NCSF_Chapter_15_Exercise_Programming_Components

Chapter 15 Exercise Programming Components IN THIS CHAPTER Types of Warm-ups Cool Downs Exercise Selection Training Frequency Training Duration Training Intensity Rest Intervals Training Volume Recovery Period Exercise Principles Program Safety Factors

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT Introduction program component as an ingredient in a recipe. In appropriate quantities, each ingredient complements the When designing exercise programs, many factors and others to produce a predictable and desirable outcome. variables need to be considered before creating the When imbalance or conflict among variables exists, the actual exercise prescription matrix. The exercise outcome may be neither completely predictable nor prescription matrix is a compilation of prescribed, desirable when compared to the intended goal. individual exercise components and their interrelationships that collectively focus on achieving a Warm-up client’s program goals. The primary determinant for all client program decisions is the needs analysis created Based on the understanding of kinetics, mechanical from the screening and assessment protocols. These objects function best when the resistive forces are findings will guide the exercise prescription, effectively reduced or controlled. When objects move under the addressing the key needs and goals of the client. That duress of resistance caused by friction, tension, and being considered, programming options for goal other constraint mechanisms, they do not have the same attainment present seemingly limitless possibilities, as abilities to accelerate. The human body works the same the human body is capable of countless movement way. When body tissue is cold, it resists movement. options and a variety of speeds at which these Cold tissue is less pliable, cellular enzymes are less movements can be performed. The only constants are active, and neural conduction is less efficient (22; 31). the principles of exercise program design. These For the body to function optimally during activity, it principles are manipulated to reflect the desired must be adequately warmed-up. adaptation response. They include the following: For most people, it is common knowledge that the Progressive Preparation – acclimating the body to performance of a warm-up should precede higher harder work levels (warm-up). intensity physical activity; however, many individuals fail to understand the scientific rationale for this Metabolic System – energy system used to fuel the sequence. Warm-up is a generic term used to describe a work. preparation period prior to a designated physical activity. Its use has application prior to virtually any Exercise Selection – type of exercise or modality mode of physical movement, albeit recreational or selected. competitive. As the name implies, warm-ups are designed to increase tissue temperature prior to Exercise Order – sequence of exercises. engaging in elevated levels of physical work. The increase in body temperature assists the function of Training Frequency – number of exercise bouts per tissues through several proposed physiological week. mechanisms, (11; 14; 22; 28; 31) including: Training Duration – length of time engaged in physical • Increased speed of muscle action and relaxation. effort. • Greater economy of movement due to lowered Training Intensity – level of effort performed. viscous resistance within the active muscle. Rest Periods – duration of time between each physical • Increased delivery of oxygen to the muscles due to effort. the fact that hemoglobin releases oxygen more readily at higher temperatures. Training Volume – number of sets and repetitions. • Increased cellular gas exchange. Recovery Periods – duration of time between exercise sessions. • Increased nerve transmission, enzymatic activity, and muscle metabolism due to the effect These training principles are also viewed as training temperature has on accelerating the rate of bodily variables, or components, and can be manipulated to processes. attain the desired effect of the exercise program. Changes to one or more of these variables present a • Increased blood flow, which heightens metabolic completely different outcome, so personal trainers must processes and muscle temperature. clearly recognize the independent characteristics of each variable and the effect altering any variable will have on • Improved range of motion (ROM) capabilities seen the program. To take it a step further, the with increases in muscle and core temperatures. interrelationship among variables must also be known in order to appropriately create a coordinated and Scientific observation suggests that increasing muscle supportive program matrix, while concurrently temperature facilitates the faster transfer of gases at the preventing any conflict among variables. An easy way to view this program harmonization is to consider each 310

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components cellular level, increases blood flow through gradual, progressive warm-ups lasting as long as thirty vasodilatation and the opening of dormant capillaries, minutes for optimal physiological preparation. lowers lactate levels, increases oxygen uptake and increases the energy metabolism within the muscle. (19) Specific Warm-up Arguments have been made as to whether or not these physiological changes actually reduce the risk of injury Specific warm-ups attempt to utilize actions and for individuals who employ them as a precursor to musculature which will be used during a particular activity. However, most professionals will agree that activity and will often resemble, either in part or whole, that the performance of a warm-up will reduce activity- the actual activity to be completed. They are effective related injury risks (i.e., sprains, strains) (11; 28). This in both warming up the muscles, as well as enhancing opinion is based on the fact that muscle tissue pliability the specific neuromuscular pathways employed by the increases as muscle temperature rises and the neural activity (27). Utilizing lighter weights for high response time is accelerated, allowing for increased repetitions on the bench press before heavier training lengthening of the muscle-tendon unit and better sets are employed is a common example. Using neuromuscular control. specific sprint mechanics and slower speed sprinting before attempting full speed sprints is another. Both Further benefits of a warm-up performance are also activities are event specific but still elicit all the seen, as the blood flow to the heart muscle