the Spartans who, in the interest of justice and in recognition of the gravity of a capital case, refused to try capital crimes in a single day as the Athenians did. This negative comparison to their arch-rivals cannot have sat well with the Athenian dikasts. 147 Death, which as an unknown, should not be feared. 148 Prison officials. 149 Assign a fine. 150 The second time Plato refers to himself in the Apology. 151 The dikasts vote for the death penalty 360 to 140. 342

The Apology which to avoid death, if a man dares to do and say everything. But this is not difficult, O Athenians! to escape death; but it is much more difficult to avoid depravity, for it runs swifter than death. And now I, being slow and aged, am overtaken by the slower of the two; but my accusers, being strong and active, have been overtaken by the swifter, wickedness. And now I depart, condemned by you to death; but they condemned by truth, as guilty of iniquity and injustice: and I abide my sentence, and so do they. These things, perhaps, ought so to be, and I think that they are for the best. 30. In the next place, I desire to predict to you who have condemned me, what will be your fate; for I am now in that condition in which men most frequently prophesy, namely, when they are about to die. I say, then, to you, O Athenians! who have condemned me to death, that immediately after my death a punishment will overtake you, far more severe, by Zeus! than that which you have inflicted on me. For you have done this, thinking you should be freed from the necessity of giving an account of your lives. The very contrary, however, as I affirm, will happen to you. Your accusers will be more numerous, whom I have now restrained, though you did not perceive it; and they will be more severe, inasmuch as they are younger, and you will be more indignant. For if you think that by putting men to death you will restrain any one from upbraiding you because you do not live well, you are much mistaken; for this method of escape is neither possible nor honorable; but that other is most honorable and most easy, not to put a check upon others, but for a man to take heed to himself how he may be most perfect. Having predicted thus much to those of you who have condemned me, I take my leave of you. “Death is a Blessing” 31. But with you who have voted for my acquittal I would gladly hold converse on what has now taken place, while the magistrates are busy, and I am not yet carried to the place where I must die. Stay with me, then, so long, O Athenians! for nothing hinders our conversing with each other, while we are permitted to do so; for I wish to make known to you, as being my friends, the meaning of that which has just now befallen me. To me, then, O my judges! (and in calling you judges I call you rightly), a strange thing has happened. For the wonted prophetic voice of my guardian deity on every former occasion, even in the most trifling affairs, opposed me if I was about to do anything wrong; but now that has befallen me which ye yourselves behold, and which any one would think, and which is supposed to be the extremity of evil; yet neither when I departed from home in the morning did the warning of the god oppose me, nor when I came up here to the place of trial, nor in my address when I was about to say anything; yet on other occasions it has frequently restrained me in the midst of speaking. But now it has never, throughout this proceeding, opposed me, either in what I did or said. What, then, do I suppose to be the cause of this? I will tell you: what has befallen me appears to be a blessing; and it is impossible that we think rightly who suppose that death is an evil. A great proof of this to me is the fact that it is impossible but that the accustomed signal should have opposed me, unless I had been about to meet with some good. 32. Moreover, we may hence conclude that there is great hope that death is a blessing. For to die is one of two things: for either the dead may be annihilated, and have no sensation of anything whatever; or, as it is said, there are a certain change and passage of the soul from one place to another. And if it is a privation of all sensation, as it were a sleep in which the sleeper has no dream, death would be a wonderful gain. For I think that if any one, having selected a night in which he slept so soundly as not to have had a dream, and having compared this night with all the other nights and days of his life, should be required, on consideration, to say how many days and nights he had passed better and more pleasantly than this night throughout his life, I think that not only a private person, but even the great king himself, would find them easy to number, in comparison with other days and nights. If, there- fore, death is a thing of this kind, I say it is a gain; for thus all futurity appears to be nothing more than one night. But if, on the other hand, death is a removal from hence to another place, and what is said be true, that all the dead are there, what greater blessing can there be than this, my judges? For if, on arriving at Hades,152 released from these who pretend to be judges, one shall find those who are true judges, and who are said to judge there, Minos and Rhadamanthus,153 Æacus154 and Triptolemus155, and such others of the demi-gods as were just during their own life, would this be a sad removal? At what price would you not estimate a conference with Orpheus156 and Musæus,157 Hesiod158 and Homer?159 I indeed should be willing to die often, if this be true. For to me the sojourn 152 The Greek afterlife. 