1800

Various Types of Isti judn 284and necessity ((iarürah), while the MAlikis were inclined to resort to isti/is n where therewas conflict between analogy and madatah. 25° A contemporaryscholar,Kamäli, discussesthe division of istitwan in the contextof equity. He highlights the unnecessary classification and complains about theconsideration of istituan in the context of equity and fairness, which he says were notconsidered by the scholars.According to him, istihsön which is based on equity andconsiderationof fairnesshasnot been given a separatecategory by either the Hanaffsorthe Mälilcis. Instancesof equitable istihsän often seemto have been subsumedunderconsideration of raf al-¬i raj. Removal of hardship is admittedly the nearestconcept tothat of equity and fairness; it has a definite Qur'anic identity and seemsan eminentlysuitable basis for istihsän. Yet it is ironic that neither of these (i.e. equity and raf a!-/Xxraj) find a separateentry in the scholastic typology of istihsän. It seemsthat thema#afzih basedistilzsänhas a strongbaseof identity with raf al-taraj, and the `ula nä'do tend to almost equatethe one with the other. This can also be said of custom (`upwhich is recognizedas a proof precisely becauseacting on custom is in the spirit of rafal-baraj. Kamäli concludes that when both maslakih and custom are recognized as separatebasesof istihsän, raf al-Ixiraj, and also equity and fairness (ilndn) could easilybe addedto the existing varietiesof isti, sän\".251 As Kamali indicates,equity and fairness are indeed conceptsthat would seemtobe in conformity with isti/asän. After all, linguistically it is derived from ifzsän (goodness), and connotes justice ('adl). Therefore, equity and fairness should be considered in a contemporaryapproach.The basis of itnan finds a sufficient support in250MikadT,\"Bahth fi al-istihsän\", p: 315.251Kamäll, \"Istihsän\", p: 65.

Chapter Four 285the Qur'an: \"Verily, God enjoins al-'adl (justice) and itndn (the doing of good andliberality) and giving (help) to kith and kin... \".252According to Kamali, the maindifferences between justice and ihsän may be said to be that justice is the normalrequirement which is to be administeredunder the shay 'ah. Ihsän on the other handopens up the scope of justice under positive law to considerationsof equity and goodconscience,especially in caseswhere the application of normal rules may not actuallysecurejustice. Then,one shouldact in the spirit of i, sänand find a method that servestheideas of Qur'anic justice, evenif it entails a certain departurefrom specific rules.253252Qur'än: 16/90.253Karnali, ibid, p: 66.

Conclusion 286 CONCLUSION Deducing rulings is an important elementfor the developmentof Islamic law. Thefundamental sources of Islamic law are the Qur'an, the Sunnah, ijmä ` (consensus), andgiyäs (analogy)which areunanimouslyacceptedby the majority of jurists. There arealsoother controversialprinciples that areactivatedwhen the fundamental principles aresilentand unableto help the law for its continuity. The /rh of Mu`ädh ibn Jabal is very good example of the fact that Muslimsbelieve that Islamic Law is able to find answersfor human problems. For this reason,jurists must know the main requirementsfor legislation. The knowledge of jurisprudencewas formulated asusül al-fiqh (the principle of jurisprudence) and the meaningof usül al-fegh combinesthe understandingof the meaningof ucül andfigh individually. The term usal is the plural of asl. One of the usesof a-s-1is the meaning of dalil.In Islamic law, the word dalil is usedin two ways: dalil tafsYlis like an individual verseof the Qur'an or an individual Sunnah in a hadith. We may refer to it as \"specificevidence\", though it is sometimestranslatedas \"detailed proof'. And the dalil ijmäli has nothing to do with direct, absoluteorder and prohibition. However, it produces general rulings aswujüb (necessity),tahrim (prohibition) and so on. Dalil (proof) is distinguished from amilrah (indication), which literally means a sign or an allusion. Dalil could only relate to evidencewhich leads to a definitive ruling or to positive knowledge (`ilm). Amärah on the other hand is reserved for evidence or indication that only leadsto a zanni (speculative)ruling. In this way, the term da1Fc1ould only be concernedwith the definitive proofs, namely the Qur'an, the Sunnah,and ijmä `, while the remaining proof which contains a measure of speculation, such as giyas, istipsän, isti äb, masälehmursalah, and so on, could fall under the category of amärah