mirrors the aforementioned physiological and psychological gradual intensity progression of the activity. responses. In either case, the goal is the same: increase Progressing from low to moderate to high intensity performance while reducing the likelihood of injury. activity will help reduce stress on the cardiac muscle (smaller oxygen deficits in skeletal muscle and reduced Performance Warm-up lactate build up), which can help prevent spikes in systolic blood pressure and reduce the risk of abnormal In addition to the traditional general and specific warm- electrical rhythms (cardiac arrhythmias). ups, two hybrid models have gained popularity in various training environments. They include Psychological enhancements accompany warm-up performance and functional warm-ups. Performance progressions as well. This preparation period can warm-ups combine general and specific warm-up increase mental focus and arousal, which in turn can modalities to enhance particular areas of performance facilitate enhanced motor activity (11; 13; 28). fitness, while preparing for power and strength training. Directing attention to specific movements, conditions, These activities combine large muscle continuous and environments can lead to improved performance. movement with gross sport-specific movements, This combination of mental and physical preparation completed through gradually increasing ranges of can make a warm-up effective in enhancing physical motion before becoming more specific to the speed and capabilities. Types of Warm-ups Warm-ups are usually designated into one of two categories: general or specific (27). Each holds particular merit for inclusion both before and during daily physical activity. The general warm-up is characterized by gross motor activation, and is designed to increase blood flow and temperature in the working musculature. General warm-ups often utilize basic movement patterns repeated continuously for a set period of time. Examples of this type of warm-up include walking, low speed jogging, jumping rope, calisthenics, and biking. Warm-ups usually last anywhere from three to ten minutes, depending on the client’s physical fitness level and the activity that they are preparing to perform. Higher intensity activities require longer warm-up periods prior to their engagement. The actual duration of the warm-up is subject to the level of intensity at which the client will perform their training. Olympic athletes may use 311

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT energy system used in the activity. The durations often in the functional resistance training segment of Chapter reach 15-20 minutes before transitioning into the more 20. intense work. An example would be jumping rope for 3 minutes before performing low-level, agility dot drills, To be classified as a warm-up activity, the actions then progressing to some agility ladder work and low should be directed at continuous movement. Walking on intensity plyometrics such as skips, ankle pops, lateral the treadmill for ten minutes is often inappropriately shuffles, hops, medicine ball rebounds and passes. The used as a complete warm-up before many training intensity used is often 20-30% less than that employed sessions. Walking is, in fact, continuous movement, but for the actual training. The concept is to focus on skills serves little purpose for a person seeking to improve his and motor patterns that will improve the overall or her overall physical conditioning in a relatively short performance of the athlete. period of time. This becomes increasingly evident when the contact time a client and trainer have per week Functional Warm-up is usually between 120-180 minutes (2-3 sessions). For the average person hiring a personal trainer, the need for The fourth classification of warm-up has been termed core strength and stability, improved movement the “functional warm-up.” The functional training proficiency, enhanced joint integrity, and improved philosophy and its application are rooted in the physical musculoskeletal condition is a priority and should take rehabilitation setting. Allied health care professionals, precedent over a ten minute warm-up of walking or such as occupational and physical therapists, have been biking. With this in mind, 10 minutes on an aerobic using the “functional training” philosophy to machine should seem somewhat ineffective for the complement other therapeutic modalities to improve goals of the program. Rather than 10 minutes of low movement capabilities after an injury has occurred. The level movement by the muscles of the lower body in a premise behind functional training is to utilize single plane, it may better serve the needs of the client integrated movement patterns that elicit increased joint to use the warm-up period by combining total body stability through enhanced proprioception and activities in a continuous manner that will affect the improved transfer of energy across the kinetic chain. conditions that require specific attention. This provides The goal is to create a more stable and functional joint better use of the warm-up period and increases the for improved movement economy and improved amount of time designated for goal attainment. function. Fitness professionals can, and have, applied this concept to fitness routines to help promote Due to the fact that trainers are expected to show results enhanced training responses and movement efficiency. for their client’s time and money, activities directed at improving functional ability and range of motion are Applying the functional training concept to the warm- up component has several advantages. The most obvious is that the activities accomplish many of the same physiological and psychological benefits as the (traditional) general and specific warm-ups do, but with the added benefit of functional enhancement. Secondly, the functional warm-up addresses the ever-present injury prevention and core stabilization concerns of sound fitness programming. Although some of the activities employed within a functional warm-up may not fully present an integrated approach, they can be termed functional due to their injury prevention and core stabilization properties. Further clarification and exploration of integrated functional training techniques and the functional training paradigm will be covered 312

