Sport Speed and Agility Training

["Lunges\tWith\tUpper\tBody\tRotation Purpose:\tTo\twarm\tup\tthe\tmuscles\tof\tthe\tlower\tbody,\twhile\tdeveloping\tbalance and\tflexibility. Start:\tStand\tupright,\tarms\trelaxed\tand\theld\tat\tthe\tside\tof\tthe\tbody,\tfeet\thip-width apart. Action:\tPlace\thands\ton\tthe\thead\twith\tthe\telbows\tpointing\tout.\tBegin\tby\ttaking\ta step\t forward\t that\t is\t longer\t than\t a\t normal\t walking\t stride.\t Once\t the\t foot\t makes contact\t with\t the\t ground,\t flex\t the\t knee\t of\t the\t walking\t leg\t until\t the\t thigh\t is parallel\tto\tthe\tground.\tOnce\tin\tthis\tposition,\trotate\tthe\tupper\tbody\tto\tboth\tsides. The\ttrail\tleg\twill\talso\thave\ta\tslight\tflexion\tat\tthe\tknee.\tDo\tnot\tallow\tthe\tknee\tof the\tlead\tleg\tto\tpass\tthe\ttoes\tand\tdo\tnot\tallow\tthe\tknee\tof\tthe\ttrail\tleg\tto\trest\ton the\tground.\tRepeat\tthe\tmovement,\tswitching\tlegs\twith\teach\tstep. Finish:\t After\t performing\t the\t lunges\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t the\t exercise\t is complete.","Walk\tForward,\tAbduct\tHip Purpose:\tTo\twarm\tup\tthe\thip\twhile\tenhancing\thip\tflexion\tand\tbalance. Start:\tStand\tupright,\tarms\trelaxed\tand\theld\tat\tthe\tside\tof\tthe\tbody,\tfeet\thip-width apart. Action:\t Lift\t the\t left\t knee\t high,\t with\t the\t foot\t dorsiflexed\t and\t big\t toe\t pulled\t up. From\tthis\tposition,\tabduct\tthe\thip\tso\tthat\tthe\tknee\tmoves\taway\tfrom\tthe\tmidline of\t the\t body.\t Without\t lowering\t the\t foot,\t adduct\t the\t hip\t so\t that\t the\t knee\t moves back\t towards\t the\t midline.\t Step\t forward\t and\t repeat\t with\t the\t right\t leg.\t Repeat until\tthe\tdrill\thas\tcovered\t10\tto\t30\tyards.","Finish:\t After\t performing\t the\t drill\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t the\t exercise\t is complete.","General\tLinear\tPreparation\tExercises These\t exercises\t help\t prepare\t the\t athlete\t for\t straight-ahead\t movements\t like sprinting.\t They\t help\t to\t reinforce\t technique\t on\t specific\t parts\t of\t the\t sprinting motion.\tThese\texercises\tare\ttypically\tperformed\tover\t10\tto\t30\tyards.","High\tKnee Purpose:\tTo\tteach\tlifting\tthe\tknees\tduring\tthe\tsprinting\tmotion. Start:\tStand\tupright,\tfeet\thip-width\tapart.\tPlace\tyour\thands\tbehind\tyour\thead\tso that\tyou\tcannot\tuse\tthem. Action:\t Lift\t the\t right\t knee\t as\t high\t as\t possible,\t and\t dorsiflex\t the\t right\t foot\t as\t it leaves\tthe\tground.\tStep\tforward.\tRepeat\ton\tthe\tleft\tside.\tVisualize\tstepping\tover a\ttall\tobject. Finish:\t After\t performing\t the\t drill\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t the\t exercise\t is complete.","High\tKnee\tPulls Purpose:\tTo\treinforce\tlifting\tthe\tknees\twhile\tworking\ton\tflexibility\tand\tbalance. Start:\tStand\tupright,\tarms\trelaxed\tand\theld\tat\tthe\tside\tof\tthe\tbody,\tfeet\thip-width apart. Action:\t Lift\t the\t right\t knee\t as\t high\t as\t possible,\t and\t dorsiflex\t the\t right\t foot\t as\t it leaves\tthe\tground.\tGrab\tthe\tright\tleg\tjust\tbelow\tthe\tknee\tand\tpull\tup,\tstretching the\tleg.\tStep\tforward.\tRepeat\ton\tthe\tleft\tside. Finish:\t After\t performing\t the\t drill\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t the\t exercise\t is complete. High\tKnee\tPulls\/Lunge Purpose:\tTo\treinforce\tlifting\tthe\tknees\twhile\tworking\ton\tflexibility\tand\tbalance. Start:\tStand\tupright,\tarms\trelaxed\tand\theld\tat\tthe\tside\tof\tthe\tbody,\tfeet\thip-width apart. Action:\t Begin\t by\t raising\t one\t leg\t until\t the\t top\t of\t the\t thigh\t is\t parallel\t to\t the ground,\t keeping\t the\t knee\t flexed.\t Grab\t the\t leg\t with\t both\t hands\t (just\t below\t the","knee),\tand\tcarefully\tpull\tthe\tknee\tto\tthe\tchest,\tkeeping\ta\tflat\tback\twith\tchest\tup. As\t the\t leg\t is\t returning\t to\t the\t ground,\t extend\t the\t leg\t and\t perform\t a\t forward lunge.\tRepeat\tthis\texercise\tby\tswitching\tlegs. Finish:\t After\t performing\t the\t drill\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t the\t exercise\t is complete.","General\tMultidirectional\tPreparation\tExercises These\t exercises\t prepare\t the\t athlete\t for\t agility\t work.\t They\t teach\t fundamental movement\t patterns\t while\t warming\t up\t the\t muscles\t and\t joints.\t They\t are performed\tat\thigher\tspeeds\tthan\tthe\tother\texercises\tdescribed\tin\tthis\tchapter\tand are\tgenerally\tperformed\tover\t5\tto\t20\tyards.","Side\tShuffle Purpose:\t To\t warm\t up\t the\t hip\t and\t lower\t body\t muscles,\t and\t to\t teach\t lateral movement\tpatterns. Start:\t Stand\t sideways\t in\t the\t \u201cready\u201d\t position:\t feet\t shoulder-width\t apart,\t knees and\thips\tflexed,\tback\tflat,\tarms\tflexed. Action:\t Step\t sideways\t with\t the\t lead\t leg,\t and\t lightly\t drag\t the\t trail\t leg\t on\t the ground\t toward\t the\t lead\t leg.\t Keep\t the\t legs\t shoulder-width\t apart.\t While\t pushing with\tthe\ttrail\tleg\tand\tstepping\tout\twith\tthe\tlead\tleg,\tkeep\tthe\tbody\tin\tthe\t\u201cready\u201d position.\tRepeat\tfor\t5\tto\t20\tyards. Finish:\t After\t performing\t side\t shuffles\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t sprint\t for\t 10 to\t15\tyards.","Backpedal Purpose:\tTo\tteach\tmovement\tpatterns. Start:\t Begin\t in\t a\t crouched\t position,\t back\t flat,\t feet\t staggered.\t Arms\t should\t be flexed\tat\tthe\telbows. Action:\tPush\t with\t the\t front\t foot\t while\t stepping\t backwards\t with\t the\t rear\t foot. Maintain\tthe\tcrouched\tposition\tand\tuse\tthe\tarms\tin\tthe\tnormal\trunning\tmotion. Perform\tfor\t5\tto\t20\tyards. Finish:\tPerform\ta\t\u201cspeed\tturn\u201d\tat\tthe\tend\tof\tthe\tbackpedal\tand\tfinish\twith\ta\t10- to\t20-yard\tsprint.","Step\tBacks Purpose:\tTo\twarm\tup\tthe\thip\tand\timprove\tbackward\tmovement. Start:\t Stand\t upright,\t arms\t relaxed\t and\t held\t at\t the\t sides\t of\t the\t body,\t feet\t hip- width\tapart. Action:\t Raise\t the\t left\t leg\t until\t the\t top\t of\t the\t thigh\t is\t parallel\t to\t the\t ground.\t As the\tleg\trises\tto\t a\tparallel\tposition,\texternally\trotate\tthe\tleg\tand\thip.