Psychological Well-Being by Ingrid E., Ed. Wells (z-lib.org)

238 Kenneth R. Olson and Brad Chapin RESULTS Relations Between Needs and Motives Pearson correlations were calculated between needs and motives. Because a relatively large number of comparisons were made (48), some significant correlations might have occurred by chance. Therefore, only correlations significant at least at the .01 level are considered. For the most part, motives and needs showed little relationship to each other, which suggests they are measuring different constructs. Only six of the 16 motives were related to any of the three needs. Only one motive, family, was related to all three needs: autonomy (r = .28), competence (r = .26), and relatedness (r = .44). Thus, people who desire to raise and nurture their family tend to report satisfaction of their basic psychological needs. The independence motive was negatively related to the relatedness need (r = -.30), while the status and social contact motives were positively correlated with relatedness (r = .25, .51, respectively). Thus, respondents who reported high satisfaction of their need for relatedness had strong desires for status and social contact, and a weak desire for independence from others. The acceptance motive was negatively related to the autonomy need (r = -.26). People who have satisfied their need for autonomy appear to have a low desire for acceptance by others. Also, the competence need was positively associated with the physical activity motive (r = .25) and negatively associated with the vengeance motive (r = -.30). Thus, people who have a strong desire for physical activity, and a weak desire for vengeance in their relations with others, tend to have satisfied their need for competence. Well-Being Hedonic well-being was measured by the Positive Affect Scale of the PANAS, and eudaimonic well-being was measured by the PIL scale. All three needs were significantly correlated with both measures of well-being, and they were negatively correlated with negative affect (table 2). Thus, individuals who have satisfied their basic psychological needs report greater well-being and lower negative affect. These findings support the value of need satisfaction for psychological adjustment. Table 2. Pearson Correlations Needs PIL PA NA -.46** Autonomy .54** .35** -.47** -.23** Competence .63** .46** Relatedness .46** .37** * p<.05; ** p<.01 PIL = Purpose in Life Scale; PA = Positive Affect; NA=Negative Affect

Relations of Fundamental Motives and Psychological Needs… 239 Nine of the 16 motives were significantly correlated with one or both of the well-being measures. The motives of curiosity, honor, social contact, family, status, and physical activity were positively correlated, and acceptance was negatively correlated, with positive affect. The motives of idealism, honor, social contact, family, and physical activity were positively correlated, and acceptance and vengeance were negatively correlated, with meaning in life (table 3). Table 3. Pearson Correlations of Motives Motives PIL PA NA IM EM Power .04 .19 .14 .20* .19* Independence -.10 -.03 .07 .21* -.09 Curiosity .07 .26** -.05 .54** -.06 Acceptance -.29** -.16 .46** -.21* .48** Order .05 .15 .13 -.16 .23* Saving -.14 .15 .26** -.09 .30** Honor .33** .20* -.13 .19 .04 Idealism .28** .16 .02 .24** -.05 Social Contact .25** .26** -.03 .06 .01 Family .33** .26** -.01 .06 .19 Status -.02 .22* .18 -.11 .42** Vengeance -.32** -.11 .34** -.14 .18 Romance -.03 .14 .04 .11 -.05 Eating -.10 -.08 .08 -.16 .35** Physical Activity .23** .44** -.18 .26** .05 Tranquility -.13 -.14 .32** -.25** .13 * p<.05 ** p<.01 PIL = Purpose is Life Scale; PA = Positive Affect; NA = Negative Affect; IM = Intrinsic Motivation; EM = Extrinsic Motivation Three of the five motives that were positively associated with meaning in life—honor, idealism, and family—are considered the ―higher motives‖ that are related to self- actualization and realization of human potential in Maslow‘s (1954) theory of motivation (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). These three motives are also correlated with the personality traits of conscientiousness and agreeableness (Olson & Weber, 2004). These traits define a style of character called ―Effective Altruists‖ who work diligently in service to others (Costa & McCrae, 1998). The motives related to this style of character, in addition to motives for social contact and physical activity, may contribute to a sense of meaning in life. The motives of honor, social contact, family, and physical activity were positively associated with both measures of well-being that reflect happiness and meaning in life. With regard to the direction of causality, the correlational nature of the data does not allow us to determine if these motives create a sense of well-being, or if well-being creates stronger desires for honor, social contact, family, and physical activity. Experimental research designs are needed to address this question. The motives for acceptance and vengeance were negatively related to purpose in life and were positively related to negative affect. Thus, these motives were associated with both