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components often passed over for actions that will elicit a visual benefits of each can enhance the program offerings and change. Problems arise when the neglect of certain lead to more efficient goal attainment by the client. This areas leads to some level of debilitation or deficiency. concept can be implemented throughout the training Back pain, shoulder problems, and similar ailments session, starting with the warm-up. reduce training participation and effectiveness. To combat this scenario, the trainer should use the warm- Cool Downs up time to address preventative action, while keeping in mind the role of the warm-up in physiological Warm-ups are used to progressively prepare the body preparation. Utilizing exercises in a circuit fashion for activity, whereas a cool down works in the opposite enables multiple activities to function in a structured direction. The purpose of cooling down at the end of an format of continuous movement, resulting in increased exercise session is to bring the body back down to a muscle temperature with the possible added benefits of pre-exercise state. The cool down should use low injury prevention and improved functionality. intensity, rhythmic, large muscle group exercise activities immediately following the exercise bout. The Designing Warm-ups physiological rationale for the cool down includes the following (32; 33; 38): Any program component should be based on the client’s personal profile and need. This is also true of warm-up 1. Reduction of blood and muscle lactate. activities. Deciding on the right warm-up for the client will be based on the intended goal, the training 2. Prevention of blood pooling. experience of the client, and their current physical capabilities. In some cases, the traditional general 3. Promotion of venous blood return, which positively warm-up may be most appropriate as a client is affects cardiac output. introduced to exercise or for deconditioned individuals who are being gradually acclimated to routine exercise. 4. Reduced concentration of catecholamines in the In the case of a conditioned athlete, the warm-ups may blood. be more aggressive than a new exerciser’s entire workout. The movements and level of difficulty should 5. Reduced risk of cardiac irregularities post-exercise. mirror the capabilities of the client while still emphasizing the warm-up concept and purpose. Cool downs should be employed following both moderate to high intensity anaerobic and aerobic Likewise, the specific activities the trainer selects to exercise. The actions promote a continued delivery of incorporate into the warm-up depend on several factors oxygen to the tissues that were placed under stress, that often stem from the activity being prepared for which may aid in reducing delayed-onset muscle specific client needs. Warm-up modalities can range in soreness related to cellular ischemia and tonic muscular difficulty and intensity. It is important that the trainer spasm. Additionally, the prevention of blood pooling choose exercises that best meet their client’s current and the gradual decrease in activity enhances fitness and ability levels. myocardial oxygen delivery and venous blood return to the heart, thereby promoting cardiac output (32; 34; 37). The purpose of warming up is to gradually increase Although the primary activities should be of light temperature, range of motion, and intensity. Whether aerobic nature, flexibility exercises can also be utilized employing warm-ups aimed at performance preparation, at the end of the cool down to further promote a more functional movements, or traditional general relaxed state and take advantage of the warm tissue. preparation, the sequence of activities should be sensible. Large gross movements at a controlled pace ~Key Terms~ will supercede faster, more specific actions. The selection of movements should logically support the Kinetics – The mechanics concerned with the effects subsequent activities and serve a desired purpose. of force on the motion of a body. Deciding on the program components is the job of the Calisthenics – Exercises designed to develop personal trainer and should be based on the best interest muscular tone and promote physical fitness. Often of the client. Professional discretion will ultimately used as a warm-up activity. define the choices made for each aspect of the training regimen and will certainly be based on knowledge, Proprioception – An unconscious perception of personal philosophy, and experience. Gaining movement and spatial orientation in relation to comprehension of different modalities and the particular functional training. Catecholamine – Naturally occurring compounds in the body that serve as hormones or neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system. 313

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT Metabolic System concentration changes, increased stroke volume, increased capillary density, and greater concentration of As discussed in Chapter 4, the body utilizes different mitochondria in the muscle fibers (6; 12; 17; 20; 23). energy systems to create energy. Each system has specialized features that make it ideal for managing Clearly, the metabolic system defines the capacity for specific types of stress. Recall, the phosphagen system work when expressed by time and intensity. Matching (ATP-CP) provided powerful burst energy when the energy system with the goals is fundamental to phosphate bonds were split. The fatigue rate is correct exercise prescription. Straying from the correct incredibly fast, but the force production output reached energy system or duration within that system can the maximum capabilities of the muscle. For this compromise results. For instance, lifting 15 repetitions reason, power and absolute strength training requires maximum (RM) compared to a 6RM will have use of this system in the training program. If the force is completely different results when applied over a required for longer duration, the energy system is training cycle, as reflected by the energy systems switched over to the glycolytic pathway. In the initial utilized. Knowing these systems is not only stages of the phosphagen energy system (<20 sec.), high advantageous for exercise programming, but necessary force can still be produced if the movements are for efficient goal attainment. executed before lactic acid builds up in the tissue and blood. Training at near maximal or maximal levels for Exercise Selection 8-10 repetitions will encourage some strength gains, but, perhaps more importantly, hypertrophy of the muscle Exercise selection is equally important for proper tissue. When the activity duration extends even further prescription. Once the energy system for training has (>30 sec.), the training enhances local muscular been identified, the modalities and specific exercises endurance and is used