\tReturn\tthe leg\tto\tthe\tground\t(moving\tbackwards),\tthen\timmediately\tswitch\tlegs\tand\trepeat. Perform\tthis\taction\tslowly\tand\tmethodically.\tThe\tupper\tbody\twill\twork\topposite of\tthe\tlower\tbody,\tassisting\tin\tthe\trotation\tof\tthe\thips.\tPerformed\tover\t10\tto\t30 yards. Finish:\tAfter\tperforming\tthe\tstep\tbacks\tfor\tthe\tprescribed\tdistance,\tthe\texercise is\tcomplete.","Carioca Purpose:\t To\t warm\t up\t the\t hips\t and\t muscles\t of\t the\t lower\t body,\t and\t to\t teach lateral\tmovement\tpatterns. Start:\tStand\tsideways\tin\tthe\tready\tposition:\tfeet\tshoulder-width\tapart,\tknees\tand hips\tflexed,\tback\tflat,\tarms\tflexed. Action:\tMove\tlaterally,\talternately\tcrossing\teach\tleg\tin\tfront\tof\tthe\tother.\tStay\tin the\tready\tposition.\tThe\tlegs\tshould\tmove\tas\tquickly\tas\tpossible\tas\tthey\tcross\tin front\tof\tone\tanother.\tPerform\tover\t5\tto\t20\tyards. Finish:\t After\t performing\t the\t carioca\t for\t the\t prescribed\t distance,\t complete\t the drill\twith\ta\t10-to\t15-yard\tsprint. Organizing\tthe\tWarm-Up The\t duration\t and\t intensity\t of\t the\t warm-up\t will\t depend\t upon\t the\t level\t of\t the athlete,\t the\t nature\t of\t the\t workout\t to\t follow,\t and\t other\t factors,\t such\t as\t the ambient\t temperature\t in\t which\t the\t workout\t is\t going\t to\t be\t performed.\t Workouts performed\t by\t advanced\t athletes,\t intense\t workouts,\t or\t workouts\t performed\t in cold\tenvironments\tall\trequire\tmore\tthorough\twarm-ups. As\t mentioned\t previously,\t warm-ups\t consist\t of\t a\t general\t warm-up\t followed by\t a\t specific\t warm-up.\t Jogging\t and\t dynamic\t flexibility\t exercises\t make\t a\t great general\t warm-up\t for\t speed\t and\t agility\t workouts.\t Two\t to\t three\t minutes\t of\t light jogging\t followed\t by\t one\t to\t two\t exercises\t from\t each\t category\t of\t dynamic flexibility\texercises\tshould\tmake\tup\tthe\tgeneral\twarm-up.\tThe\tspecific\twarm-up should\tconsist\tof\tthe\tsprint\tand\tagility\ttechnique\texercises. Each\t exercise\t in\t the\t general\t warm-up\t should\t be\t performed\t for\t one\t to\t three sets\t of\t 10\t to\t 30\t yards\t (or\t repetitions).\t The\t number\t of\t sets\t and\t yards\t (or repetitions)\tper\tset\twill\tdepend\tupon\tthe\tlevel\tof\tthe\tathlete\tand\tthe\tnature\tof\tthe workout.\tMore\tadvanced\tathletes\tor\tpreparation\tfor\tmore\tdifficult\tworkouts\twill require\ta\tgreater\tvolume\tof\twarm-up\texercises.\tThe\tspecific\twarm-up\texercises should\t be\t performed\t for\t three\t sets\t of\t 10\t to\t 30\t yards.\t Table\t 2-2\t outlines\t an example\t of\t a\t basic\t warm-up.\t For\t advanced\t athletes,\t on\t cold\t days,\t or\t prior\t to strenuous\tworkouts,\tadd\tjogging\tto\tsome\tof\tthe\tdynamic\tflexibility\texercises\tto","increase\tthe\tlevel\tof\tdifficulty\t(see\tTable\t2-3). Warming\tup\tis\tan\timportant\tcomponent\tof\ta\tspeed\tand\tagility\tworkout.\tDone properly,\tit\tcan\tprevent\tinjuries\tand\timprove\tperformance.\tWarm-ups\tshould\tbe constructed\t in\t a\t way\t that\t allows\t the\t athlete\t to\t prepare\t for\t the\t workout\t that\t lies ahead. With\t regards\t to\t speed\t and\t agility\t workouts,\t the\t best\t way\t to\t prepare\t is through\tdynamic\tflexibility\texercises,\tperhaps\tcombined\twith\tlimited\tjogging.\tIn addition\t to\t warming\t up\t the\t tissues,\t dynamic\t flexibility\t exercises\t warm\t up\t the","muscles\tand\tjoints\tin\ta\tmanner\tsimilar\tto\thow\tthey\twill\tbe\tused\tin\tthe\tworkout. Dynamic\t flexibility\t exercises\t also\t provide\t a\t way\t to\t make\t the\t warm-up interesting\t and\t challenging.\t Failing\t to\t warm\t up,\t or\t doing\t so\t improperly,\t could lead\tto\tinjury\tand\twill\tlimit\tthe\teffectiveness\tof\tthe\tathlete\u2019s\ttraining\texperience.","Training\tfor\tSpeed Running\t speed\t is\t important\t for\t success\t in\t sports.\t Even\t though\t the\t exact requirements\t may\t differ\t for\t each\t sport,\t almost\t all\t sports\t consider\t speed\t an important\t quality.\t Speed\t influences\t an\t athlete\u2019s\t ability\t to\t get\t to\t the\t ball,\t get\t to the\t base,\t get\t to\t the\t goal,\t outrun\t a\t defender,\t catch\t an\t opponent\t with\t the\t ball, block\t a\t scoring\t attempt,\t etc.\t Speed\t is\t such\t an\t important\t quality\t that\t it\t is frequently\tused\tto\thelp\tdetermine\twho\tmakes\tthe\tteam\tand\twho\tstarts. This\tchapter\tbegins\twith\ta\tdiscussion\tof\tthe\tfactors\tthat\tinfluence\tspeed\tand how\t they\t may\t be\t affected\t through\t training.\t It\t then\t describes\t the\t proper technique\tbehind\trunning\tat\tmaximal\tspeed,\tand\thow\tto\ttrain\tfor\tit.\tThe\tchapter concludes\t by\t describing\t technique\t and\t training\t for\t acceleration\t and\t speed endurance.","Factors\tThat\tDetermine\tSpeed","Muscle\tStructure","Distribution\tof\tMuscle\tFiber\tTypes The\t distribution\t of\t muscle\t fiber\t types\t (i.e.,\t fast\t twitch\t vs.\t slow\t twitch)\t could affect\t how\t fast\t an\t athlete\t can\t be.\t In\t theory,\t a\t greater\t percentage\t of\t fast-twitch muscle\t fibers,\t which\t generate\t a\t large\t amount\t of\t force\t over\t a\t short\t period\t of time,\t would\t enable\t an\t athlete\t to\t run\t faster.\t Costill,\t et\t al\t (1976)\t found\t that sprinters\t have\t a\t greater\t percentage\t of\t fast-twitch\t muscle\t fibers\t than\t middle- distance\tand\tdistance\trunners\t(71.8\tto\t79\tpercent\tfor\tsprinters\tversus\t26.2\tto\t59.5 percent\t for\t distance\t runners).\t Whether\t this\t difference\t is\t a\t result\t of\t training\t or whether\tit\tis\tinherited\tis\tnot\tclear,\tbut\tit\tdoes\tindicate\tthat\tthose\tathletes\twith\ta higher\tpercentage\tof\tfast-twitch\tmuscle\tfibers\tmay\thave\ta\tgreater\tpotential\tto\tbe faster.","Length\tof\tthe\tMuscle\tFibers The\tlength\tof\tthe\tmuscle\tfibers\taffects\tspeed.\tMuscles\twith\tlonger\tmuscle\tfibers (i.e.,\t more\t sarcomeres\t in\t series)\t have\t a\t lower\t reduction\t in\t force\t at\t higher velocities.\t Length\t is\t also\t important\t because\t longer\t muscle\t fibers\t will\t have\t a greater\t shortening\t velocity.\t In\t other\t words,\t muscles\t with\t longer\t muscle\t fibers will\tbe\table\tto\tgenerate\tmore\tforce\tagainst\tthe\tground\tat\thigher\tspeeds\tand\twill be\t able\t to\t contract\t more\t quickly.