153 Minos and Rhadamanthus were brothers from Crete and were both judges of the dead, assigning them their place (and sometimes punishment) in the Underworld. 154 The third judge of the dead. 155 The cult of Triptolemus offered hope of a happy afterlife. 156 Legendary musician. 157 Legendary polymath. 158 Poet, author of the Theogony and Works and Days. 159 Poet, author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. 343

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 there would be admirable, when I should meet with Palamedes, and Ajax, son of Telamon,160 and any other of the ancients who has died by an unjust sentence. The comparing my sufferings with theirs would, I think, be no un- pleasing occupation. But the greatest pleasure would be to spend my time in questioning and examining the people there as I have done those here, and discovering who among them is wise, and who fancies himself to be so, but is not. At what price, my judges, would not any one estimate the opportunity of questioning him who led that mighty army against Troy, or Ulysses,161 or Sisyphus, or ten thousand others whom one might mention both men and women, with whom to converse and associate, and to question them, would be an inconceivable happiness? Surely for that the judges there do not condemn to death; for in other respects those who live there are more happy than those who are here, and are henceforth immortal, if, at least, what is said be true. 33. You, therefore, O my judges! ought to entertain good hopes with respect to death, and to meditate on this one truth, that to a good man nothing is evil, neither while living nor when dead, nor are his concerns neglected by the gods. And what has befallen me is not the effect of chance; but this is clear to me, that now to die, and be freed from my cares is better for me. On this account the warning162 in no way turned me aside; and I bear no resentment toward those who condemned me, or against my accusers, although they did not condemn and accuse me with this intention, but thinking to injure me: in this they deserve to be blamed. “Goodbye” Thus much, however, I beg of them. Punish my sons when they grow up, O judges! paining them as I have pained you, if they appear to you to care for riches or anything else before virtue; and if they think themselves to be something when they are nothing, reproach them as I have done you, for not attending to what they ought, and for conceiving themselves to be something when they are worth nothing. If ye do this, both I and my sons shall have met with just treatment at your hands. But it is now time to depart—for me to die, for you to live. But which of us is going to a better state is unknown to everyone but God. 160 Palamedes and Ajax are Trojan War heroes. 161 Odysseus. 162 Of the daemons. 344

2China The dates of the selections in this chapter range from approximately the 500s B.C.E. to approximately the 200s B.C.E., which is mostly the Warring States Period in Chinese history (476-221 B.C.E.). During this time period, the different regions of China (each with a separate ruler and tradition) fought to maintain independence and defend their borders. In 221 B.C.E., the Qin/Chin ruler finished the process of unifying China by the sword, becoming the first Emperor. These texts, therefore, predate the unification of China, and some of the advice offered (in particular in the works of Confucius) are meant to be seen in the context of multiple kingdoms; Confucius suggests leaving a kingdom and going elsewhere if the leadership is corrupt, which was no longer possible post-unification. The works in this chapter are foundational texts to later Chinese literature, politics, and philosophy. The Ana- lects of Confucius, with its focus on ethical and moral issues, provides the reader with a guide to proper behavior (according to Confucius). The Shi king (The Book of Songs/The Book of Odes/The Classic of Poetry) may have been edited by Confucius, according to some sources, and the poems themselves offer a glimpse into the expectations of that society. Daoism, the other influential perspective at that time, is found in the Zhuangzi (both a book and the possible name of the author), which offers a challenge to the Confucian way of thinking. Finally, Sun Tzu’s Art of War remains an influential