for “muscle tone” training. When which maximize the system and best reflect the needs extended from 60 to 90 seconds at near maximal levels, analysis can then be selected. Much like the options the exercise stress encourages improvements in available for the exercise program, the specific anaerobic capacity. Exercise performed for longer than exercises to be used have numerous variables for 90 seconds will cause a shift from the anaerobic energy consideration. Aerobic training most frequently utilizes system to aerobic metabolism. Aerobic metabolism a single modality performed for an extended period of accounts for prolonged work but may be assisted by time, such as jogging, biking, swimming, or stair anaerobic metabolism for higher intensity portions of climbing. This does not have to be the case. Creative activities of a continuous nature. This leads to aerobic prescription may employ any group of movements adaptations including metabolic enzyme applied in a continuous fashion that results in 314

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components maintained elevated heart rates for the entire period of ~Quick Insight~ the performance. The exercise modality may change fifteen times during the specified exercise period, but as Skill Acquisition and Movement Economy long as it is consistent with the aerobic energy system, it The first step in implementing any exercise program or is acceptable. The main guidelines to consider are fitness activity is to teach the client to become proficient client-specific characteristics and sustained elevated in the actions to be used within the training regimen. heart rate for the designated time period. Cardiovascular Although not a designated principle of programming, this circuit training is an excellent example of how many work is a fundamental component in exercise instruction. movements can be synergistically applied to form an Often referred to as the preparation phase of training, aerobic workout, as long as the heart rate remains clients are taught how to properly execute each movement elevated for the duration. with correct biomechanical technique. Using physical and verbal cues, personal trainers can help clients become Anaerobic training is far more complicated because it proficient at each exercise movement. Progressing a client includes so many options and subcategories of those toward more complex or resisted exercises before the options. The needs analysis will once again provide the techniques have been mastered often leads to a best guide for the exercise selection. Deficiency or a breakdown in form. Common consequences of poor form desire to improve in any particular area or movement are repetitive microtrauma, which manifests into acute will justify selecting from the group of exercises that inflammatory syndrome at, or around, an articulation or specifically challenges the designated muscle or area for joint, limiting results from the training (3; 18; 24; 29). the desired adaptation, be it strength, power, speed, Personal trainers should accept nothing less than perfect flexibility, or balance. Once the category of exercises movement execution during each training bout. Trainers has been identified, the client-specific criteria should be who allow clients to perform exercises incorrectly are applied to the decision-making process. Utilizing this being negligent in their job performance. method, exercises may be identified as appropriate for consideration or left in reserve for a different time or In sports, athletes routinely practice actions and different client. For instance, if a client has hamstring movement sequences that they will perform on the field or weakness and the knee extensor: flexor ratio is off court. They do this so they can become more efficient at balance, the decision to isolate the hamstring using a managing the forces for precise execution during a knee flexion exercise may be the most logical choice. competitive situation. By rehearsing the activity over and On the other hand, if additional considerations, such as over again, the body learns to coordinate motor patterns poor ROM in the hip extensors are determined, it may via enhancements in neural efficiency. Once the pattern is justify using a movement that may contribute to learned, the nerves maintain a type of motor history, so improved function like the Romanian Deadlift exercise. every time the situation calls for the motor pattern, the Each factor may define a particular exercise as body knows exactly what to do. This phenomenon advantageous or inappropriate depending on the goals explains why people do not forget how to ride a bike or of the training and the client’s capabilities. throw a ball when they become adults, even though they may not have performed the actions routinely since they Although many more options in training are available to were age 10. today’s fitness professionals than in the past, researchers and practice-based exercise pioneers have logical sequence considerations should be applied. The helped to identify how each exercise challenges the primary consideration relates to specific need. If a body and what is most beneficial for the training person has deficiencies or health risks that can be program. These findings have been used to categorize improved upon with training, they should be addressed exercises and modalities by their respective first on the priority list of exercise order. Traditionally, characteristics, including their usefulness and aerobic exercise is performed after resistance training limitations. Reviewing the exercise usages, benefits, when the two are combined in a single training period. and disadvantages will help a trainer when deciding on The reason for this order is that aerobic training will the best solution to meet the client’s need. Many of deplete muscle glycogen and consequently reduce the these findings will be reviewed in the following client’s ability to overload the muscle during the chapters and provide insight on the logical choices for resistance training portion of the exercise session. each specific situation. However, if aerobic training tops the priority list based on the needs analysis, then it should precede anaerobic Exercise Order training in the exercise session. Hypertensive clients, those with low CRF, or those with risk factors for heart When exercise selection causes different energy disease will benefit most from aerobic activities and systems to be used in the same training bout, some 315

