A History of Burma

240 British Conquest of Burma Phayre that prompted him finally to agree to it. Mindon's tragedy was that he was too honest and trusting. When the British were facing disasters during the Crimean War and the Indian Mutiny, and he was presented with a chance to regain Lower Burma, he re­ strained the Kanaung prince, \\vho was so eager to invade British territory, saying, \"We must not stab a friend in the back.\" But the British never hesitated to stab him in the back many times over. In spite of his later failures Mindon succeeded in restoring a sense of confidence among his subj ects, as \\vell as a sense of pride in the nation among all the Burmese, whether they lived in his kingdom or under British rule. Before the Burmese people had re­ covered from the shock of the first Attglo-Burmese war, the second war came, and reeling under the fresh blow they felt lost and ashamed. They feared that their centuries-old way of life and their ancient faith of Theravada Buddhism would swiftly disappear un­ der alien rule. Their fears increased when the British government refused to grant patronage to Buddhism and approval to the mo­ nastic schools, which served as the keystone of the Burmese educa­ tion system. In place of th� monastic schools, government schools and Christian missionary schools appeared like mushrooms; in the government schools Burmese kings were belittled, and in the mission schools Burmese religious beliefs were openly ridiculed. Many monks felt that they could not hope to survive in such conditions and migrated to Upper Burma, still under the rule of a Burmese king and as .such the official patron of Buddhism. Those few monks who remained in Lower Burma were neither pious nor learned, and with­ out a central authority to maintain discipline they reverted to loose and immoral living, bringing further discredit to the national re­ ligion. The Burmese were in real danger of losing their national her­ itage, and it was King Mindon who saved them on the brink of disaster. He first obtained the assistance of learned and pious monks in Upper Burma; taking drastiC disciplinary measures, he purified the Buddhist Order in his oWll kingdom. He introduced a system

241 British Conquest of Burma of public examinations in religious learning, for which he awarded honors and stipends. The examinations were divided into grades, the highest being opened to monks and the lowest to children still in their teens. The result was a great revival of interest in studying the scriptures. He set up five thousand stone pillars on which were in­ scribed the entire volumes of the scriptures, including the com­ mentaries. He encouraged devout monks to migrate to Lower Burma, or at least to visit regularly Lower Burmese villages, many of which were now without monasteries. Although the Christian missions were openly hostile to Buddhism, Mindon had no prejudice against them and granted plots of land to the Reverend Dr. Mark, head of the English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and to Bishop Bigandet, head of the French Roman Catholic Mission, to enable them to build their churches and schools. He even sent his sons to study English under Dr. Mark. As the old capitals of Ava and Amarapura were associated with the inglorious and tragic de­ feats of 1 8 24-26 and 1 8 5 2 , he built a new capital, the golden city of Mandalay. Started in 1 857, the city was completed in 1 86 1 , but he moved his court in 1858, after only the palace had been built. Since he could not make Mandalay the political center of main­ land southeast Asia as in the days of Anawrahta, Bayinnaung, and Alaungpaya, he was determined to make it the cultural and religious center of the region. The people of Burma found it difficult to forget that Siam had collaborated with the British in the wars of 1 8 24 and 1 85 2 , but Mindon wanted to ignore the unhappy past and end the long years of conflict between the two countries. He would have liked to send an embassy to the king of Siam but was afraid lest he should be rebuffed both by Siam itself and by Britain as its ally. Accordingly, he sent a mission of monks bearing offerings and mes­ sages of goodwill to the primate, the head of the Buddhist clergy in Siam. King .l\\1ongkut was impressed with this friendly gesture and immediately sent his own mission of monks to the Burmese primate at i\\ Iandalay. Mindon arranged for some of the great monks who acted as his advisers in religious matters to visit Buddha Gaya and