\t This\t factor\t is\t one\t of\t those\t theoretical limitations\t that\t has\t been\t sustained\t by\t practical\t research.\t Abe,\t et\t al.\t (2000) compared\t sprinters\t to\t distance\t runners\t and\t found\t that\t the\t sprinters\t had significantly\tlarger\tmuscle\tfascicles\t(bundles\tof\tmuscle\tfibers)\tthan\tthe\tdistance runners.\tFor\texample,\tin\tthe\tvastus\tlateralis\tmuscle,\tthey\tfound\tfascicle\tlengths of\t 8.83cm\t in\t sprinters\t versus\t 6.15cm\t in\t distance\t runners.\t It\u2019s\t unclear\t if\t this difference\tis\ta\tresult\tof\ttraining\tor\tif\tit\tis\tjust\thow\tdifferent\tathletes\tare\tbuilt,\tbut the\tstudy\tunderscores\tthe\timportance\tof\tmuscle\tfiber\tlength.","Shape\tof\tthe\tMuscles The\t cross-sectional\t area\t (CSA)\t of\t a\t muscle\t is\t important\t for\t performance. Muscles\t with\t a\t larger\t CSA\t will\t be\t able\t to\t produce\t more\t force.\t However,\t CSA alone\t may\t not\t be\t as\t important\t as\t the\t shape\t of\t the\t muscle.\t According\t to Kumagai,\tet\tal\t(2000),\tfaster\tsprinters\thave\tgreater\tmuscle\tthickness\tin\tthe\tupper portion\tof\ttheir\tthighs\t(anterior\tand\tposterior).\tAbe,\tet\tal\t(1999)\tcompared\tblack and\t white\t football\t players\t and\t found\t that\t black\t offensive\t and\t defensive\t backs had\t faster\t times\t in\t the\t 40-yard\t dash\t than\t white\t players\t did\t (mean\t of\t 4.63 seconds\t vs.\t 4.90\t seconds)\t and\t that\t those\t black\t players\t had\t larger\t muscle thickness\tat\tthe\tupper\tportions\tof\tthe\tquadriceps\tand\thamstrings.\tIt\tis\tunclear\tif this\t difference\t is\t a\t result\t of\t training\t or\t if\t it\t is\t inherited.\t However,\t this information\tmay\tdemonstrate\tthat\tnot\tonly\tis\tthe\tcross-sectional\tarea\tof\ta\tmuscle important,\t but\t the\t location\t within\t a\t given\t muscle\t of\t the\t hypertrophied\t tissue may\taffect\tspeed. Pennation\tAngle\tof\tthe\tMuscle\tFibers Muscle\t fibers\t don\u2019t\t just\t run\t straight\t up\t and\t down;\t some\t run\t at\t an\t angle\t to\t the tendon,\twhich\tis\tcalled\tthe\tfiber\u2019s\tpennation\tangle.\tMuscle\tfibers\twith\ta\tgreater pennation\tangle\tare\table\tto\texert\tmore\tforce.\tHowever,\tthose\tthat\thave\ta\tsmaller pennation\tangle\t(i.e.,\trun\tmore\tstraight\tup\tand\tdown)\tare\table\tto\tshorten\tfaster, thus\t helping\t an\t athlete\t to\t run\t faster.\t In\t the\t Abe,\t et\t al.\t (2000)\t study,\t which\t was previously\tmentioned,\t they\tfound\tthat\tthe\tsprinters\thad\ta\tsignificantly\treduced pennation\t angle\t when\t compared\t to\t the\t distance\t runners.\t For\t example,\t in\t the vastus\tlateralis\tmuscle,\tfiber\tpennation\tangles\tof\tthe\tsprinters\twere\t18.5\tdegrees versus\t 23.7\t degrees\t in\t the\t distance\t runners.\t Some\t of\t this\t variable\t is\t trainable because\tstrength\ttraining\tfocused\ton\thypertrophy\t(muscle\tsize)\twill\tincrease\tthe pennation\t angles\t of\t muscle\t fibers.\t However,\t it\t may\t be\t counter-productive\t if taken\tto\tan\textreme,\twhich\tis\tan\texample\tof\twhy\tathletes\thave\tto\tbe\tcareful\twith how\tthey\ttrain.","Length\tof\tthe\tLegs The\t length\t of\t an\t athlete\u2019s\t leg\t compared\t to\t his\t height\t has\t an\t impact\t on\t speed. Those\t athletes\t with\t longer\t legs\t related\t to\t their\t heights\t seem\t to\t be\t able\t to\t run faster\t than\t other\t athletes.\t In\t the\t Abe,\t et\t al\t (1999)\t study\t mentioned\t previously, those\t football\t players\t who\t ran\t the\t 40-yard\t dash\t in\t 4.63\t seconds\t had\t legs\t that made\tup\t49.5\tpercent\tof\ttheir\tstanding\theight.\tThe\tslower\tathletes\t(4.90\tseconds in\t the\t 40-yard\t dash)\t had\t legs\t that\t made\t up\t only\t 47.8\t percent\t of\t their\t standing height.\t This\t correlation\t has\t also\t been\t demonstrated\t in\t sprinters.\t Coh\t and Tomazin\t (2005)\t examined\t 17\t national\t caliber\t female\t sprinters.\t Those\t athletes with\t longer\t legs\t and\t legs\t that\t made\t up\t a\t greater\t percentage\t of\t their\t standing height\tran\tthe\t100-meter\tsprint\tfaster\t(12.14\tseconds\tversus\t12.96\tseconds),\thad a\tgreater\trunning\tvelocity\tduring\tthe\t30-meter\tflying\tsprint\t(8.84\tmeters\/second versus\t 8.28\t meters\/second),\t and\t had\t a\t greater\t stride\t length\t (205\t cm\t versus\t 192 cm).\t Clearly,\t leg\t length\t isn\u2019t\t trainable,\t but\t it\t does\t serve\t as\t a\t good\t example\t of how\tgenetics\timpacts\tspeed. Ability\tto\tUse\tFuel Speed\t is\t a\t short-duration,\t maximal\t intensity\t activity.\t Therefore,\t it\t will\t be affected\tby\thow\tmuch\tATP\tand\tCP\tare\tpresent\tin\tthe\tbody.\tIf\tnot\tenough\tATP\tis available,\tit\twill\tlimit\tan\tathlete\u2019s\tability\tto\tcontract\this\tmuscles.\tWithout\tenough CP,\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t ability\t to\t resynthesize\t ATP\t after\t contractions\t will\t be\t limited. Long-term\tspeed\ttraining\tmay\tincrease\tthe\tactivities\tof\tthe\tenzymes\tinvolved\tin ATP\tbreakdown\tand\tATP\tresynthesis,\twhich\tcould\tspeed\tthe\tbreakdown\tof\tATP and\tits\tresynthesis\tduring\tactivity,\tthereby\tallowing\tan\tathlete\tto\texercise\tfaster and\tfor\tlonger\tperiods\tof\ttime. In\t some\t instances,\t speed\t must\t be\t maintained\t over\t a\t period\t of\t time\t (i.e., speed\tendurance).\tSpeed\tendurance\tis\tlimited\tby\tthe\tpresence\tof\tglycogen\tstores and\t by\t the\t ability\t of\t the\t tissues\t to\t resist\t the\t effects\t of\t lactic\t acid.\t Training\t has been\tfound\tto\tincrease\tthe\tactivity\tof\tthe\tenzymes\tinvolved\tin\tthe\tbreakdown\tof glycogen\tand\tthe\tproduction\tof\tlactic\tacid.","Fatigue Fatigue\tinterferes\twith\tspeed.\tPerforming\tspeed\twork\tunder\tfatigued\tconditions will\tteach\tthe\tathlete\tthe\twrong\tthings.\tAllowing\tan\tathlete\tto\trun\tslowly\tor\twith bad\t technique\t will\t reinforce\t those\t poor\t motor\t patterns.\t Speed\t work\t should\t be performed\twhen\tthe\tathlete\tis\tfresh\tso\tthat\the\tmay\tlearn\tgood\ttechnique\tand\tbe fast.