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT warrant changing the traditional exercise order (1; 2; 9; programming for general health attainment is at least 39). This may also be true for individuals competing at three times per week. Although it may be true that endurance events. In the latter example, the endurance structured exercise performed three times per week will stress is the most important part of the training bout provide many health benefits, it would be ignorant to based on the defined exercise goal; the resistance use this value to define the appropriate frequency for all training is used as a complementary modality. exercise programs. Therefore, if the training bout employs both anaerobic and aerobic activities for an endurance athlete, the Generally speaking, the more frequent the exercise aerobic exercise should precede the anaerobic activities. participation, the greater the rate and magnitude of the adaptations when all factors are properly considered. When aerobic and anaerobic activities are combined in But before adopting the “more is better” philosophy, a single bout for a healthy person with no underlying some key elements must be clarified. First, there is a conditions, the order of exercises selected for the tolerable upper limit to stress that the body can manage program will generally follow a pre-set, consistent before reaching the exhaustion phase of Selye’s General format. In most cases the order will be as follows: Adaptation Syndrome (10; 21; 30). This tolerable upper limit varies by the modality, intensity, and duration of 1. Warm-up the exercise, as well as by the individual. Jogging at a moderate level most days of the week will provide more 2. Dynamic flexibility health benefits than jogging two or three times per week (16; 26). On the contrary, high intensity running bouts 3. Strength training at the maximal attainable distances most days of the week would cause a negative outcome due to 4. Hypertrophy training overtraining effects. Even elite runners train at their maximal distances only a couple times per week, and 5. Anaerobic endurance training then they complement the training with shorter running distances. This illustrates the need for balance between 6. Aerobic training intensity, duration, and frequency. This scenario is also true of resistance training. Body builders train up to six 7. Cool down days in a week, but they vary the muscles used so that each muscle has an appropriate opportunity to recover. 8. Static stretching Additionally, a less experienced exerciser who attempts a resistance workout at the same relative intensity and The type of anaerobic activities will vary by the client duration as an advanced body builder would likely have and may or may not include all the different training difficulty getting out of bed after the second or third day options in a single bout, but the energy systems and of training. This identifies that frequency is also a factor intensity used ultimately determine the order. Anaerobic of training experience and physical condition. exercise has additional characteristics that define the actual order used in the exercise session. Fast, ~Key Terms~ compound, heavy, and complex movements are ordered first. Lighter, single-joint, isolated movements are used Intensity – The magnitude, or level of degree, in which an later in the session. Likewise, the size and number of activity is performed, often expressed as a percentage of muscle groups used also contribute to the order of maximum. operations. Larger muscle groups should take precedence over smaller groups in the exercise Circuit Training – A method of training or physical sequence. For instance, leg exercises precede arm conditioning in which a person moves through different exercises, and cross-joint hip movements precede cross- exercises/stations in a timed manner. The primary purpose joint shoulder movements. This method ensures the is to maintain an elevated HR while resistance training. physiologically most challenging activities are completed first in the exercise bout. These concepts will Micro trauma – Relatively small injuries in the body, be further explored in the chapter devoted to anaerobic usually consisting of small tears in the muscle fibers. exercise prescription. Frequency – The number of times a person engages in a Training Frequency particular activity per given amount of time. The number of times a person engages in a particular Duration – The period of time that an exercise session or activity per week defines the frequency of training bout lasts. participation. Frequency is a relevant component to the exercise program because it plays a role in the rate and degree of adaptation response and serves as a preventative component for overtraining when properly manipulated. A common frequency choice in exercise 316

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components The stress stimulus is the basis for the physiological actual amount of weight lifted is slightly reduced, but adaptation response, and frequency is a factor in the the repetition ranges are increased to compensate for the volume of stress to which the body is exposed. When difference. This places high levels of stress on the tissue the stress is excessive, the outcome is negative. On the for longer periods of time, a necessary element to other hand, when the stress is inadequate, the outcome increasing anabolic hormone response. Hypertrophy is insignificant because the body resists adapting to training duration may be two or three times that of stress when it is applied too infrequently. This being strength training, even though both modalities utilize said, when the number of exercise bouts per week is the anaerobic energy system. considered, too high a frequency will likely cause overtraining-related problems; conversely, if too A consistent relationship exists between duration and low a training frequency is used, adequate exercise intensity. The more intense the work becomes, the stress will not be experienced, resulting in limited shorter the duration in which it can be performed. To benefits. Personal trainers must manage exercise the contrary, the lighter the work load, the longer the frequency with other program components to ensure the activity can be performed. Aerobic training performed adaptations are properly supported by the training at low intensity can last hours, but when the intensity is stimulus. Guidelines exist that will help define elevated, the duration of time to exhaustion is inversely frequency appropriateness, based on the client’s affected. A balance between intensity and duration is capabilities and his or her respective goals. necessary for effective exercise prescription. In