Conclusion 287(signs or allusions, probable evidence).However, most jurists consider both dalil andamärah, whether qat i (definitive) or Zanni (speculative), as a darl (proof). The term a;s!is actually dalil, which is aproof or an evidenceof Islamic Law. The termfigh is synonymouswith al-fahm (understanding)in the linguistic sense.It is used to denotethe exerciseof intelligence, as in the caseof the Successorsof theCompanions of the Prophet, most of whom were fugahä' (jurists) who gave legaljudgments using their own reason and intelligence; in that respect the term figh isactually usedfor the knowledgeof the law. The procedureof giving judgments amongthe Companionswas that they usedtorefer first to the Qur'än whenever a claimant-defendantasked them for guidance.If theCompanions were unable to find the result in the Qur'an, they would then seek ajudgment in the Sunnah.Failing to discover the answerwithin thesesources,they wouldthen consult the righteous men of the community who would convene to discuss the matter and arrive at a solution. If they arrived at an opinion which was unanimously accepted,the consensuswasthat they shouldjudge accordingly. Despite the controversy among the scholars, it has been shown that the use of ijtihäd by ray was practiced from the time of the Prophet; this is evident from several narrations such asthe hndith of Mu'adh Ibn Jabal or the incident when the Prophet saw the people of Medina fertilizing palm trees. Between ijtihäd and ray there is a very close relationship. However, as we have seen, ijtihäd is more comprehensivethan ray. At the time of the Companions and the Successors,the constituentparts of ray were clear and extensive,asopposedto the nah,; which is not obviously clarified and defined. Following that period, some jurists

Conclusion 288continued to use ray in the meaning of ijtihdd in a wider range. At the same time, themajority of jurists confined the use of inference to issues where there were no na5,s (text)to reach a right and just kin (ruling). Performing ijtihäd is seenas a religious duty. The Qur'än and the Sunnahof theProphet encourageMuslims to avoid disagreementsamongstthemselvesby using ijtihdd;it is said that wheneverajudge exercisesijtihdd and gives a right judgment, he will havetwo rewards, but if he errs in his judgment, he will still have earned one reward.Therefore, ijtihäd becomes a very demanding requirement in modem day life, andsometimesperforming it will be an individual duty (fard `ayn) and sometimesa collectiveduty (fard kifayah) for Muslims. Eventually, if the requirement of ijtihäd is ignored thenthe whole Muslim community will be consideredsinful. There are some conditions which are aimed to ensure the ability of a person toperform ijtihad. The earliest complete accountsof the qualifications of a mujtahid weregiven by scholars such as Abü al-Husayna1-Bari (d.436/1044), Shirazi (d.467/1083),Ghazal (d.505/1111), Amidi (d.63211234),Ibn al-Subki (d.771/1370) and ShAtibi (d.790/1388). They and many others preparedextensive lists of the abilities jurists mustpossessto enable them to perform ijtihdd. Some increased and others decreasedtheconditions. An outstandingscholar,Shatibi, ignored theselists and reducedthe conditionsof ijtihäd to one comprehensivepoint: the precise comprehensionof the magäsid and inthe light of this comprehensionthe ability to deducerules from the sources. Regarding the door of ijtihad, besides the early and contemporary Muslimscholars, somerecent western scholars,in particular Wael Hallaq, and W. MontgomeryWatt, have indicated that the gateof ijtihad is still open and the term \"The closing of the