240 Kenneth R. Olson and Brad Chapin emotional distress and low meaning in life. Acceptance was also negatively related to positive affect. These correlations suggest that strong desires for acceptance and vengeance are related to psychological ill-being, rather than to well-being. Other research has found high scores on acceptance and vengeance are associated with relationship problems (Reiss, 2000). A strong desire for acceptance is related to insecurity, negative self-esteem, and ―needy‖ behavior. The desire for vengeance can lead to interpersonal conflict and is inversely related to relationship satisfaction (Engel, Olson, & Patrick, 2005). These two motives appear to have a pernicious relation to psychological adjustment. Along with acceptance and vengeance, the motives of tranquility and saving were significantly related to negative affect. These four motives are also correlated with the personality trait of neuroticism, the tendency to readily experience distressing emotions (Olson & Weber, 2004). Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation Contrary to expectations, none of the three basic needs were associated with intrinsic motivation, nor were they related to extrinsic motivation. The motives of curiosity, idealism, power, and physical activity were positively associated, and acceptance and tranquility were negatively associated, with intrinsic motivation. Acceptance, status, order, power, eating, and saving were associated with extrinsic motivation. The power motive was associated with both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, suggesting that the desire for power is motivated from internal and external sources. Five of the six motives that were correlated with extrinsic motivation are also significantly related to the personality trait of neuroticism (Olson & Weber, 2004). Thus, most of the desires that are motivated extrinsically are associated with the tendency to experience emotional distress. CONCLUSION In the present study, all three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with both positive affect and meaning in life. This finding supports the conclusion that these needs are related to well-being; in fact, SDT asserts that these needs are essential for well-being. The fundamental motives of curiosity, honor, social contact, idealism, family, physical activity, and status were also positively related to one or both measures of well-being. The motives of acceptance and vengeance were negatively related to well-being. The scales used in the present study are the most widely used measures of the basic needs in SDT, and of the fundamental motives in sensitivity theory. It is important to note that these scales measured different aspects of their respective constructs. The Basic Psychological Needs Scale measured the degree to which the needs are satisfied, and the Reiss Profile measured strength of the motives. Thus, needs and motives per se were not measured; more precisely, need satisfaction and motive strength were measured. This may account in part for the minimal statistical relations between needs and motives found in the present study.

Relations of Fundamental Motives and Psychological Needs… 241 The present data indicates that satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the strength of several fundamental motives are related to well-being. More of the motives may have been related to well-being if they had been measured in the same way needs were measured. It seems logical that satisfaction of fundamental motives, more than merely the strength of motives, would be related to well-being. That is, greater well-being should result if one is able to fulfill one‘s primary desires. Therefore, measures of satisfaction of the 16 fundamental motives derived by Reiss should be developed in order to more fully assess relations between fundamental motive satisfaction and well-being. Because motives show individual differences, Reiss (2004) argues that assessment of basic motives should be individualized. Individuals vary in the motives that are important to them. Satisfaction of motives that are of greatest importance to a person should be most strongly related to well-being. Therefore, a measure of motive satisfaction, in addition to a measure of motive strength (importance), would provide an individualized and more comprehensive assessment of individual motives and their relation to well-being. None of the needs were related to intrinsic motivation. This finding does not support the claim of SDT that satisfaction of basic psychological needs is strongly related to the development of intrinsic motivation. The data appear to support Reiss‘s (2004) criticism of the idea of classifying end goals into a unitary, global category of intrinsic motivation. With regard to fundamental motives, it was found that stronger desires for independence, curiosity, idealism, power, and physical activity were associated with greater intrinsic motivation. This finding supports Reiss‘s (2004; Reiss & Havercamp, 1998) contention that these motives reflect end purposes that are intrinsically satisfying. As noted previously, the motive scale measured motive strength, not satisfaction or fulfillment of the motives. More of the motives might show significant relations with intrinsic motivation if a measure of motive satisfaction was used. Development of a measure of motive satisfaction, and a measure of strength of the psychological needs, would allow direct comparisons of the constructs of basic needs and fundamental motives. Need strength and need satisfaction could be compared with motive strength and motive satisfaction, respectively. Along with previous research, the data reported here suggest that basic needs and fundamental motives are important motivational variables that are both related to psychological adjustment. Additional research is needed to elaborate the differences between these constructs and their relative contributions to well-being. REFERENCES Amabile, T.M., Hill, K.G., Hennessey, B.A. & Tighe, E.M. (1994). The work preference inventory: Assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 950-967. Costa, P.T., Jr., & McCrae, R. (1998). Manual supplement for the NEO 4. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Crumbaugh, J.C., & Maholick, L.T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl‘s concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 200-207. Deci, E.L., (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.