addition, adequate fuel storage is also an important Training Duration factor to consider for exercise performance duration. Writing an appropriate and effective exercise The amount of time a person experiences training stress prescription will not be fully executable if the client in a single bout of exercise is referred to as the duration presents low initial energy storage at the onset of the of training. Training duration, like frequency, is specific training bout. to the exercise goals and the client’s capabilities. Unlike frequency, however, duration is subject to a rate of Training Intensity fatigue. The faster an exerciser depletes his or her glycogen reserves, the earlier the bout will lose Training intensity often receives credit for being the key effectiveness. Fatigue most significantly defines the factor in exercise-induced adaptations. Although it can limit of the exercise session’s duration. Second to not truly exist independently in an exercise prescription, fatigue is the duration of stress that is required to cause appropriate intensity is vital for physiological stress the intended adaptation response. For anaerobic perception and hormonal response, as it denotes the adaptations, the duration a muscle is placed under stress level of effort exerted by the body. When added to can be relatively short. On the contrary, the duration of exercise duration, the interrelationship becomes clearly stress required for chronic aerobic adjustments is fairly evident, as previously discussed. Managing these two lengthy by comparison. Duration differences even exist factors is fundamental to successful goal attainment. within the energy systems, depending on the intended The specific intensity/duration values necessary for goal. Strength training requires very heavy loads, adaptations will be covered in Chapters 17 and 18 as applied for short periods of time. When the performed they pertain to anaerobic and aerobic training, but some work is tallied, it may add up to a total of 12 minutes of general guidelines do exist when viewed from a broad actual resistance training for an hour-long training perspective of exercise prescription. Intensity has two session. Even though the exerciser remains in the gym relevant issues that determine the degree to which it is for one hour, the body adapts mainly to the contact time employed in an exercise regimen. The first issue is the with the resistance. When hypertrophy is the desired physical aptitude and abilities of the client. Inherent to outcome, the duration of resistance training must any exercise programming factor are safety and the increase over that necessary for strength gains. The relative capabilities of the client. Exercise that is too 317

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT intense may cause injury or become a to determine the volume instead. The goal is to psychological barrier to exercise participation. approximate desired volumes per day or week The second key consideration in intensity consistent with intensity levels for recovery purposes. If planning is the energy system being utilized. volumes and intensities are high, the recovery demands Managing fatigue is a function of intensity and will also be increased. Accounting for these variables duration. Therefore, using incorrect workloads will aid in the rate of adaptation and reduce the risk for will throw off the body’s adaptation to the over- or under training. stress. Intensity/energy system mismatches present an obstacle to successful program Recovery Period development for goal attainment. The recovery period is the duration of time between Rest Intervals exercise bouts. It may reflect a four-hour period of time between aerobic and anaerobic training in the same day, Rest intervals or rest periods are a crucial consideration or a multiple day period between subsequent bouts of for intensity prescription. Rest intervals are defined by resistance training for a particular muscle group. the duration of time between each act of physical effort. Recovery periods replenish depleted energy sources (i.e. High-intensity burst activities quickly use up the more glycogen) and are necessary for cellular adaptations to powerful energy storage within the tissues. Once these occur from the stress experienced during the previous energy stores deplete, or their metabolic byproduct workout. It is important to recognize that adaptations to accumulation becomes inhibitive, the action is stopped stress take place when the stress is eliminated. Simply physiologically. To repeat the action, the body must rest stated, recovery periods are necessary for while rephosphorylation occurs and lactate is removed improvements. If the body is constantly stressed, it will (25; 36). Therefore, the rest intervals used for become exhausted and break down. Injury, illness, and subsequent movement actions are secondary to the other negative side effects of overtraining can quickly energy system consideration. The desired outcome and occur with inadequate recovery. energy system replenishment cycles determine the rest interval length. In aerobic training, the rest interval may Exercise Principles be between a 1:1 or 1:3 work to rest ratio, depending on the training system. In anaerobic bouts, that value jumps The thoughtful arrangement of exercise prescription to 1:3 to 1:12 depending on the resistance used and the principles makes up a successful program matrix. In intended outcome. For example, between one mile run programming, the difficulty lies in creating balance in a repeats that last seven minutes, the rest interval will be complementary fashion so that the prescription is equivalent to the measured running times: in this case, logical, client-appropriate, goal-driven and outcome- seven minutes. In bouts of heavy resistance training based. To help ensure the program matrix makes sense such as a 5RM squat, the recovery may be over 2 for the client, personal trainers can make additional minutes, even though the movement only takes 15 changes which can enhance the program components. seconds to complete. Again, the duration of the energy Program components should be evaluated for replenishment cycle and the intensity used for the next consistency with the principles of exercise. These action define these values. principles add criteria, enhancing the ability of the prescription to effectively deliver the desired results. Training Volume The principles of exercise include specificity, overload, and progression. Essentially, the three principles work Clearly, selected intensity and the other programming together to ensure the exercise purpose reflects the goals variables exist in an interdependent relationship. The of the client, the exercise provides adequate stress for exercise intensity level defines rest intervals, training duration, frequency, and the training volume used in the exercise bout and over the weekly training cycle. Training volume is the measure of total work performed. It combines sets, repetitions, and loads lifted. Training volume is calculated by multiplying the number of sets by the number of repetitions by the weight lifted per repetition. For instance, an individual who weighs 155 lbs. and completes four sets of body weight lunges for ten repetitions would have his or her training volume expressed as (4 x 10 x 155 lbs. body weight) = 6200 lbs. If the intensity is fairly consistent, then the total number of sets and repetitions can be used 318