Conclusion 289gate of ijtihäd\"is a myth. In reality, the gate of ijtihäd was never completely closed, asproperly qualified scholarsmust have the right to perform ijtihäd continuously. Ijtihad isnot confined to the four schools of law and can be performed by all capable scholars.Consequently, the gateof ijtihad, in my personalopinion, is still andmust remain open. Iijtihäd hasbeenpracticedlargely in terms of isti1sän. Sometimeswhen an issueis not within the rangeof a nass giyäs is then usedto judge. Here we come acrosstwodifferent possibilities: apparentclear analogy and implicit analogy. If the mujtahid findsthat the second one is stronger (khafi giyäs) the judgment given accordingly is calledisti/nän. Through istiluan some issueswithin the range of common naps and criteria such as difficulty, complexity, necessity,and need are removed becauseof their specific nature and a newjudgement is given to this specialsituation to implement madalxrh. As such it is the Lawgiver (i.e. God) who considers the special situations and circumstanceswith specific conditions, and who abolishesthe difficulty, complexity and harm. This provides an ideal guide for the mujrahid. On this issue Mustafa Zargä says that the Qur'an and the Sunnahareboth istillcän, which is the creation of the Shari'. The concept of istihsän is to guide the mujtahid when applying the nag of the Shari' to issues everyday of life. The mujtahid performing istihsän is inspired by the method that the Shari' applies and in this way, the mujtahid implements the Shari \"s purpose and intentions. We have mentioned some examples in regards to this issue throughout the chapter. No technical definitions of istifzsänhavereachedus from the early Islamic period, simply becausethere was no reasonfor isti&dn to be defined. Abn Hanifah and other early Hanafijurists suchasAbü Yüsuf (d.182) and Shaybäni(d. 189)have directly given

Conclusion 290rulings using the concept of istihsän without giving any specific definitions orexplanations. It is said that their judgmentswere basedon the fundamentalprinciples ofsecuring easeand avoiding hardship,in line with the Qur'än: \"The best of your religion isthat which brings ease\"and \"God intendsfacility and easefor you, He doesnot intend toput you to hardship\".' The fact that the Hanafiswere attackedby the Shi`i jurists, and especially byShdfi i himself, shows that the SUR' schools did not recognize isti/zsdnas a basis ofIslamic law. They dismissed it as \"Arbitrary law-making in religion\". Indeed, Shäfi`!jurists did not understandwhat Hanafismeantby istii än. Hanafijurists spentmuch timedefending their position and trying to show that istihsän was a valid source of law, andnot merely an ad hoc method.However, amongthe jurists there was no consensusas tothe precise meaningand definition of istihrän. Yet in spite of all the different definitions,the meaningsarevery close.In fact all the definitions may be derived from that of Karkhi which is arguably more comprehensive than the others as we discussed earlier. It is quite difficult to determine the applications of isti/isän in the very early period. However, 'Umar's decisionsprovided the meansby which researchershave been able to gain someindication of how to implement istihsän in legal matters.Early istihsän, then, involved making a decision which was a complete departure from an established rule for the sake of equity and public interest. I have not been able to discover any authentic sourcethat leadsme to believe that the conceptof istifzsänwas usedprior to the time of `Umaribn `Abd al-`Aziz. When iyäs b. Muä'wiyah's useof the term istienemis comparedto Abü Hanifah's, much similarity can be seen.For them, the main purpose of applying isti/zsänwas to 1Qur'än: 21185