242 Kenneth R. Olson and Brad Chapin Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The ―what‖ and ―why‖ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. Engel, G., Olson, K.R., & Patrick C. (2002). The personality of love: Fundamental motives and traits related to components of love. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 839-853. Epstein, S. (1990). Cognitive-experiential self-theory. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 165-192). New York: Guilford Press. Havercamp, S.M. & Reiss, S. (2003). A comprehensive assessment of human strivings: Test- retest reliability and validity of the Reiss Profile. Journal of Personality Assessment, 8, 123-132. Kowal, J., & Fortier, M.S., (1999). Motivational determinants of flow: Contributions from self-determination theory. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139, 355-368. La Guardia, J.G., Ryan, R.M., Couchman, C.E., & Deci, E.L., (2000). Within-person variation in security of attachment: A self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, 367-384. Leak, G.K. & Cooney, R.R., (2001). Self-determination, attachment styles, and well-being in adult romantic relationships. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 25, 55-62. Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Brothers. McClelland, D.C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. McGregor, I., & Little, B.R. (1998). Personal projects, happiness, and meaning: On doing well and being yourself. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 494-512. Nix, G.A., Ryan, R.M., Manly, J.B., & Deci, E.L., (1999). Revitalization through self- regulation: The effects of autonomous and controlled motivation on happiness and vitality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 266-284. Olson, K. R., & Weber, D. A. (2004). Relations between Big Five traits and fundamental motives. Psychological Reports, 95, 795-802. Reis, H.T., Sheldon, K.M., Gable, S.L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R.M., (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419-435. Reiss, S. (2000). Who am I? New York: Penguin Putnam Inc. Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8, 179-193. Reiss, S. (2005). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at 30: Unresolved scientific issues. The Behavior Analyst, 28, 1-14. Reiss, S., & Havercamp, S. (1996). The sensitivity theory of motivation: Implications for psychopathology. Behavior Research and Therapy, 34, 621-632. Reiss, S., & Havercamp, S.M. (1998). Toward a comprehensive assessment of fundamental motivation: Factor structure of the Reiss Profiles. Psychological Assessment, 10, 97-106. Reiss, S., & Havercamp, S. M. (2005). Motivation in developmental context: A new method for studying self-actualization. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 45, 41-53. Russell, B. (1945). A history of Western philosophy. New York: Simon & Shuster. Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.

Relations of Fundamental Motives and Psychological Needs… 243 Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166. Ryan, R. M., & Deci., E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self- determination research, (pp. 5-30). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. Ryan, R.M., Kuhl, J., & Deci, E.L. (1997). Nature and autonomy: Organizational view of social and neurobiological aspects of self-regulation in behavior and development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 701-728. Ryan, R.M., & LaGuardia, J.G. (2000). What is being optimized over development? A self- determination theory perspective on basic psychological needs across the lifespan. In S. Qualls & R. Abeles (Eds), Dialogues on psychology and aging (pp. 145-172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50, 19-45. Sheldon, K.M., & Bettencourt, B.A., (2002). Psychological need-satisfaction and subjective well-being within social groups. British Journal o Social Psychology, 41, 25-38. Sheldon, K.M., & Elliot, A.J., (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well- being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, 482-497. Sheldon, K.M., Elliot, A.J., Kim, Y., & Kasser, T. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 325-339. Sheldon, K.M., Ryan, R., & Reis, H.T., (1996). What makes for a good day? Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1270-1279. Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.