\tWhen\tfatigue\tsets\tin\tand\tperformance\tof\tthe\texercises\tbegins\tto\tsuffer,\tthe speed\tworkout\tshould\tbe\tterminated\tfor\tthat\tday.","Mobility Mobility,\tas\tit\trelates\tto\tspeed\ttraining,\tis\tthe\tability\tto\tmove\ta\tjoint\tthrough\tan unrestricted\t range\t of\t motion\t (not\t the\t ability\t to\t stretch\t a\t muscle\t and\t hold\t that extended\tposition\tfor\ta\tperiod\tof\ttime).\tThe\tgreater\tan\tathlete\u2019s\tmobility,\tthe\tless impedance\the\twill\texperience\tduring\tfast\tmovements.\tChapter\t2\tdetails\tdynamic flexibility\texercises\tthat\tcan\tassist\twith\tthis\tability.","Stride\tLength\tand\tStride\tFrequency Stride\tlength\tand\tstride\tfrequency\tdetermine\tspeed.\tTo\timprove\tspeed,\tan\tathlete must\t improve\t one\t or\t both\t of\t these\t parameters.\t Stride\t length\t refers\t to\t the distance\t that\t the\t hips\t travel\t with\t each\t stride.\t The\t ability\t to\t take\t longer\t strides will\tpotentially\tallow\tan\tathlete\tto\tget\twhere\the\u2019s\tgoing\tfaster.\tStride\tfrequency refers\t to\t the\t number\t of\t foot\t contacts\t with\t the\t ground\t per\t unit\t of\t time.\t Taking more\t frequent\t strides\t also\t potentially\t means\t that\t an\t athlete\t can\t arrive\t at\t his destination\tfaster.\tBoth\tqualities\tare\ttrainable.\tHowever,\tkeep\tin\tmind\tthat\tmore is\t not\t necessarily\t better.\t For\t example,\t after\t a\t certain\t point,\t too\t much\t stride length\t will\t slow\t an\t athlete\t down\t because\t it\t will\t cause\t him\t to\t brake\t while running.\tElite\tsprinters,\twho\thave\talready\toptimized\ttheir\tstride\tlength,\tfocus\ton increasing\tstride\tfrequency\tto\timprove\ttheir\tspeed.\tFor\tmost\tathletes\tthat\tare\tnot elite\tsprinters,\tthe\ttrick\tis\tto\tfind\tthe\toptimal\trelationship\tbetween\tthe\ttwo.","Technique In\t sprinting,\t a\t number\t of\t complicated\t movements\t are\t taking\t place\t in\t a\t short period\t of\t time.\t The\t ability\t of\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t nervous\t system\t to\t link\t together\t the action\t of\t the\t muscles\t will\t determine\t that\t athlete\u2019s\t ability\t to\t run\t fast.\t In\t other words,\t the\t limiting\t factor\t in\t speed\t development\t is\t technique.\t Not\t only\t is technique\t important\t for\t performance,\t it\t is\t also\t important\t for\t the\t prevention\t of injuries.\t Poor\t sprinting\t technique\t can\t place\t too\t much\t strain\t on\t the\t hamstrings, groin,\t and\t shins,\t leading\t to\t injuries\t in\t those\t areas.\t Therefore,\t a\t significant\t part of\t an\t athlete\u2019s\t training\t should\t be\t spent\t on\t developing\t sound\t technique,\t using drills\tthat\tare\tspecifically\tdesigned\tto\tdevelop\tan\t\u201cideal\u201d\tsprinting\ttechnique.","Maximum\tVelocity\tRunning","Technique Maximum\t velocity\t running\t is\t often\t divided\t into\t two\t phases:\t support\t and recovery.","Support\tPhase The\t support\t phase\t starts\t when\t the\t leading\t foot\t makes\t contact\t with\t the\t ground and\t ends\t when\t it\t breaks\t contact\t with\t the\t ground.\t The\t leading\t foot\t should\t land on\tthe\tground\tslightly\tahead\tof\tthe\tathlete\u2019s\tcenter\tof\tgravity.\tThe\tfoot\tshould\tbe driven\t down\t by\t the\t hip\t extensors\t (i.e.,\t the\t hamstrings\t and\t glutes\t should\t be performing\t the\tmajority\tof\tthe\twork\tduring\tthe\thip\textension).\tThe\tquadriceps play\t an\t important\t role\t at\t touchdown\t in\t keeping\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t knee\t from\t flexing excessively\t and\t dissipating\t elastic\t energy.\t As\t the\t foot\t lands\t on\t the\t ground,\t it should\tbe\tdorsiflexed,\twith\tthe\tbig\ttoe\tpulled\tup\tto\thelp\tmaximize\telastic\tforce production.\tThe\toutside\tof\tthe\tforefoot\tshould\tcontact\tthe\tground. The\t athlete\t should\t think\t about\t pulling\t himself\t over\t the\t foot.\t He\t should continue\texerting\tforce\tuntil\this\tcenter\tof\tgravity\tpasses\tover\tand\tin\tfront\tof\tthe foot.\tWhen\tthe\ttoes\tleave\tthe\tground,\tthe\tsupport\tphase\thas\tended.","Recovery\tPhase The\trecovery\tphase\tstarts\twhen\tthe\tleading\tfoot\tbreaks\tcontact\twith\tthe\tground and\t lasts\t until\t it\t again\t makes\t contact\t with\t the\t ground.\t As\t the\t athlete\t enters\t the recovery\tphase\t(i.e.,\tas\tthe\tfoot\tleaves\tthe\tground),\tthe\tankle\tshould\timmediately be\t dorsiflexed,\t with\t the\t big\t toe\t pulled\t up.\t As\t the\t foot\t leaves\t the\t ground,\t the athlete\t should\t flex\t the\t knee\t and\t bring\t the\t heel\t up\t to\t the\t hips\t as\t quickly\t as possible.\t This\tmovement\t allows\t the\tathlete\tto\tswing\this\trecovery\tleg\tfaster\t by shortening\t the\t lever\t and\t bringing\t the\t mass\t of\t the\t leg\t closer\t to\t the\t hip\u2019s\t axis\t of rotation. As\t the\t heel\t reaches\t the\t hip,\t the\t leg\t should\t be\t swung\t forward.\t The\t athlete should\t aim\t to\t step\t over\t the\t opposite\t knee\t with\t the\t ankle,\t to\t keep\t the\t lever shorter\tfor\ta\tlonger\tperiod\tof\ttime.\tThe\tathlete\tshould\tbegin\tunfolding\tthe\tswing leg\tas\tthe\tankle\tsteps\tover\tthe\topposite\tknee.\tThe\thip\tand\tknee\textension\tis\tdue to\t a\t transfer\t of\t momentum,\t not\t an\t active\t quadriceps\t contraction.\t As\t the\t leg unfolds,\tthe\tathlete\taims\tto\tdrive\tit\tdown\tvia\thip\textension,\tthus\tgoing\tback\tinto the\tsupport\tphase.\tThe\tswinging\tof\tthe\tleg\tis\talso\twhere\tmany\thamstring\tinjuries occur.\tAs\tthe\tleg\tswings\tforward,\tit\tunfolds,\tand\tthe\thamstrings\tfire\tto\tkeep\tthe leg\t from\t unfolding\t too\t much\t (i.e.,\t to\t keep\t the\t knee\t from\t hyperextending). Chumanov,\tet\tal.\t(2007)\tfound\tthat\tthe\tforce\tthat\tthe\thamstring\texerts\tduring\tthis unfolding\tincreases\tas\tspeed\tincreases\u2014which\treinforces\tthe\tneed\tfor\tathletes\tto have\tstrong\thamstrings.","Other\tTechnique\tConsiderations The\thead\tshould\tbe\tkept\tin\tnatural\talignment\twith\tthe\ttrunk.\tThe\tshoulders\tand trunk\t should\t be\t kept\t steady\t to\t avoid\t twisting.\t The\t exact\t angle\t of\t the\t body\t will depend\tupon\tacceleration,\tbut\tat\tmaximum\tspeed\tit\tshould\tbe\t80\tto\t85\tdegrees. The\t muscles\t of\t the\t face,\t neck,\t shoulders,\t arms,\t and\t hands\t should\t be\t relaxed because\t tension\t in\t those\t muscles\t will\t slow\t down\t limb\t speed\t and\t range\t of motion. Arm\t action\t during\t maximum\t velocity\t running\t is\t very\t important.