Conclusion 291avoid the possibility of causingharm to the public interest.The reasonfor their emphasison istifisan was their desire to avoid the negativeresults that often occurred when qiyaswas applied incorrectly. However, istifisän owes its existence to giyäs, and would nothave supersededit had giyäs not provedto be ineffective in somecases. The investigation that I madethroughout the research,and the opinions given byscholars suchasIbn Hazm,Schacht(d.1969),Goldziher (d.1921) and so on, show that thefirst usage of istifydn in its technical sensedid not occur before Iyäs bin Muä'wiyah(d. 1221740). The concept of isti/zsänis recognizedby the Hanafi, Mäliky, Hanbali and Zaydischools. Hanafischolarsareadamantthat istitudn is a sourceof law andnot in any way aform of ruling made according to personal desire. For the Hanafi school istihsän meansacting according to one of the two forms of giyäs. Istihsän may also be actedupon based on athar (f adith), ijmd ` or necessity.However, despite the fact that `ulamä' from these different schoolsrecognized the validity of istilzsänas a principle they often disagreed over the meaning of the term. The supportersof the validity of istihsän resort to proof from the Qur'an, Sunnah,and ijmä`. According to Hanafi scholars,to perform isti/zsänis to comply with Qur'anic verseswhich command man to follow what is best, good and beautiful. The first figure to reject isti1sän was Imam Shäfi`i with his famous statement: \"Man istahsanafaqad sharra`a\" (whoever approves of juristic preference is making himself the Lawmaker). According to Shäf'i`i, nobody is ordered to rule according to pagq (truth) unlesshe knows what /xigq is and /aagqcannot becomeknown unless it is from God either as nays or by indication, as God made 17agqin his Book and in the

Conclusion 292Sunnah of his prophet. Among those who agreedwith him on this issue were: Isnawi(d. 772/1370); Bishr b. Ghiyäs (d.218/833); Shiräzi (d.476/1083); Ghazäli (d.505/1111);Däwüd al-Zähiri (d.2701884);Ibn Hazm;andthe Imämi Shr'ah. In reality, everybody, including those who recognize isti/zsän,reject istihsdn thatis based on personaldesire.Shäfi`i said, with regardsto the caseof the thinkers and theliterate, that if they were allowed to rule by istihsänit would be in contradiction to the useof istihsän, as those who recognizeistihsän understandthat its meaning is the departurefrom giyds to a strongerdalil. The situations are suchthat the dalil can only be expectedfrom a mujtahid who is competent in the shari `ah rulings and the dalil, while it isunacceptablefrom thinkers andthe literate who arenot qualified. Owing to the lack of written material, Abn Hanifah has often been accused ofjudging cases without depending on any textual evidence, and this is the main source of conflict amongst the jurists. However, it is not entirely true to say that there is no trace of any reports regarding Abü Hanlfah's techniques; in fact he left writings giving indications as to his methods of performing ijtihäd and his use of the principle of istihsän. He declared that he used to read God's book to obtain guidance. If he was unable to find any guidance in the Qur'än then he would resort to the Sunnah of the Prophet and the true reports (fxrdith) which had transmitted from generation to generation by trustworthy narrators. If neither the Qur'än nor the Sunnah yielded any guidance, he would then refer to the opinions of the Companions.Consequently,when he madehis personaldecision he would not ask others' opinions. However, if a matter had beenconsideredby the likes of Ibrähim al-Nakhd' (d.96), Shä'bi (d.103), Hasan(d. 110), Muhammad b. Shin (d. 110), Said b. al-Musayyab(d. 94) et at, he would also act on their ijtihäd.