INDEX A aging, 43, 107, 109, 112, 130, 182, 243 aging process, 43 abnormalities, 33, 218 agreeableness, iii, 102, 103, 185, 189, 190, 191, 193, 195, academic, 48, 49, 69, 143, 154, 181 ACC, 209 239 accommodation, 92 agriculture, 137 accuracy, 63, 169 aid, 18 achievement, 81, 91, 154, 175, 234 AIDS, 67, 104 acoustic, 176 air, 16, 17, 27 action research, 168 airways, 5 activation, 7, 26, 27, 28, 40, 45, 46, 54, 59, 68, 70, 96, 120 alcohol, 26, 45, 101, 138, 201 acute, 7, 20, 32, 33, 59, 67, 68, 88, 95 alcohol consumption, 101 adaptation, 26, 27, 28, 29, 68, 96, 99, 108, 109, 116 alcohol problems, 138 adaptive functioning, 159 alcohol use, 138 addiction, 20, 45 alertness, 19, 21 adjustment, v, 103, 108, 154, 165, 182, 187, 231, 238, algorithm, 162 alienation, 150, 232 240, 241 allocated time, 122 administration, 66, 103, 162 alpha, 71, 86, 87, 122, 168, 224, 227, 229 administrative, 119, 142 alternative, 47, 122, 167, 181 adolescence, 88, 89, 105, 131, 134, 152, 153, 182, 197 ambiguity, 84 adult, 35, 46, 82, 86, 107, 173, 187, 195, 196, 197, 224, amenorrhea, 129, 130 American Psychiatric Association, 172, 180 242 American Psychological Association, 112, 196, 197, 243 adult population, 35 anaesthesia, 46 adulthood, 63, 79, 99, 107, 112, 173 analgesia, 61, 70 adverse event, 50 analgesic, 66 advertising, 8, 27 analogical thinking, 24 affective dimension, 80 anatomy, 63 affective disorder, 20 anemia, 96 affective experience, 133 anger, 13, 20, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 49, 50, 57, 62, 65, 67, affective states, 69, 95, 98, 101, 118 African American, 108 70, 96, 177 African American women, 108 angina, 33 afternoon, 57 animals, 28, 60, 97 age, 17, 31, 32, 34, 43, 44, 65, 66, 72, 73, 88, 89, 90, 91, ankylosing spondylitis, 6 anomalous, 166, 167 92, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 111, 112, 117, 119, 122, ANOVA, 119, 124 144, 152, 176, 177, 188, 191, 195, 201, 204, 205, 208, antagonistic, 103 236 anthropological, 215, 219 aggression, 188 antidepressant, 129, 134 aggressive behavior, 143, 149

246 Index antidepressant medication, 129 B-cell, 39 antigen, 132 beating, 23 antipyretic, 16, 17 Beck Depression Inventory, 224 anxiety, ii, 18, 20, 21, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 46, behavior, 3, 5, 6, 7, 32, 41, 42, 53, 54, 59, 70, 73, 80, 82, 50, 51, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 70, 73, 86, 91, 92, 96, 101, 84, 91, 95, 107, 143, 144, 149, 168, 172, 218, 232, 234, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 235, 240, 242, 243 131, 167, 172, 232 behavioral aspects, 3 anxiety disorder, 20 behavioral problems, 137, 138, 143, 147, 148, 154 anxious/depressed, 143 beliefs, 82, 83, 87, 150, 155, 178, 216 appetite, 172 belongingness, 159 application, 64, 119, 132, 168, 172 beneficial effect, 5, 6, 18, 29, 43, 58, 94, 104, 159 appraisals, 50, 65 benefits, i, 2, 6, 12, 21, 43, 45, 47, 50, 52, 58, 73, 92, 109, argument, 106 110, 128, 138, 158, 172, 210 ARIC, 74 benevolence, 188 arousal, 6, 33, 37, 40, 48, 63, 68, 71, 118, 128, 132 benign, 67, 149 arrhythmia, 62 bereavement, 65 artery, 58, 62, 65, 72, 74 bias, 67, 209 arthritis, 96 bible, 2 ASI, 121 Big Five personality factors, 102 asia, 113 Big Five traits, 190, 193, 194, 242 assessment, iv, 82, 93, 110, 130, 133, 161, 167, 186, 187, Big Three, 234 206, 213, 241, 242 binding, 62 assumptions, 162, 216 biofeedback, 38 asthma, 5, 7, 66, 71, 104, 105 biological markers, 96, 98 asymmetry, 69 biological parents, 145 asymptomatic, 25 biological systems, 96, 106 atherosclerosis, 31, 63, 66, 67, 70, 74 birth, 139, 140, 141 athletes, iii, 64, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, blood, 5, 6, 7, 15, 26, 31, 32, 33, 39, 40, 43, 59, 66, 67, 168, 169, 170 95, 97, 98, 117, 129, 130 atmosphere, 41 blood flow, 32 attachment, 108, 116, 137, 154, 173, 242 blood glucose, 97 attacks, 33, 44, 60, 139 