\t The swinging\t of\t the\t arms\t balances\t the\t forces\t created\t by\t the\t legs\t and\t initiates\t the actions\t of\t the\t legs.\t According\t to\t Bodyen\t (1978),\t the\t total\t power\t output\t during sprinting\tcan\tbe\tno\tmore\tthan\tthe\tlatitude\tallowed\tby\tthe\tweakest\tlink.\tIn\tother words,\ta\tweak\tand\tineffective\tarm\tswing\twill\tlimit\trunning\tspeed.\tTherefore,\tthe action\tof\tthe\tarms\tduring\trunning\tis\tvery\timportant\tto\tachieving\tand\timproving maximum\tvelocity. Contrary\t to\t popular\t belief,\t the\t elbow\t angle\t should\t vary\t from\t 60\t degrees (when\tthe\tarm\tis\tin\tthe\tfront\tof\tthe\tbody)\tto\t140\tdegrees\t(when\tthe\tarm\tis\tin\tthe back).\tWhen\trunning,\tthe\temphasis\tshould\tbe\ton\tdriving\tthe\tarm\tbackward\t(not on\t driving\t it\t forward).\t If\t the\t arm\t is\t driven\t backward\t with\t enough\t force,\t it\t will be\t pushed\t forward\t due\t to\t the\t stretch\t reflex\t at\t the\t shoulder\t (i.e.,\t the\t athlete should\tnot\thave\tto\tthink\tabout\tpushing\tthe\tarm\tforward).\tThe\tfollowing\tpointers will\thelp\tathletes\tachieve\tproper\tarm\taction: The\thand\tshould\ttravel\tfrom\tthe\theight\tof\tthe\tface\tor\tshoulder\tto\tthe\thip. If\t the\t arm\t is\t driven\t backwards\t properly,\t then\t the\t elbow\t will\t open\t to\t 140 degrees\ton\tits\town\t(it\tshould\tnot\tbe\ta\t\u201cforced\u201d\tmovement). The\tarms\tshould\tnot\tcross\tthe\tmidline\tof\tthe\tbody\tbecause\tthat\tmovement will\tcause\tthe\tathlete\tto\tbegin\ttwisting,\twhich\twill\tinterfere\twith\tspeed.","Evaluating\tSpeed Flying\t sprints\t or\t middle\t distance\t sprints\t will\t be\t best\t for\t evaluating\t speed.\t To evaluate\t maximal\t running\t velocity,\t a\t test\t needs\t to\t last\t five\t to\t seven\t seconds. Tests\t that\t are\t too\t long\t (for\t example,\t 100-yard\t dash)\t primarily\t evaluate\t speed endurance.\t Tests\t that\t are\t too\t short\t (for\t example,\t 40-yard\t dash)\t primarily evaluate\t acceleration.\t Tests\t that\t could\t be\t used\t to\t evaluate\t speed\t include\t a \u201cflying\u201d\t 40\t (20-yard\t acceleration\t zone\t followed\t by\t 40-yard\t all-out\t sprint,\t but only\t the\t 40\t gets\t timed)\t and\t a\t 60-yard\t sprint\t (tests\t acceleration\t plus\t maximal speed).","Principles\tof\tTraining Maximum\t velocity\t training\t should\t not\t take\t place\t in\t two\t consecutive\t training sessions.\t In\t general,\t it\t requires\t one\t to\t three\t days\t of\t recovery\t between\t sessions. Maximum\t velocity\t training\t is\t conducted\t over\t distances\t of\t 20\t to\t 80\t yards,\t with three\t to\t five\t minutes\t rest\t between\t repetitions,\t and\t six\t to\t eight\t minutes\t rest between\tsets.\tBecause\tthe\taim\tof\tmaximum\tvelocity\ttraining\tis\tto\tbecome\tas\tfast as\t possible\t with\t good\t technique,\t athletes\t must\t be\t allowed\t to\t fully\t recover between\t efforts.\t In\t addition,\t athletes\t should\t be\t encouraged\t to\t run\t as\t fast\t as possible\t because\t learning\t to\t run\t slowly\t is\t undesirable.\t The\t intensity\t of maximum\tvelocity\texercises\tshould\tbe\tclose\tto\t100\tpercent.\tTable\t3-2\tat\tthe\tend of\tthis\tchapter\tprovides\ta\tbreakdown\tof\trepetitions,\tintensity,\trest,\tand\trecovery for\ttraining\tfor\tdifferent\tspeed\tqualities. Whether\t the\t athlete\t should\t focus\t more\t on\t developing\t stride\t length\t or\t stride frequency\t will\t depend\t upon\t the\t individual\u2019s\t ability,\t his\t level\t of\t development, and\t his\t training\t age.\t Table\t 3-1\t details\t some\t areas\t of\t emphasis\t according\t to\t an athlete\u2019s\tlevel. Youth\t and\t high\t school\t athletes\t are\t still\t growing,\t so\t stride\t length\t will\t be\t an issue\tfor\tthem,\tbecause\tthey\thave\tnot\tyet\tachieved\tthe\tfull\tlength\tof\ttheir\tlimbs. In\taddition,\ttechnique\twill\tbe\tvery\timportant\tto\tdevelop\tduring\tthose\tphases. Collegiate\t athletes\t will\t need\t further\t emphasis\t on\t technique\t and\t refinement of\t their\t stride\t length,\t especially\t if\t they\t have\t not\t had\t much\t specialized instruction\t in\t speed\t training\t at\t previous\t levels.\t College\t is\t the\t time\t to\t begin heavily\t emphasizing\t stride\t frequency\t training\t because\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t other physical\tqualities\t(strength,\tpower,\tand\tmobility)\tare\tpeaking. With\tprofessional\tathletes,\tit\twill\tprobably\tbe\timpractical\tto\tattempt\tto\tteach them\t technique.\t They\t are\t not\t developmental\t athletes\t and\t placing\t too\t much emphasis\t on\t technique\t may\t alter\t their\t movement\t patterns\t and\t adversely\t affect their\t performance.\t The\t focus\t with\t professional\t athletes\t should\t be\t on\t the\t other physical\tqualities\t(i.e.,\tstrength,\tpower,\tand\tmobility),\tas\twell\tas\tincreasing\ttheir stride\tfrequency.","","Modes\tof\tExercise A\tnumber\tof\tmodes\tof\texercise\tare\tused\tto\timprove\tspeed.\tThese\tinclude: Drills\u2014used\t to\t develop\t technique\t or\t to\t enhance\t a\t part\t of\t the\t sprinting motion Varied\tpace\trunning\u2014helps\tthe\tathlete\tto\tbreak\tthrough\tthe\tspeed\tbarrier Resisted\t running\u2014requires\t an\t athlete\t to\t increase\t the\t amount\t of\t force required\tto\trun\tat\tmaximum\tspeed Assisted\trunning\u2014helps\tthe\tathlete\trun\tfaster\tthan\the\tis\tnormally\table\tto","Drills Drills\tfacilitate\tthe\tdevelopment\tof\tan\t\u201cideal\u201d\tsprinting\ttechnique,\twith\tresulting benefits\tto\tmaximum\tspeed.\tDrills\tallow\tthe\ttechniques\tof\tsprinting\tto\tbe\tbroken down\t into\t components\t and\t perfected\t at\t slower\t speeds\t so\t that\t they\t may\t be transferred\t to\t maximum\t velocity\t runs.\t Note\t that\t while\t drills\t are\t important\t for good\ttechnique,\tthey\tare\tnot\ta\tsubstitute\tfor\tactual\tsprinting.\tChapter\t4\tprovides detailed\t descriptions\t and\t illustrations\t of\t several\t maximum\t velocity\t running drills. According\t to\t West\t &\t Robson\t (2000),\t coaches\t should\t use\t the\t following guidelines\twhen\temploying\tdrills\tfor\tspeed\ttraining: Understand\tthe\tdrill. If\tthe\tcoach\tdoes\tnot\tunderstand\tthe\ttechniques\tbehind\tthe\tdrill,\the\tcannot expect\tthe\tathletes\tto\tlearn\tit. Understand\tthe\tdrill\u2019s\tpurpose. Each\t of\t the\t drills\t listed\t in\t this\t book\t serves\t a\t role,\t but\t each\t drill\t also\t has limited\t application\t outside\t of\t that\t purpose.