Conclusion 293 Moreover, in the writings of his disciples, Abü Yüsuf (d.182) and Shaibnni(d. 189), the use of the concept of istifaän by Abü hianifah and the early Hanafis isexplained. The examplesof the practice of istitzsänin the writings of Abü Yüsuf (d.182)and Shaibäni (d.189)revealthat the useof the conceptcould meanthe following: leavinggiyds due to the precedentsof the Companions; leaving giyäs owing to the consensus(ijm.d'); leaving giyäs in favour of sadd al-dharä'i' (blocking the means); leaving giyäsdue to authentic Tradition (fxrdith yatip). AbU Hanifah and his disciples were highlyrespectful of the Traditions, and used them in their ijtihäd; even if it was a lvdith d2if(weak tradition) they would prefer it over giyäs. Division of istihsän amongthe scholarsdiffers from onejurist to another: mainly it is consideredasbeing of two types a: analogical istilzsim,which consistsof a departure from giyäs jail to giyds khaf( and b: exceptional istifzsän (istit sdn istithnä'r) which consists of making an exception to a general rule of the existing law. Sadr al-Shati`ah (d.747/1346) also divides it into severaltypes such as ijmä', Ghrürah(necessity),athar. These are actually established against explicit analogy. He considers the implicit (khan analogy is istifz n. However, despite the fact that implicit analogy is istihsän, it is more comprehensive than implicit analogy. We can conclude that while every implicit analogy can be called isti/zsän, not every case of istiIndn can be called implicit (khafi) analogy. Another jurist, Bazdawi, also indicates that istiizsän is an implicit analogy. In fact isti/zsän is not merely an implicit analogy. In general, the Hanafis considered istihrän as four types as follows: isti/zsän based on nass (athar); on ijmd ` (consensus); on ciri rah (necessity) and on giyäs khafi (implicit analogy).

Conclusion 294 The Mälikis divide isti/tsän into four types: istifzrän based on `urf; on masia/ah;on ijmä`; and on giyäs. Even though there are different opinions over the divisions ofistibsän, some common issues with regard to the types of istihsdn are generally agreedupon, namely the first type of istitnan -the departurefrom jail to khafi- which is agreedupon by all the scholars. Hanafisconsideredthat giyäs khaff was istihsän. The `illah (effective cause) ofgiyäs khafi can not be discovered easily. However in giyäs jali the `illah (effective cause)appears at first glance without careful consideration being given to it. In other words,giyäs khafi is preferred over giyäs jar if they are opposed to each other, on account of theeffective cause ('illah) which is stronger in khafi. So many efforts were made by outstanding scholars throughout the history ofIslamic juridical life to develop it in order to allow masla/ah to prevail and to preventevil. Abü Hanifah was one of them. He made istifzsän and giyäs essential to usül al-fiqh,allowing society the freedom and flexibility with which to function and progresshealthily, in line with the objectives of the shari `ah. Najm al-Din al-Tufi (d.719/1316) took the concept of masla/ah to the furthest extent ever known. He emphasizedthe importance of the concept and considered it suitable for applicationsin all areasof social life and human relations, apart from ibädät (worshiping) and those general principles of law already determined and deemed inviolate. The generalprinciples of religion are binding and fixed for mankind until the day of judgment; particular principles, however, are subject to public interest (mastafaah) and the public interest changesas circumstanceschange.The Qur'an promotes reforms and new solutions by saying that if man does not know, he should go and ask someone

Conclusion 295who does. As the verse indicates, \"So ask the people of the reminder\"2. Thereforeunderstanding the purposes of the sharä`ah is an indispensable qualification for amujtahid in order to perform ijtihird and realize the role of the concept of istihsän, asImäm Mälik regards it a purpose-centredmethod of interpretation, adding that isrihsänrepresentsnine-tenthof human knowledge. Consequently,contemporaryscholarsshouldwork on the principle of istihsrrn,and developit in the framework of contemporaryissuesunder the light of the fundamentalprinciple of Islamic law.2 Qur'an: 2117.