242 British Conquest of Burma was disappointed when the British authorities in Ceylon refused to allow the same monks to visit Ceylon, on the obviously false excuse that an epidemic of cholera was raging at that time on the island. He then started to make preparations to hold the Fifth Great Synod of Buddhism at Mandalay. This was no easy task that Mindon set for himself, for only powerful Buddhist monarchs, whose authority was recognized throughout the entire Buddhist world, had been able to hold these great assemblies of Buddhist monks from various countries. The First Great Synod was held immediately after the Buddha's passing away, the Second, some one hundred years later, and the Third in the third century B.c. under the patronage of the Emperor Asoka himself. All these assemblies were held in India. A few years before the begin­ ning of the Christian era, a synod was held in Ceylon, which was recognized as the Fourth only by the Theravada school of Buddhism, and another was held in India in A.D. 78, which was recognized as the Fourth only by the Mahayana school. During the intervening centuries no monarch had felt himself qualified to hold another synod. Although King Mindon . belonged to the Theravada school, he invited monks from all countries to participate in the assembly, and the high esteem all Buddhist countries had for Mindon and Burma was acknowledged by the fact that the entire Buddhist world sent representatives to the synod. At its conclusion Mindon proudly assumed the title of \"Convener of the Fifth Great Synod of Bud­ dhism.\" Mindon desired to demonstrate that there was still only one Burmese nation, notwithstanding the existence of the political frontier above Thayetmyo; that all Burmese living in various parts of the country shared in the glorious traditions of the past; and that the many new shrines that he had built at Mandalay belonged to the whole nation, and the Shwedagon pagoda at Rangoon was the pride not only of the Burmese of Lower Burma, but of the Burmese of his kingdom also. He sought permission from the British au­ thorities to come down to Rangoon and put a new golden spire

243 British Conquest of Burma studded with precious stones on the Shwedagon pagoda but the British, consistently following a policy of humiliating the king, re­ fused. The Burmese in Lovver Burma, who respected and loved Mindon, protested and finally the British authorities reluctantly granted permission for the king to send an embassy \\Vith the sole purpose of re-crowning Shwedagon pagoda on his behalf. Thus l\\tlindon's embassy duly arrived in Rangoon, bringing with them the golden spire, and amidst scenes of ancient pageantry and mass en­ thusiasm the king's pious gift of beauty and splendor was placed on the top of the great shrine. J\\!lindon's reign had dawned with the Burmese sky overcast by the storm clouds of disaster and despair, and in spite of the sunshine of its noon it was now to close in darkness and gloom. Just as the British had betrayed him, a few of his sons and some of his courtiers were plotting treachery against him. He had appointed his brother Kanaung as the crown prince, and by character, experience, and ability he was the most fitting to succeed Mindon on the throne. A fiery soldier, he had mellowed with experience and learning. He had in recent years assiduously studied international affairs and law, and he had swiftly become a noted jurist, regularly presiding over the High Court of Hluttaw. As the commander-in-chief, he had im­ proved the equipment and training of the army and, sharing his brother's interest in industry, he had set up a factory to manufacture guns and ammunition. He was bitter against the British over their humiliation of his brother, but at the same time he fully realized that the Burmese army would never be able to challenge the British because the disparity in arms remained as great as ever. The prince and Colonel Sladen never liked each other from the very beginning, and he disapproved of the special favors shown to the British resident by the king. The king's son, Prince Myingun, unlike Prince Mekkara, the minister for industries, was politically ambitious, arrogant, and aggressive, and he naturally resented his uncle's appointment as crown prince. Mindon knew of this resentment, but he never ex­ pected Myingun to rebel because the prince was married to his

244 British Conquest of Burma cousin, the daughter of the crown prince. In 1 866, however, Prince Myingun and his brother Prince Myingondaing entered the Hluttaw as it was sitting in full session and assassinated the crown prince and the other judges. Mindon at that time was not in the palace but at a summer camp outside the city. As the two princes were attacking the Hluttaw, they sent an assassin to the summer camp ; when he entered the king's presence with a dra-vnv sword, however, l\\!lindon ordered him to drop the weapon. The assassin obeyed and Mindon escaped on horseback and entered the palace a few moments before Myingun's followers attacked the palace. The two princes rushed from the Hluttaw to the summer camp and were surprised to learn that the king had fled. Then they went back to join the attack on the palace but their followers, not knowing that the king was back in the palace, thought that he was in the city organizing a counterattack. Accordingly they withdrew to the river bank, where they were caught and routed by loyalist forces. Myingun and Myingondaing escaped in an Irra­ 'vaddy Flotilla Company boat into British territory. Both were in­ terned by the British authorities in Rangoon, but soon afterwards Myingun appeared in the Karenni states and raised his standard there. Mindon had to send a powerful army to suppress the rebellion, and finally Myingun returned to Rangoon. Both brothers were now sent by the British to Calcutta, where the younger prince died; Myingun was then taken to Banares and interned there. Myingun's rebellion threatened to cause a rupture in Anglo­ Burmese relations because Mandalay market gossip alleged that the British were involved, and some of Mindon's ministers openly ac­ cused Colonel Sladen of at least knowing about the conspiracy before it broke out in open rebellion. They could offer no substantial proof, but they pointed to certain mysterious occurrences before and after the attack on the palace. Colonel Sladen, who had standing permis­ sion to visit the palace at any time he chose, had entered the palace gates immediately before the attack on the Hluttaw was launched and remained in the palace until the rebels had withdrawn. It was true