\t For\t example,\t while\t high\t knee drills\t do\t a\t good\t job\t of\t reinforcing\t frontside\t mechanics\t during\t sprinting, they\t do\t not\t teach\t backside\t mechanics.\t Relying\t solely\t on\t high\t knee\t drills will\tlimit\tthe\tathlete\u2019s\tdevelopment. Pay\tattention\tto\tspeed\tdrills\tduring\tevery\ttraining\tsession. Devote\t time\t and\t attention\t to\t speed\t drills.\t Do\t not\t perform\t them\t as\t an afterthought\tor\tonly\tas\ta\twarm-up.\tThe\tdrills\twill\tnot\tbe\tbeneficial\twithout the\tproper\ttime\tand\tattention. Introduce\tdrills\twith\ta\tproper\tsequential\tprogression. Introducing\tan\tadvanced\tdrill\tbefore\tan\tathlete\thas\tmastered\tthe\tbasics\twill not\thelp\tthe\tathlete.\tJust\tlike\tany\tother\ttype\tof\tconditioning,\tspeed\ttraining has\t a\t logical\t series\t of\t progressions\t that\t athletes\t should\t master\t before moving\tto\tmore\tadvanced\tdrills. Athletes\tmust\tpossess\tthe\tphysical\tqualities\tnecessary\tfor\tthe\tdrills. Athletes\tmust\thave\ta\tdegree\tof\tdynamic\tflexibility,\tstrength,\tand\tmaturity\tto master\tmany\tof\tthe\tdrills\toutlined\tin\tChapter\t4.\tAn\tathlete\twho\tis\tlacking\tin those\tqualities\twill\tnot\tderive\tthe\tfull\tbenefit\tfrom\tthe\tdrills.","Varied\tPace\tRunning Once\t an\t athlete\t has\t developed\t sound\t technique\t through\t drills,\t varied\t pace running\t is\t probably\t the\t best\t method\t to\t improve\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t speed.\t The\t most effective\t training\t takes\t place\t under\t \u201cnormal\u201d\t conditions\t that\t do\t not\t disrupt technique.\t Therefore\t resisted\t and\t assisted\t running,\t which\t disrupt\t an\t athlete\u2019s technique,\tare\tless\teffective\tthan\tvaried\tpace\trunning,\twhich\tdoes\tnot.\t(Resisted and\t assisted\t running\t are\t discussed\t in\t detail\t later\t in\t this\t chapter.).\t Varied\t pace runs\t allow\t for\t several\t changes\t of\t speed\t to\t take\t place\t during\t the\t exercise.\t As\t a result,\t the\t athlete\t gets\t the\t feel\t of\t running\t at\t different\t speeds,\t learns\t to\t run relaxed,\t and\t avoids\t making\t costly\t mistakes\t during\t the\t run\t (for\t example, overstriding\tas\tspeed\tincreases).\tThe\tvaried\tpace\talso\tgives\tthe\tnervous\tsystem\ta chance\tto\trecharge\tbetween\thigh\tspeed\tsegments. A\t common\t method\t of\t varied\t pace\t training\t is\t called\t \u201cins\t and\t outs.\u201d\t An\t \u201cin\u201d refers\t to\t a\t period\t of\t 100\t percent\t intensity,\t when\t the\t athlete\t should\t be\t running with\t maximum\t velocity.\t During\t the\t \u201cin\u201d\t phase,\t emphasize\t good\t technique, especially\tan\tactive\tfoot\tstrike\/pawing\tmotion.\tAn\t\u201cout\u201d\trefers\tto\ta\tmaintenance phase,\t where\t speed\t is\t maintained.\t During\t the\t \u201cout\u201d\t period,\t emphasize\t relaxed running\tand\tgood\ttechnique. \u201cIns\u201d\t generally\t cover\t 10\t to\t 20\t yards,\t while\t \u201couts\u201d\t cover\t 5\t to\t 20\t yards.\t Use the\t first\t 15\t yards\t as\t an\t acceleration\t zone,\t then\t alternate\t \u201cins\u201d\t and\t \u201couts.\u201d\t The drill\t should\t always\t end\t in\t an\t \u201cin.\u201d\t Figure\t 3-1\t shows\t an\t example\t of\t \u201cins\t and outs.\u201d","Varied\tpace\trunning\tcan\tbe\tmanipulated\tto\tprovide\tmore\tsport-specific\tspeed work.\t For\t example,\t in\t soccer,\t most\t sprints\t will\t cover\t 5\t to\t 30\t yards\t with\t a\t 1:3 work:rest\tratio.\tTherefore,\twhen\ttraining\tfor\tsoccer,\tthe\t\u201cins\u201d\tshould\tcover\t5\tto 20\t yards\t and\t the\t \u201couts\u201d\t should\t cover\t 15\t to\t 60\t yards.\t (See\t Chapter\t 13\t for\t more on\tsoccer\ttraining.) Another\t approach\t to\t varied\t pace\t running\t is\t called\t a\t \u201cflying\u201d\t sprint.\t This exercise\t involves\t the\t athlete\t jogging\t for\t 10\t to\t 15\t yards\t and\t then\t running\t at maximal\t velocity\t for\t a\t specified\t distance.\t For\t example,\t with\t a\t flying\t 40,\t an athlete\t would\t jog\t for\t 10\t to\t 15\t yards\t and\t then\t run\t at\t maximal\t velocity\t for\t 40 yards.\t This\t approach\t is\t very\t applicable\t to\t sports,\t because\t athletes\t are\t often called\tupon\tto\tchange\tspeeds\tin\tthe\tmiddle\tof\ta\tplay.","Resisted\tRunning Resisted\t running\t involves\t the\t athlete\t pulling\t something.\t The\t idea\t behind\t this technique\t is\t that\t by\t making\t the\t sprinting\t motion\t more\t difficult,\t the\t athlete\t will have\tto\tlearn\tto\trecruit\tmore\tmuscle\tfibers\tand\tachieve\tgreater\tneural\tactivation, which\t will\t then\t carry\t over\t and\t allow\t the\t athlete\t to\t run\t faster\t when unencumbered.\t Resisted\t running\t includes\t the\t use\t of\t chutes,\t towing,\t weighted vests,\tuphill\trunning,\tsand\/water\trunning,\tetc. While\tit\tis\ta\tuseful\ttool,\tresisted\trunning\tdoes\thave\tlimitations.\tLetzelter,\tet al.\t (2000)\t studied\t the\t effects\t of\t towing\t 2.5kg,\t 5kg,\t and\t 10kg\t sleds\t on\t female sprinters\t whose\t mean\t 100\t meter\t time\t was\t 12.50\t seconds.\t They\t found\t that\t as little\tas\t10kg\tof\tresistance\twill\tdecrease\tstride\tlength\tby\t13.5\tpercent\tand\tstride frequency\tby\t6.2\tpercent.\tAthletes\tspend\tmore\ttime\ton\tthe\tground\tas\ta\tresult\tof resistance\t (up\t to\t 21\t percent\t more\t support\t time),\t thereby\t altering\t muscular contraction\tpatterns\tand\tforce\tapplication.\tAthletes\twho\tare\ttowing\tmay\tincrease their\t upper\t body\t lean\t to\t compensate\t for\t the\t added\t weight,\t in\t some\t cases\t by more\t than\t 20\t percent.\t This\t forward\t lean\t will\t also\t result\t in\t an\t incomplete\t hip extension\t during\t the\t sprinting\t motion,\t which\t will\t limit\t force\t production\t and speed.\tObviously,\tsuch\tdramatic\tchanges\tto\tsprinting\ttechnique\tare\tundesirable, as\t they\t will\t teach\t the\t athlete\t bad\t habits.