Glossary 296 GLOSSARY`adl : justice.adillah (pl. of dalil): proofs, evidences, indicationadillah al-shari'ah : proofs of Islamic lawadhan : call to prayerof äl : actsai*am (pl. of huhm): rules, laws, practical rules and ordinances.al-ahkam al- `amaliyyah:practicalrulingsal-al*äm al- `agliyyah: rational rulesai*äm al-din : rulings of religional-ahkäm al-hissiyyah:law of senseperceptional-ahkäm al-i``tigadiyyah:creed/convictional, which is belief in the existenceof God, Hisoneness,His qualities,the truth of the mission of the Prophet,belief in the Day ofJudgment etcal-a/*äm al- khulugryyah ethical and moral rulesal-ahkäm al-lughawiyyah : linguistic rulesal-ahºcdm al-mu `ämalät :transactionsal-ai*äm al-shar'iyya: legal rulesal-af*äm al-wad`r)yah : declaratoryrulesahl al-apbah : the residualheirsahl al-bayt : the householdof the Prophetahl al-bid `ah : peopleof innovationahl al-hadith : the traditionalist group or schoolahl al-kalif : Peopleof the Caveahl al-ra'y : the rationalist groupahl al fara'id: those portions for heirs designated in the Qur'änal-aluan : the bestahwan al-sharr : lesserevil`ämm : generalamarah : indication, signsor allusions,probableevidenceal-ansäb : gamblingArkan : essentialrequirements`aql : intellect, reason`agli : rational`a, bah : thosewho areentitled to the remaindersof the shares,agnatesasäs : foundationaslzrbi farad :ash: root, origin, source,andusedoriginal casein the context of analogy.ayäh (pl. of äyät) : proof, evidences,lessons,signsazän : the call to prayers law`azimah: strict or unmodified which remainsin its original rigour due to the absenceof mitigating factors.azläm : arrowsfor seekingluck or decisionbäfil : wrong, null andvoid.Bayt al-Mal : treasury,exchequer

Glossary 297bay' al-ta'äti : give-and-take salebid'ah : innovationburhan : proof, evidencedaf al fasäd : avoid evildalä'il : pl. of daliZ\".indication,proof, evidencedalal : errordalil 'nm : generalevidencedalil ijmäli or kulli: generalevidencedalil gari : definite proofdalil tafglr : specific evidence,detailedproofaärar : harmdarürah : necessityQarüriyyät : essentialsdhari'a `, : plural dharä'i' : meansdirhams : silver coinsfahm: understandingfugahä' (plural of fagfh): jurist, one who is learnedfigh.far' : lit. a branchor a sub-division, andin the context of giyäs a new casefart : obligatory, obligationfar cl `ayn : individual duty and obligationfarclkifäyah :a collective duty, the fulfilment of which by a sufficient number ofindividuals excusesthe other individuals from fulfilling itfasad : evilfatwä : formal legal opinionfawähish :corruptionsfa'1 : physicallyghanumah : bootyghusl : ritual ablution of the whole bodynth : traditionPadith mashhür : well known Tradition¬adith mutawätir : widely spreadTraditionlv4ith S. i/i : authentictraditionfxzjj : pilgrimage, the once-in-alifetime obligation of pilgrimage to the holy Ka'ba.fajiyyät : complementaryhagrqi : true, genuine,authentic,real and literal asopposedto metaphorical.haqq : righthaqqal-irtifaq : all of the ancillary rightshaqq al-masil : theright of flowhaqq al-murür : the right of passagehaqq al-shurb : the right of waterfriräm : prohibitedfxxsan goodhawä' : inclination, whimhimär : donkeyiimariyyah : donkey case/risst : sensory