blood pressure, 5, 6, 8, 15, 33, 43, 59, 66, 67, 97, 130 attitudes, 56, 67, 84, 87, 173, 210, 216 blood vessels, 31 attribution, 180 body image, 117, 118, 143 autism, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183 body mass index, 101 autistic spectrum disorders, 172 body temperature, 17, 18 autoimmune, 40 body weight, 95 autoimmune diseases, 40 bomb, 46 automatic processes, 55, 56 bonding, 145, 146, 147, 148 autonomic nervous system, 28, 64, 66 bonds, 98, 165 availability, 43, 87, 101, 104 borderline, 20 averaging, 161 boundary conditions, 41 avoidance, 108 boys, 147, 153 awareness, 48, 97, 117, 158 brain, 3, 20, 23, 25, 26, 28, 36, 37, 42, 45, 51, 54, 57, 61, 68, 71, 131 B brain activity, 57, 61 brain structure, 45, 54 back pain, 68 breaches, 217 background information, 204 breast cancer, 117, 132, 133 barriers, 56 breathing, 5, 44, 47, 67 basic needs, 78, 162, 232, 235, 240, 241 buffer, 98, 119, 128, 129, 175 basic trust, 78 bullying, 182 battery, 99 burning, 16

Index 247 burnout, 16, 63, 74, 159, 160, 166, 168, 169 cognitive process, iii, 171, 174, 176, 178 bypass, 32, 58 cognitive profile, 181 coherence, iv, 116, 189, 191, 215 C cohesion, 93, 95, 128, 138 cohesiveness, 41 calcification, 66 cohort, 101, 134 cancer, 10, 11, 44, 98, 99, 100, 104, 108, 110, 117 colds, 41 cardiac risk, 62 collectivism, 93, 221 cardiovascular disease, 7, 21, 30, 31, 32, 33, 43, 64, 67, college students, 174 colleges, 200, 204 98 communication, ii, 26, 63, 73, 95, 104, 115, 116, 121, cardiovascular function, 73 cardiovascular risk, 63, 97 123, 124, 127, 128, 174, 177, 183, 210 cardiovascular system, 32 community, 8, 16, 17, 92, 100, 108, 130, 136, 153, 188, case study, 55, 176 cataracts, 96 196, 214, 225 causality, 201, 207, 235, 239 community psychology, 153 causation, 168 comorbidity, 85, 210 cell, 40, 206 competence, iii, v, 47, 83, 94, 101, 111, 143, 146, 147, central nervous system, 97 cerebral cortex, 23, 55, 59, 64 148, 150, 151, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, cerebral strokes, 31 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 173, 179, 181, 231, 232, channels, 55 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 240, 242 child development, 152 competition, 4, 158, 159 child rearing, 218 competitive sport, 159, 160, 161, 167, 169 childhood, 59, 66, 105, 154, 182 complement, 38, 80, 106 children, 46, 73, 90, 100, 136, 137, 151, 152, 154, 155, complexity, 110 compliance, 26, 87, 129 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, components, 39, 41, 54, 63, 65, 74, 78, 87, 105, 179, 186, 183, 195, 197, 203, 234, 236 236, 242 cholesterol, 95, 96 composition, 28, 56, 145, 147, 151 christians, 217 comprehension, 172, 175, 176, 181 chronic disease, 7, 37, 43, 95 concentration, 40 chronic fatigue syndrome, 34 concordance, 243 chronic illness, 89, 96, 101, 103, 105 concrete, 176, 178 chronic pain, 36, 37, 38, 75, 210 conditioned response, 53 chronic stress, 30, 31, 32, 34, 43, 67, 112 conditioning, 53, 56 citizens, ii, 86, 105, 135, 140, 141, 145, 150, 152, 188 conduct disorder, 173, 181 civil rights, ii, 135, 139, 149, 150 conduction, 11 civil servant, 210 confidence, 20, 206, 207 classes, 142 confidence interval, 207 classical, 38, 54, 198 confirmatory factor analysis, 169 classification, 80, 132, 183 conflict, 58, 78, 90, 175 classrooms, 191 conformity, 97, 162, 188 clinical depression, 117 confusion, i, 1, 2 clinical psychology, 78, 135 congress, iv, 71, 130 close relationships, 82, 214, 219 congruence, 108 coaches, 159 connectivity, 63 coagulation, 26, 65, 70 conscientiousness, iii, 103, 185, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, coagulation factor, 65 239 codes, 195 consciousness, 71 coffee, 50, 57 consensus, 61, 128, 129, 215, 217 cognition, 54, 58, 59, 133, 182, 215 consent, 142, 162 cognitive activity, 67 conservation, 140, 149, 153 cognitive development, 137 constipation, 24, 25, 33 construct validity, 113, 161, 209