\t For\t this\t reason,\t Jakalski\t (2000)","recommends\tthat\tresisted\ttraining\tmethods\tshould\tnot\treduce\tthe\tathlete\u2019s\tspeed by\tmore\tthan\t10\tpercent.","Assisted\tRunning Assisted\trunning\t(also\tknown\tas\toverspeed\ttraining)\tusually\tinvolves\tthe\tathlete being\tpulled\tby\tsomething.\tThis\ttechnique\tallows\tthe\tathlete\tto\tachieve\ta\tgreater stride\tfrequency\tthan\tis\tnormally\tpossible.\tThe\tpurpose\tof\tassisted\trunning\tis\tto teach\tthe\tathlete\tto\trun\tfaster\tthrough\tnumerous\trepetitions,\tso\the\twill\tbe\table\tto run\t faster\t under\t normal\t circumstances.\t In\t assisted\t running,\t the\t athlete\t may\t be towed\t (by\t a\t vehicle,\t by\t another\t athlete,\t or\t by\t an\t elastic\t cord)\t or\t he\t may\t use other\tapproaches\tsuch\tas\trunning\ton\ta\thigh-speed\ttreadmill\tor\trunning\tdownhill. The\t benefits\t of\t assisted\t training\t include\t an\t increase\t in\t stride\t frequency, increased\t muscle\t stiffness,\t and\t increased\t stores\t of\t elastic\t energy\u2014all\t of\t which improve\tspeed. Like\tresisted\trunning,\tassisted\trunning\talso\thas\tlimitations.\tAssisted\trunning that\t involves\t speed\t above\t 106\t percent\t of\t maximum\t leads\t to\t an\t increased\t stride length,\t which\t increases\t the\t braking\t phase\t of\t each\t foot\t contact,\t and,\t in\t turn, slows\t stride\t frequency.\t Therefore,\t assisted\t running\t should\t not\t employ\t speed greater\tthan\t106\tpercent\tof\tthe\tathlete\u2019s\tmaximum\tspeed\tbecause\tit\twill\tdisrupt technique\t and\t teach\t the\t athlete\t bad\t habits.\t Downhill\t sprinting\t and\t high-speed treadmills\talso\thave\tlimitations.\tDownhill\tsprinting\tthat\tinvolves\ta\tgreater\tthan\t6 percent\t decline\t results\t in\t increased\t stride\t length\t (i.e.,\t braking),\t which\t is undesirable.\t Note\t that\t this\t 6\t percent\t level\t may\t be\t subject\t to\t some\t variability. Ebben,\tet\tal.\t(2008)\tlooked\tat\tNCAA\tDivision\tIII\tathletes\tand\tfound\tthat\t elite sprinters\t may\t benefit\t from\t steeper\t declines.\t Faccioni\t (1995)\t points\t out\t that running\t on\t a\t high-speed\t treadmill\t could\t be\t disruptive\t because\t the\t athlete\t is running\t on\t a\t surface\t that\t moves\t horizontally\t backwards,\t as\t opposed\t to\t the athlete\t having\t to\t propel\t himself\t forward,\t which\t could\t interfere\t with\t normal sprint\tkinetics\ton\tunmoving\tground.","Summary When\ttraining\tfor\tmaximum\tvelocity\trunning,\tkeep\tin\tmind\tthe\tfollowing: Technique\t is\t the\t limiting\t factor\t for\t speed.\t This\t quality\t must\t be progressively\t developed\t and\t refined.\t Without\t good\t technique,\t other training\ttools\tare\tuseless\tand\tcould\tbe\tdangerous. Physical\tqualities\tsuch\tas\tstrength\tand\tmobility\tare\textremely\timportant\tto enable\tan\tathlete\tto\tmaster\tdrills\tand\tbe\tfast. Drills\t should\t be\t learned\t progressively.\t Advanced\t drills\t should\t only\t be attempted\tafter\tthe\tbeginning\tdrills\thave\tbeen\tmastered. Varied\t pace\t running\t will\t be\t one\t of\t the\t most\t effective\t methods\t for increasing\tmaximum\tvelocity\tbecause\tit\tdoes\tnot\tinterfere\twith\tmechanics. When\t using\t resisted\t running,\t an\t athlete\u2019s\t speed\t should\t not\t decrease\t by more\tthan\t10\tpercent,\tor\tmechanics\twill\tsuffer. Assisted\t running,\t while\t effective,\t does\t have\t limitations\t in\t terms\t of\t the speed\t or\t the\t decline\t that\t should\t be\t observed\t to\t keep\t the\t athlete\t from developing\tinefficient\tmechanics. Exercises\t should\t be\t employed\t in\t a\t progressive\t manner\t and\t will\t be\t most effective\tif\tused\tin\ta\tperiodized\tprogram.","Acceleration Technically,\tacceleration\trefers\tto\tthe\tprocess\tof\tincreasing\tspeed\tuntil\tyou\treach maximum\t velocity.\t Elite\t sprinters\t may\t accelerate\t for\t as\t long\t as\t six\t to\t seven seconds\t before\t reaching\t maximum\t velocity.\t Because\t most\t athletic\t events involve\t running\t shorter\t distances\t than\t sprinting\t does,\t in\t this\t book\t acceleration will\t refer\t to\t the\t first\t 10\t to\t 20\t yards\t of\t the\t athlete\t increasing\t his\t velocity. Running\t mechanics\t will\t be\t different\t over\t the\t first\t 10\t to\t 20\t yards\t than\t they\t are during\tthe\tmaximal\tvelocity\trunning\tdescribed\tpreviously. Acceleration\tis\tan\timportant\tskill\tto\tdevelop\tbecause\tit\tis\ta\thuge\tcomponent of\t most\t athletic\t plays.\t Rarely\t do\t athletes\t get\t to\t run\t all-out\t in\t a\t straight\t line\t for the\t50\tto\t70\tyards\tthat\twould\tbe\trequired\tto\treach\tmaximum\tvelocity.\tSince\tmost plays\twill\ttake\tplace\tover\tshorter\tdistances,\tthis\tskill\tneeds\tto\tbe\tdeveloped.","Technique Acceleration\t differs\t from\t speed\t in\t two\t key\t areas.\t First,\t stride\t length\t increases during\t acceleration,\t so\t the\t strides\t will\t initially\t be\t shorter\t than\t they\t are\t at\t full speed.\t As\t a\t result,\t the\t shin\t angle\t will\t be\t less\t during\t acceleration\t than\t during maximum\t velocity\t running.\t Second,\t due\t to\t the\t reduced\t stride\t length,\t the emphasis\t during\t acceleration\t is\t on\t frontside\t mechanics,\t with\t little\t or\t no emphasis\t on\t backside\t mechanics.\t Therefore,\t during\t acceleration,\t the\t athlete should\t focus\t on\t toe\t up,\t high\t knee,\t vigorous\t arm\t action,\t active\t \u201cpawing\u201d\t action at\tfootstrike,\tand\tmaintaining\ta\ttight\tback\tand\tstomach.","Evaluating\tAcceleration Acceleration\t is\t best\t evaluated\t through\t short\t distance\t sprints\t from\t a\t standing\t or crouching\tstart.\tThe\texact\tdistance\tand\tstarting\tposition\tshould\tbe\tdetermined\tby the\t needs\t of\t the\t sport.\t Sprints\t of\t 20\t to\t 40\t yards\t are\t good\t tests\t of\t acceleration. Longer\t sprints\t from\t a\t standing\t or\t crouching\t start\t can\t also\t help\t to\t evaluate acceleration\t while\t combining\t it\t with\t other\t qualities\t (for\t example,\t the\t 60-yard dash\tmentioned\tpreviously\tin\tthe\tmaximum\tvelocity\tsection).","Principles\tof\tTraining Like\t speed\t training,\t acceleration\t training\t should\t not\t take\t place\t in\t two consecutive\ttraining\tsessions\tand\trequires\tone\tto\tthree\tdays\tof\trecovery\tbetween sessions.