Glossary 298hujjah : dalil, evidence, proof/nckm (pl. ahkäm) : rule, as in hukm shar`i : law, value or ruling of Shari `ah.al-hukm al-taklifi : the obligation, creating rule, defining lawal-tatkin al-wa(i : declaratory lawIb/al al-istihsän : invalidating juristic preferenceihram : the ritual garment worn for tnjjiltyat : needsijiirah : leasingi `jaz : inimitabilityijmä `: consensusa, greemental-ijmä ` al-srzrrh : explicit agreemental-ijmä ` al-suküti : tacit agreementijtihdd : is the expenditure of efforts to arrive at righteous judgement; it could be eitherphysical such as walking, working or intellectual such as inference of a ruling, or juristicand linguistic theory: Kamäl Ibn Al-Humam defines ijtihad as the expenditure of effortsby the fagih to arrive at a juristic ruling, such ruling being either rational (`agli) ortransmitted (naglj, definitive (gat`i )or speculative (zannr).ijtihäd al-tagdrn : which allows jurists all to give rulings and on which there is no causefor disagreement amongst the scholarsikräh: meansforcing someoneto do or saysomethingagainsthis will, coercion.ilhdm : inspiration`illah : causeandreason`ilm : knowledgeimam : founderintime`: usufruct`igäb : punishmenti, <7-ba:htargetishärah : indication, sign,token, andsymptomish'är : marking animalsi'nah : infallibility, immunity from making errorsistabsana: approvedasthe betterjudgmentistidläl : inferenceistitudn : JuristicPreferenceisti/zsän istithnäi : exceptional istilzränisfilä/n : technicalistigrä' : inductionistigrä' Lamm: completeinductionistigrä' nägis : incompleteinductionistisMb : presumptionof continuityisti,c1ah: considerationof public interest.isti wäb : discretionistithnä : This is the giving of an order to a laboureror artisanto make a definite articlewith agreemento pay a definite price for that article when made.`itäb : blame`tibar : admonitioni `tigäd : faith, belief

Glossary 299jahd : which meansthe forbearanceof hardship,that is striving and self-exertion in anyactivity which entails a measureof hardshipfalb al-xläh : obtaining benefitjinäyat : criminal offencejudhr: rootjuhd : which meansexertion of effort or energyjunub :a staterequiring a ritual ablution of the whole bodyjuz'i : partialkarah : expiationkamäliyyät : embellishmentskhabar : newsor reportkhabar al-wähid : solitary Withkhamr : winekhardj : land taxkha4w.specific, individualkhayr : gooddeedkhulwah : privacykufr : unbeliefkulli : wholelughawi : linguisticma1arrät : evilsmadina : townmafqüd' : missing personmafsadah : harm, evilal-Majallah : Ottomancourt manualmakrüh : discouraged,adversitymakrüh kard/at al-tahrim : strongly disapprovedmakrüh karähzt al-tanzih : disapprovalmandüb : recommended,optionalmanfa `ah: benefitmdni `: impediment,obstacle,hindrance.magä,id :objectives,aims,purposes,goals.magä zdal- `ämmah:generalpurposesma. 'ar: sourcemashagqah: hardship,difficultymashhür : is defined asa hadith whichCompanionsfrom the Prophetor from is originally reportedby one, two or more anotherCompanionbut which has later becomewell-known andtransmittedby an indefinite number of peoplemaslaiizh : benefitma lapah mursalah : considerationof public interestmaytata : unlawful meatmindräh : minaretmigyds : scalesmuallafa' al-qulüb : conciliation of heartsmubäh : permissible

Glossary 300muýUrabah: This means a contract of co-partnership, in which one of the parties (theproprietor) is entitled to a profit on account of the capital (ra's al mdl) he has invested.He is designated asthe owner of the capital (rabb al mät). The other party is entitled toprofit on account of his labour and is designated as the muddrib (or the manager) in asmuch as he derives a benefit from his own labour and endeavours.mujti : the authority of givingfatwä'-rulingmujtahid: competentjuristmukallaf : subjectsmukha4iýwsp: articularizedagentmukhascis: particularising agentmunkar : evilmansükh : abrogatedmu `dmalät : contractsmufti : judgemugallid : the close and faithful followers of established rules, followermuqayyad : dependent, limitedmursal : discontinuedmurshid : guide,conductormusägah : This is a contractbetweentwo partieswherebyone party takeschargeof thefruit tree of the other partneron condition that the crops shall be divided betweenthem onspecific terms;sharetenancy.mushtarika : sharedmustagil : independent,mut `ah : maintenancemutaraddiyah : deadby headlongfallmutawatir: literally meanscontinuously recurrent.In the presentcontext, it meansareport by an indefinite numberof peoplerelatedin sucha way asto precludethepossibility of their agreemento perpetuatea lie.mußaq : absolutemuzara`ah:This is a contractbetweentwo personswhereby one party is the landlord andthe other the cultivator. They both agreethat whateveris producedby cultivation of theland shall be divided betweenthem in specifiedproportions; an agreementof cropsharingnabr\"dh: fermenteddatesnäfilah : supererogatorynagli : Transmittednags : deficiencynasab : lineageandstocknaskh : abrogationnag., textnasari : theoreticalnikäh : marriagegä'idahfiqhiyyah : jurisprudenceruleqadhf : slander,accusationgaff :judgeqal `ah : fort