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components the desired adaptation response, and the exercise is often referred to as staleness or hitting a plateau. consistently applied in a progressive manner so that the Planned variations within the exercise program allow body continues to improve. The exercise principles steer for the constant application of overload stress and the program components to properly account for the continued improvement by the body’s physiologic necessary inclusion and quantity of exercise stress. systems. Principle of Specificity Principle of Progression The principle of specificity is very logical in its The planned, incremental increase in exercise stress is application. The principle states that for a desired referred to as progressive overload and supports adaptation to occur in a physiological system, the stress continued adaptations. The principle of progression demand must be appropriately and explicitly applied to suggests that the stress applied must continually be that physiological system. Essentially, the adaptations perceived as new for the physiological system to are specific to the amount and type of applied properly adjust to it. Progressions within an exercise physiological stress. If the proper amount of appropriate program need to provide overload, but should not be stress is placed on a system the system will respond by excessive. Large increases in physical stress create a adapting to the stress. The principle of specificity disparity between the rate of the adaptation process and guides the exercise selection and other components of the stress level increment. Rapid rates of progression programming to ensure the proper elements exist to lead to failure because the amount of overload is too enhance the desired function. great to manage and can potentially lead to injury. The actual quantity of the progression will be influenced by Principle of Overload several factors, including: The principle of overload is defined as training stress 1. The client’s training experience which challenges a physiological system of the body above the level to which it is accustomed. Overload is 2. The client’s physical condition applied by the manipulation of one or more of the training components, most commonly intensity, 3. The client’s genetic potential duration, or rest intervals, but possible adjustments are not limited to these three factors alone. The exercise Progressions are individual-specific and rates of change selection, training volume, and frequency can also be vary depending on previous exposure to the stress and modified to create a more physiologically stressful the current physical state of the client. New clients with training experience. When overload is no longer limited training experience often present a faster rate of perceived by the body, a fixed state is achieved and the improvement due to nervous system adaptations. On the adaptation response will discontinue. This phenomenon contrary, individuals who have reached high levels of is 319

Exercise Programming Components NCSF CPT adaptation to a particular stress progress at a much The client’s acute condition is dependent on several slower rate relative to the percentage of change daily variables, which may or may not contribute to experienced. Another key factor in the application of concerns during training. Some acute considerations the principle of progression is the person’s level of include mental distraction or lack of focus, acute illness, fitness. Individuals who are in better physical condition dehydration, drug or alcohol use, hypoglycemia, and can manage more stress, compared to less physically fit excessive fatigue. Any one of these daily variables can individuals. As a general rule of thumb, increases in lead to injury during the performance of physical exercise stress should be approximately 2-5% per week. activity, and they are therefore considered relative Some more aggressive practitioners have suggested contraindications to exercise participation. If a personal progressions as high as 10% per week, but the trainer recognizes that a client is not functioning likelihood of sustaining a consistent adaptation rate of properly or experiencing an issue that may increase risk this magnitude is very unlikely. for injury, the activity should be discontinued and rescheduled for another day once the problem has Exercise Program Safety Factors subsided. Failure to do so constitutes poor professional judgment and can, in some cases, be considered Several external factors need to be accounted for when negligent. implementing an exercise program safely and effectively. These are considered external factors When the environmental conditions are analyzed for because they do not necessarily play a direct role in the safety, temperature and relative humidity are often the program components or the exercise principles first assessed. In some cases, pollution and altitude may themselves, but are necessary considerations for the also be factors, but they are less common agitators to proper execution of the program. Ensuring that these exercise in most environments. High temperatures and factors are appropriately managed will increase client humidity create physiological stress that increases the safety and reduce the risk of liability associated with the risk for dehydration and heat-related illnesses. Heat loss training program. mechanisms can become relatively dysfunctional because heat loss from evaporation and convection Personal trainers must make sure the client is safe at all cannot properly occur (5; 15; 35). Training inside often times when participating in physical activities under alleviates any concerns related to temperature. their guidance and supervision. It is well known