text to this day, found as it is on the reading lists of military academies everywhere. Students who are not familiar with Chinese literature and culture often have the same first problem: how to pronounce the names. Chinese is a complex language, so the answer is not straightforward. In Chinese, words must be pronounced using the proper tone. For example, the word “ma” can be pronounced four different ways, and in each case it is a different word. • First tone: Rising tone (start low and go up the scale, like a rising accent mark) • Second tone: Falling tone (start high and drop lower, like a falling accent mark) • Third tone: Falling and Rising tone (begin high, drop low, and rise again, so that the sound is “U” shaped) • Fourth tone: Steady and High tone (high pitched, steady sound) Since each syllable of the word has a tone, and most translations do not mark which tone to use, there can be no way for students to know how to pronounce the word (except by taking a class in Chinese). Even then, students would have to choose between a class on Mandarin (spoken in the north) and Cantonese (spoken in the south), since they are too different to be taught as the same language. In addition to several major dialects of Chinese, there are numerous sub-dialects: some unintelligible to each other. An additional challenge for students looking for research on these texts is that the same word can be spelled differently, depending on the pinyin system used. Pinyin is the way that Chinese characters are converted into let- ters, so that the sound of the character is approximated. For example, the Chinese character for “person” looks like a type of wishbone, but it is converted to “ren” in pinyin. There are two major systems of pinyin (and some minor), and each one uses a different format to approximate sounds; both systems can be found online and in anthologies. The medieval Chinese poet Li Bo can be spelled Li Po or Li Bai, depending on the system used. In fact, the western name for “China” results from a series of translations, beginning with the pinyin “Chin” (more commonly translated as “Qin” these days) to describe the dynasty that unified the country in 221 B.C.E.; in other words, “China” is the land of the Chin/Qin. As you read, consider the following questions: • What do Confucius and Sun Tzu expect from leaders? What is the proper behavior toward subordinates, and how do you know? 345

World Literature I: Beginnings to 1650 • How do Confucian ideals contrast with Daoist ideals? What seems to be the reason for the difference? • What kind of behavior does society expect from its people, particularly in the Shi king (Book of Songs)? How do we know, based on the text? • What is the definition of heroism in these works, based on the texts themselves? • How would a Confucian hero be different from other ancient world heroes in other chapters, and why? Written by Laura J. Getty The Analects Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) Compiled ca. 200 B.C.E. China Confucius (or “Kongzi” in Chinese) was deeply concerned about Image 2.1: The Teaching Confucius | the problem of social chaos and explored ways to achieve social order. Portrait of Confucius, one of the world’s most Inspired by the early rulers of the Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1045-256 B.C.E.), famous philosophers and the creator of Con- whom he considered exemplary, Confucius developed his philosophy fucianism. about government, morality, ethics, social roles, and the importance of Author: User “Louis le Grand~commonswiki” rituals. As a teacher, Confucius had a great number of disciples during his Source: Wikimedia Commons time. The Analects, translated as “Collected Conversations,” were com- License: Public Domain plied by later Confucian scholars, reaching their complete form around the second century B.C.E. The Analects are perhaps the most well-known text in Confucianism, belonging to the so-called “Four Books” of this tra- dition. Confucianism, which is known as Ruxue (Doctrine of the Sages) in China, forms a large part of the basis of many East Asian cultures. Written by Kyounghye Kwon The Analects License: Open Access Confucius, translated by James Legge [1893] BOOK I. HSIO R. Chapter I. The Master said, ‘Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application? Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters? Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?’ Chapter IV. The philosopher Tsang said, ‘I daily examine myself on three points:-- whether, in transacting business for others, I may have been not faithful;-- whether, in intercourse with friends, I may have been not sincere;-- whether I may have not mastered and practised the instructions of my teacher.’ Chapter XI. The Master said, ‘While a man’s father is alive, look at the bent of his will; when his father is dead, look at his conduct. If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial.’ 346