Glossary 301galbi : which takesplacein theheartgat`i: definitivegatl : murdergawä'id pl. of gä'idah : principles.gawä'id al-kullyyah : general principlesal-gawäi'd al-fiqhiyyah: generalprinciples of jurisprudenceqawl\" : sayinggawli : relating to speech,verbalqawl al-,2zA bi : The sayings of a Companion of the Prophetgiyäs: analogyqi9 s: retaliational-gics : the law of equality in punishmentq yds al-adnä : analogy of the inferiorgiyäs al-awlä: analogy of the superiorgyas jail : obvious analogyq yäs khafi : latent, hidden, implicit analogyq yas al-musawat : analogy of equalsgyds zdhirjalry : apparentclear analogyrajih : preferencere al-haraj : avoidanceof hardshipra'y : opinionra'y bddl : invalid; null, and voidra'y mashkük : doubtful, uncertainra'y sahib : valid, authenticriwayah : transmitted iiadithruj/, zrn: preference, preferabilityrukhac : concessionsrukn : condition, essentialrequirementru'yah : to perceiveanobject which is seensabab : causesadd : blockingsadd al-dharä'i `: blocking the meanssz bi : plural of ca/abah: a Companionsalam : contractof purchaseof goodswith pre-payment,forward sale,prepaid salesaläm : conclusionof prayersalät: prayersanad : basis,proof, authority.shahädätal-zur : false testimonyshähid : witnessshahwah : passionShär `: Lawgivershar` man gablanä : revealedlaws precedingto the shari `ah of IslamShari `ah : Islamic lawshart(pl. of shurüfj: conditionshufah pre-emptionshürah : consultation

Glossary 302sudan : uncontrolled,without purpose,a stateof lawlessnessto `abbudi : worshiptadbir : precautionta'diyah : referring a ruling to another casetafsir: interpretationtalzriniyydt : embellishmenttahrif : distortiontahrim: prohibitiontakhg,,;: specifying the general, particularization of the generaltakh 4;al- `illah : specifying the causetalab or igti cur': requesttaläq bä'in : divorce to be absolutetaläq raj `i : revocabletalazzuz : deriving pleasuretark : departureta,carrufät : transactionstashahhud: To saywhile sitting: \"There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is Allah'sApostle.\"tawdtur : continuoustestimonytawbah : repentancetayammum: to washwith clean sandor earthwherewater is unavailableal- `udül : the departure `ulamä' : scholars `ulül amr : thosein authority amongstMuslims `umumal-balwä : generalcalamityUmmah: the whole Muslim community `urf `: customal-`urf al-'ämm : generalcustomal-`urf al-khäs\" : specialcustomucl : plural of a,i; root, origin, sourceusüli : juristic scholarsusül al-figh: the principle of Islamic jurisprudencewahmi : imaginarywavy : divine revelationwd tb : obligatorywaqf: charitable endowment wasä'il : meanswarf (pl. of awsaf) : attribute, quality, adjective. wujüb: necessity,obligation, renderingsomethingobligatory.yanqadihu : embeddedzakah : alms inn : speculation,doubt,conjecture. zanni: speculative,doubtful. zanni ghalib : mostly probable mhir : manifest,apparent. zinä' : illegal sexualintercourse,fornication, adultery.

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