that However, if training is to be completed outside, exercise comes with inherent risks for injury, but temperature and humidity must be considered. Selecting personal trainers can dramatically reduce the risk by the most appropriate time of the day is often the easiest accounting for many of the contributing factors that and most controllable component involved in managing often lead to problems. Creating a safe environment is a these conditions. Pre-planning and having a contingency key part of the trainer’s job description. The concept of plan are necessary aspects to consider in dealing with a safe environment spans across all aspects of the environmental conditions. training area and conditions that affect the client. They include the client’s acute condition, the ambient ~Key Terms~ temperature and relative humidity, area safety hazards, the training space, equipment, and proper supervision. Principle of Specificity – For a desired adaptation to Each factor has independent relevance but can become occur in the body, a stress demand must be compounded when other factors are also unaccounted appropriately and specifically applied for a desirable for during the exercise session. outcome to take place. Principle of Overload – A training stress which challenges a physiological system of the body above the level to which it is accustomed. Principle of Progression – The stress applied must continually be perceived as new for the physiological system to adjust accordingly. Humidity – The amount of water vapor present in the air that affects the body’s thermoregulation during exercise. 320

NCSF CPT Exercise Programming Components When the environmental conditions are controlled, a fails during the exercise. If a piece of equipment’s personal trainer’s attention can be focused on other ability to function properly is in question, avoid using it relevant program performance areas. The training space until it has received proper maintenance. Additionally, and the equipment used for the exercise performance the client’s capabilities should be evaluated before must be evaluated for safety. Any time dynamic deciding on the equipment used within the program. For exercise is performed, adequate space must be available instance, hypertensive clients should avoid compression to accommodate the movements. Before the exercise is equipment like the leg press, and stability equipment performed, the work area should be evaluated to ensure may not be appropriate for clients not conditioned for it does not present any possible risks to the client. This less stable environments (4; 7; 8). includes establishing a clear work space, accounting for other people working in close proximity, and keeping The personal trainer can further enhance the safety and an eye on concurrent activities within the environment. effectiveness of the training environment by providing proper supervision. Spotting clients, evaluating their The equipment being used constitutes another possible movements for poor mechanics and signs of fatigue, safety issue within the training area. All equipment and providing instructional cues to enhance movement should be evaluated for proper function, including proficiency will all contribute to better training making sure moving parts and cables are not damaged practices. Setting controls and providing assistance will or excessively worn. If the equipment uses additional improve the client’s performance, while concurrently safety apparatus, such as clips, stoppers, and range- reducing safety-related issues. Trainers should be very limiting devices, they should be employed during each active during the training session, observing the client performance to help reduce the risk in case the client and managing the environment for maximum safety. Chapter Fifteen References 1. Banz WJ, Maher MA, Thompson WG, Bassett DR, 9. Fattirolli F, Cellai T and Burgisser C. [Physical Moore W, Ashraf M, Keefer DJ and Zemel MB. Effects activity and cardiovascular health a close link]. Monaldi of resistance versus aerobic training on coronary artery Arch Chest Dis 60: 73-78, 2003. disease risk factors. Exp Biol Med (Maywood ) 228: 434- 440, 2003. 10. Fry RW, Morton AR and Keast D. Overtraining in athletes. An update. Sports Med 12: 32-65, 1991. 2. Belanger M and Boulay P. Effect of an aerobic exercise training program on resting metabolic rate in 11. Gamalei IA and Kaulin AB. [Microscopic viscosity chronically beta-adrenergic blocked hypertensive patients. of muscle fibers. II. Temperature relations]. Tsitologiia 14: J Cardiopulm Rehabil 25: 354-360, 2005. 1322-1327, 1972. 3. Blevins FT. Rotator cuff pathology in athletes. Sports 12. Giada F, Bertaglia E, De Piccoli B, Franceschi M, Med 24: 205-220, 1997. Sartori F, Raviele A and Pascotto P. Cardiovascular adaptations to endurance training and detraining in young 4. Braith RW and Stewart KJ. Resistance exercise and older athletes. Int J Cardiol 65: 149-155, 1998. training: its role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 113: 2642-2650, 2006. 13. Ingraham SJ. The role of flexibility in injury prevention and athletic performance: have we stretched the 5. Coris EE, Ramirez AM and Van Durme DJ. Heat truth? Minn Med 86: 58-61, 2003. illness in athletes: the dangerous combination of heat, humidity and exercise. Sports Med 34: 9-16, 2004. 14. Jacobson AL and Henderson J. Temperature sensitivity of myosin and actomyosin. Can J Biochem 51: 6. Dickhuth HH, Rocker K, Mayer F, Konig D and 71-86, 1973. Korsten-Reck U. [Endurance training and cardial adaptation (athlete's heart)]. Herz 29: 373-380, 2004. 15. Kamijo Y and Nose H. Heat illness during working and preventive considerations from body fluid 7. Ewert R, Opitz CF, Wensel R, Winkler J, Halank M homeostasis. Ind Health 44: 345-358, 2006. and Felix SB. Continuous intravenous iloprost to revert treatment failure of first-line inhaled iloprost therapy in 16. Karacabey K. Effect of regular exercise on health patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. and disease. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 26: 617-623, 2005. Clin Res Cardiol 2007. 17. Kemi OJ, Haram PM, Loennechen JP, Osnes JB, 8. Fagard RH and Cornelissen VA. Effect of exercise on Skomedal T, Wisloff U and Ellingsen O. Moderate vs. blood pressure control in hypertensive patients. Eur J high exercise intensity: differential effects on aerobic Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 14: 12-17, 2007. fitness, cardiomyocyte contractility, and endothelial function. Cardiovasc Res 67: 161-172, 2005. 321

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