248 Index construction, 119 curriculum, 182 consultants, 47 customers, 200 consumers, 200 cynicism, 50 consumption, 6, 45, 101 cytokines, 41, 61, 97, 98 contractions, 217 control, i, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 35, 42, 48, 55, 56, 57, 68, D 74, 77, 83, 94, 95, 96, 98, 100, 132, 133, 139, 144, 147, daily living, 51, 96, 214 148, 152, 153, 159, 179, 194, 195, 235 dairy, 129 control condition, 17, 18 danger, 13, 36 control group, 15, 16, 19, 20, 35, 57, 96, 100, 179 data collection, 162, 168 controlled studies, 179 database, 201 convergence, 186 death, 28, 43, 117, 134 coping, 65, 126, 209 decisions, 82, 104, 144 coping strategies, 14, 16, 18, 32, 34, 37, 44, 52, 100, 118, decoding, 63 121, 123, 124 deep brain stimulation, 68 coronary artery disease, 58, 62, 65, 72, 74 deficits, iii, 74, 171, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, coronary heart disease, 59, 62, 65, 68, 72, 74 correlation, 21, 22, 30, 86, 92, 102, 116, 137, 146, 163, 182, 183 164, 189, 194, 198 definition, iv, 5, 45, 80, 83, 94, 186, 213, 214, 215, 217, correlation analysis, 146, 194, 198 correlation coefficient, 146, 164, 194 218, 219, 224 corruption, 139, 140, 149, 150 delinquent adolescents, 154 cortex, 67 delinquent behavior, 143 corticotropin, 62 delivery, 162 cortisol, 64, 69, 95, 97, 167 democracy, 137, 139, 154 cost-effective, 72 democratization, 152 costs, 9, 30, 96 demographic characteristics, 141, 145, 146, 149 cough, 5, 35 demographic factors, 101 counseling, 20 demographics, 202, 203, 210 couples, 116, 121, 129, 132 dependent variable, 119, 123, 124, 127, 146, 148, 192 CPI, 140 depressed, 12, 13, 14, 15, 26, 29, 30, 32, 36, 39, 41, 42, crack, 12, 27, 50 CRC, 64, 68 50, 65, 100, 117, 138, 224 creativity, 176 depressive disorder, 20, 70, 129 crime, 126, 139, 140, 150, 175 depressive symptoms, 19, 59, 120 criticism, 85, 241 deprivation, 233 cross-country, 137 desire, 232, 235, 238, 240 cross-cultural, 135, 137, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 229 destruction, 39 cross-cultural differences, 151 developed countries, 138, 140, 149, 151 cross-cultural psychology, 135 developmental disorder, 172 cross-sectional, iii, 152, 153, 157, 167, 195, 200, 201 developmental psychology, 78, 132 cross-sectional study, 153, 200, 201 developmental psychopathology, 152 CT scan, 33 developmental theories, 83, 186 cues, 177 deviation, 149, 162, 218 cultural differences, 5, 105, 151, 154 dextrose, 36 cultural factors, iv, 213, 214 diabetes, 96, 100, 105, 108 cultural norms, 150, 151, 217 diagnostic criteria, iv, 33, 172, 213 cultural practices, iv, 213, 219 diarrhea, 33 culture, iv, 29, 87, 88, 89, 128, 154, 196, 197, 213, 214, diastolic blood pressure, 117 216, 217, 218, 219, 232 diet, 30 curing, 104 disability, iii, 30, 58, 72, 157, 160, 201, 205, 206, 207, curiosity, 64, 235, 239, 240, 241 currency, 137 208, 210 disabled, 25, 205, 206, 207 disaster, 37 discipline, iv, 189, 213, 215, 220

Index 249 disclosure, 173 ejaculation, 117, 131 discomfort, 59, 75 elderly, 58, 65, 73, 88, 90, 92, 93, 98, 101, 104, 105, 107, disease model, 67 disease progression, 97 109, 110, 113 diseases, 6, 8, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 40, 41, 44, 100 elderly population, 93, 104 disorder, 30, 35, 36, 61, 179, 183 elders, 16 dispersion, 195 electrodes, 45 disposition, i, 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 29, 30, 31, electromyographic responses, 63 electromyography, 61 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 134 emergency response, 28 disputes, 3 emotion, 2, 3, 54, 63, 64, 66, 69, 71, 73, 107, 119, 173, dissatisfaction, 96, 100, 117 disseminate, 95 177, 182 dissociation, 65 emotional abuse, 59 distillation, 186 emotional distress, 117, 240 distraction, 37, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 68 emotional experience, 