\t Acceleration\t training\t is\t conducted\t over\t distances\t of\t up\t to\t 80\t yards, with\tone\tto\ttwo\tminutes\trest\tbetween\trepetitions\tand\tfive\tto\tseven\tminutes\trest between\t sets.\t Acceleration\t training\t may\t be\t combined\t with\t maximum\t velocity training.\t However,\t due\t to\t the\t importance\t of\t acceleration\t in\t athletics,\t some training\tsessions\tshould\tbe\tset\taside\tjust\tfor\tacceleration.\tTable\t3-2\tat\tthe\tend\tof the\t chapter\t provides\t more\t detailed\t information\t about\t volume,\t intensity,\t etc. when\ttraining\tfor\tacceleration.","Acceleration\tDrills Starts\t are\t the\t primary\t method\t for\t developing\t acceleration.\t Starts\t involve\t the athlete\t beginning\t the\t drill\t in\t a\t stationary\t position.\t After\t receiving\t the\t start command,\t the\t athlete\t leaves\t the\t position\t and\t attempts\t to\t increase\t his\t velocity while\tcovering\tthe\tspecified\tdistance.\tStart\tdrills\tare\teffective\tbecause\tbeginning from\ta\tstationary\tstart\trequires\tthe\tathlete\tto\taccelerate\tand\treacting\tto\tthe\tstart command\tenhances\this\treaction\ttime.\t\u201cUnusual\u201d\tstarting\tsituations\t(for\texample, a\t push-up)\t can\t be\t used\t to\t enhance\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t ability\t to\t react\t quickly\t and\t to accelerate.\t Long\t drills\t (i.e.,\t 30\t yards\t or\t more)\t will\t enhance\t maximum\t velocity running\tin\taddition\tto\tacceleration.\tStart\tdrills\tmay\talso\tbe\tcombined\twith\tother exercises\t (for\t example,\t performing\t a\t long\t jump\t to\t a\t sprint)\t to\t increase\t the difficulty\tlevel. As\twith\tthe\tmaximum\tvelocity\tdrills,\tacceleration\tdrills\tshould\tbe\tused\tin\ta progressive\tmanner.\tThey\tshould\tonly\tbe\tmade\tmore\tcomplex\tand\tmore\tdifficult as\t the\t athlete\u2019s\t technique\t and\t fitness\t allow.\t Chapter\t 4\t will\t cover\t acceleration drills\tin\tdetail.","Speed\tEndurance According\t to\t Winckler\t (1995),\t speed\t endurance\t refers\t to\t the\t ability\t of\t the athlete\t to\t maintain\t high\t levels\t of\t speed\t for\t long\t periods\t of\t time.\t Speed endurance\t(also\treferred\tto\tas\tconditioning)\tis\tan\timportant\tability\tfor\tan\tathlete whose\t sport\t (e.g.,\t soccer)\t or\t position\t (e.g.,\t football\t receiver)\t requires\t repetitive sprinting.","Evaluating\tSpeed\tEndurance Speed\t endurance\tcan\tbe\tevaluated\tby\tseveral\tmethods,\tincluding\tlong-distance sprints\t (e.g.,\t 100\t yards\t and\t greater)\t that\t have\t the\t ability\t to\t evaluate\t multiple qualities\t (acceleration\t +\t maximum\t velocity\t +\t endurance).\t Another\t method involves\t running\t numerous\t short-distance\t sprints\t with\t little\t or\t no\t recovery between\teach\tsprint.\tThe\t300-yard\tshuttle\trun\tis\tan\texample\tof\tone\tsuch\ttest.\tFor this\t test,\t place\t cones\t 25\t yards\t apart.\t The\t athlete\t should\t sprint\t back\t and\t forth between\tthe\tcones\tfor\ta\ttotal\tof\tsix\tround\ttrips\t(i.e.,\t12\tx\t25\tyards\t=\t300\tyards). Record\tthe\ttime\tit\ttakes\tthe\tathlete\tto\tcomplete\tsix\tround\ttrips.\tAllow\tthe\tathlete to\trest\tfor\tfive\tminutes\tand\tthen\thave\thim\trepeat\tthe\ttest.\tTake\tthe\taverage\tof\tthe two\ttimes\tand\trecord\tit.","Principles\tof\tTraining In\t general,\t speed\t endurance\t involves\t training\t over\t distances\t of\t 30\t to\t 600\t yards at\t75\tto\t100\tpercent\tintensity.\tDepending\tupon\tthe\tdistances\tinvolved,\trest\tmay range\t from\t 30\t seconds\t to\t 15\t minutes\t between\t each\t repetition,\t and\t anywhere from\t two\t minutes\t to\t full\t recovery\t between\t each\t set.\t As\t with\t acceleration\t and maximum\t velocity,\t speed\t endurance\t should\t not\t be\t trained\t during\t successive workouts. The\t large\t possible\t range\t of\t distance,\t intensity,\t and\t recovery\t variables available\t for\t speed\t endurance\t training\t can\t make\t program\t design\t confusing.\t To make\t it\t easier,\t Plisk\t and\t Gambetta\t (1997)\t suggest\t the\t following\t process\t for structuring\tspeed\tendurance\ttraining\tand\tmaking\tit\tsport-specific.\tFirst,\tanalyze what\t is\t occurring\t during\t competition:\t time\t spent\t working,\t time\t spent\t in recovery,\t nature\t of\t the\t work\t and\t recovery,\t average\t number\t of\t plays\t per\t unit\t of time,\t length\t of\t plays,\t etc.\t Then,\t based\t on\t this\t information,\t structure\t training\t to meet\t the\t needs\t of\t competition:\t similar\t work:rest\t intervals,\t work\t and\t rest resembling\t what\t is\t seen\t in\t competition,\t etc.\tFinally,\tmodify\tthe\ttraining\tbased upon\tthe\tneeds\tof\tdifferent\tpositions. As\t an\t example,\t during\t an\t average\t quarter\t an\t offense\t makes\t 15\t plays.\t Each play\t(on\taverage)\tlasts\t4\tseconds,\twith\t30\tseconds\tof\trest.\tPlay\tconsists\tof\tshort sprints,\t rest\t generally\t consists\t of\t walking.\t A\t speed\t endurance\t workout\t would consist\t of\t sets\t of\t five\t 40-yard\t sprints,\t with\t approximately\t 30\t to\t 45\t seconds recovery\tbetween\teach\tsprint.\tThis\tapproach\tto\ttraining\tdesign\twill\tbe\tdescribed and\t applied\t in\t greater\t detail\t in\t the\t event-specific\t workout\t chapters.\t Table\t 3-2 provides\t general\t volume,\t intensity,\t and\t rest\t guidelines\t for\t programming components\tof\tspeed\tendurance.","Conclusion Speed\t is\t an\t important\t quality\t for\t success\t in\t athletics.\t Speed\t is\t made\t up\t of different\t components,\t depending\t upon\t the\t distance\t to\t be\t covered.\t These components\t include\t maximum\t velocity\t running,\t acceleration,\t and\t speed endurance.\t Each\t one\t requires\t slightly\t different\t techniques,\t methods\t for evaluation,\t and\t approaches\t to\t training.\t Understanding\t these\t differences\t is important\t because\t not\t every\t sport\t will\t require\t the\t same\t emphasis\t on\t the\t same components. Table\t 3-2\t provides\t general\t programming\t guidelines\t in\t terms\t of\t volume, distance,\tintensity,\tand\trest\tfor\ttraining\tvarious\tspeed-related\tqualities.\tNote\tthat the\tvolume\tper\tsession\tis\tfor\tcollegiate-level\t100-meter\tsprinters,\tso\tthis\tnumber will\thave\tto\tbe\tadjusted\tdownward\tfor\tyounger\tathletes."]