61, 72, 73 distress, 74, 94, 98, 99, 100, 104, 116, 136, 143, 152, 154, emotional health, 68 emotional intelligence, 103, 111 177, 180, 218 emotional processes, 47 distribution, 10, 91, 137, 204 emotional reactions, 61, 96 divergence, iv, 161, 164, 213 emotional stability, 41, 102, 214 diversity, 196, 214 emotional state, 12, 13, 20, 54, 66, 103, 110 divorce, ii, 115, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128 emotional well-being, 14, 15, 19, 20, 31, 43, 52, 53, 57, dizziness, 35, 218 doctors, 30, 47, 63, 73, 104 61, 62, 69, 101, 111, 116, 215, 233 dogmas, iv, 213 emotionality, 65, 102 domestic tasks, 90 empathy, 82, 103, 177, 178 domestic violence, 138 employees, ii, 16, 115, 122, 137 dopamine, 45, 70 employers, 137 drinking, 8, 17, 50 employment, 20, 89, 91 drug addict, 138 encouragement, 144 drug use, 153 enculturation, 82 drugs, 20, 26, 45 endocrine, 100 DSM, 132, 172, 180 energy, 13, 34, 47, 85, 118, 121, 124, 125, 126, 128, 132 DSM-IV, 132, 172, 180 engagement, 158, 167, 173, 188, 224 duration, 36, 132 enlargement, 118 dysphoria, 188 entertainment, 46 dysregulation, 60 enthusiasm, 179, 208 environment, 14, 16, 56, 83, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, E 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 136, 151, 154, 159, 182, 232 Eastern Europe, 137, 152, 153 environmental characteristics, 80, 93 eating, 30, 32, 240 environmental conditions, 92 ecological, 140, 149, 151, 179 environmental resources, 91 ecological systems, 140, 149, 151 epidemiology, 95, 197, 219 economic change, ii, 135, 139, 146, 147 epinephrine, 97 economic development, 87, 94, 137, 150 equality, 137 economic growth, ii, 135 equilibrium, 159, 166, 167 economic resources, 74 equity, 105 ecosystem, 136 ERA, 209 education, 157, 171, 185, 200, 204, 209, 210 estimating, 132 educational attainment, 139 ethics, 162, 186, 198, 201 educational system, 218 ethnic groups, 217 EEG, 69 eudaimonism, 186 ego, 78, 79, 81 euphoria, 45 Eurasia, 153 Europe, 71, 152, 153, 218

250 Index European Union, 209 fibrinogen, 95 evening, 8, 44, 47 fibromyalgia, 34, 37, 62, 72, 96 evolution, ii, 78, 180, 188 film, 12, 37, 38, 39, 46, 74 examinations, 24 fitness, 130 excitability, 5 flare, 25 excrements, 24 flexibility, 18, 62, 71 excuse, 51 flow, 32, 169, 232, 235, 242 exercise, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 65, 71, 98, 122, 169, 170, fluctuations, 12, 233 fMRI, 67 201, 234 focusing, 68, 80, 105 existentialism, 241 food, 78, 138, 234 expertise, 8 fortitude, 79, 82 exposure, 7, 59, 61, 133 fractures, 6 external validity, 167 freedom, 79, 93, 139, 140, 154, 218, 232, 235 externalizing, 146, 149 Freudian theory, 78 externalizing problems, 149 friendship, 92, 95, 169 extraversion, iii, 185, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195 frontal cortex, 59 extrinsic motivation, v, 231, 236, 237, 240, 241 fulfillment, i, iii, 77, 79, 80, 157, 158, 160, 163, 165, 166, extroversion, 97, 102, 103, 107 extrovert, 80, 102, 103 167, 168, 169, 186, 187, 214, 232, 233, 235, 241, 242 eyes, 18, 187, 188, 191, 195 functional aspects, 194 funds, 168 F G facial expression, 41, 42, 53, 54, 59, 61, 63, 64, 106, 177 facial muscles, 3 GABA, 64 facilitators, 48 games, 176 factor analysis, 169 gastrointestinal, 23, 24, 33, 35, 61, 66, 67, 68, 71 factorial, 132 gastrointestinal tract, 68 failure, 91, 173, 217 GDP, 137, 139, 140, 150 fairness, 110 GDP per capita, 139, 140 family, iv, 26, 41, 43, 46, 57, 87, 89, 90, 93, 95, 98, 105, gender, ii, iii, iv, 66, 68, 74, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 115, 116, 106, 109, 121, 128, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 144, 145, 119, 122, 123, 124, 128, 130, 132, 145, 147, 152, 159, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 154, 173, 195, 201, 217, 238, 176, 185, 190, 191, 193, 195, 199, 204, 205, 206, 207, 239, 240 210, 220, 229 family environment, 90, 95, 154 gender differences, 74, 89, 116, 128, 190, 191, 195, 210 family functioning, 173 gender effects, 119 family members, 46, 217 gene, 61 family relationships, 105 gene expression, 61 family support, 93 General Health Questionnaire, 201 fatigue, 34, 59, 85, 96, 129 generalizability, 179 fear, 24, 51, 58, 68, 71, 73, 102 generalized anxiety disorder, 73 feedback, 72 generation, 63, 142, 216 feeding, 96 generativity, 78, 82, 188 feelings, 3, 13, 23, 27, 29, 34, 36, 37, 38, 42, 45, 47, 49, gestures, 41, 53, 174, 177 50, 54, 56, 57, 79, 82, 91, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, GFI, 87 103, 104, 116, 120, 143, 160, 161, 162, 165, 167, 173, GHQ, 201, 207 174, 175, 178, 187, 216, 218 gift, 182 females, iv, 130, 188, 199, 207 gifted, 175 feminist, 132 girls, 147, 169 fertilization, 118, 130 glass, 16 fetal, 132, 133 glucose, 97 fever, 16, 17 glycosylated, 95 fibers, 5 glycosylated hemoglobin, 95

Index 251 goals, 60, 80, 81, 83, 87, 91, 101, 102, 104, 219, 233, 234, hedonic, i, v, 77, 80, 95, 96, 97, 98, 107, 112, 113, 186, 241 187, 189, 194, 196, 197, 198, 216, 231, 236, 237, 243 goodness of fit, 87 hedonism, 235 government, iv, 200 height, 17, 43 grades, 141, 143 helplessness, 218 grading, 121 hemispheric asymmetry, 59 gravity, 5 hemoglobin, 95 grief, 20, 49 heroin, 45 group therapy, 48 heterogeneous, 179 groups, 17, 18, 34, 36, 39, 41, 48, 70, 79, 85, 88, 96, 98, hidden curriculum, 182 high school, ii, 15, 119, 135, 137 100, 106, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 136, 139, 148, 170, high scores, 240 173, 176, 195, 201, 204, 207, 208, 217, 233, 243 higher education, ii, 78, 141 growth, ii, iii, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 91, 93, higher quality, 42, 44, 117 135, 139, 140, 174, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, high-frequency, 64 194, 195, 197, 214, 215, 232 hip, 44, 62, 95, 187 growth rate, 139, 140 hip fracture, 44, 62 guidance, 82 hippocampal, 59 guidelines, 210 hippocampus, 134 guilt, 96 hispanic, 93 gut, 24, 25, 26, 71, 74 hispanic population, 93 gymnasts, 169 histogram, 163 HIV, 138 H HIV infection, 138 holistic, 215, 219, 221 habituation, 55 homesickness, 155 hands, 51 homogeneity, 145 hardships, 138 hormones, 6, 8, 23, 28, 97 harm, 32, 48, 51, 175 hospital, 32, 46, 67, 109, 131 harmony, 175 hospital anxiety and depression scale, 131 hazards, 158 hostility, 50, 97 HDL, 95, 96 house, 43, 63 headache, 218 household, 99, 142, 210 headmaster, 206 housing, 91, 92, 121, 138 health care, 30, 43, 73, 107 human, i, 39, 61, 64, 67, 69, 72, 77, 79, 81, 82, 87, 94, health care system, 30 health care workers, 73 104, 105, 110, 111, 112, 134, 137, 139, 158, 168, 170, health effects, 5, 7, 32 174, 175, 186, 187, 188, 197, 214, 215, 218, 232, 234, health insurance, 34, 60 236, 239, 242, 243 health problems, ii, 78, 100 human behavior, 242 health services, 201 human condition, 112 health status, 33 human development, 94, 105, 158 healthcare, 90, 91, 96, 104 Human Development Report, 139 hearing, 96 Human Kinetics, 64, 168, 169, 170 heart, 2, 6, 21, 23, 27, 31, 32, 33, 44, 49, 58, 59, 60, 61, human motivation, 111, 168, 232, 234, 236 human nature, 170, 188 62, 64, 65, 67, 68, 72, 74, 95, 96, 97, 130, 219 human rights, 137, 139 heart attack, 31, 32, 44 human smile, 72 heart disease, 58, 65, 67, 68, 74, 96 human values, 188, 243 heart rate, 6, 60, 64, 74, 95, 97, 130 humidity, 27 Heart rate variability, 72 humorous, iii, 3, 13, 18, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, heartburn, 35 171, 174, 176, 178, 179, 181 heat, 67 hyperalgesia, 64 Hebrew, 135, 155, 226, 229 hypersensitivity, 36

252 Index hypertension, 31, 60, 64, 96 industry, 78, 137 hypochondria, 24 infant mortality, 140, 150 hypothalamic, 67, 129, 130 infant mortality rate, 140 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, 70 infants, 177, 183 hypothesis, 59, 60, 62, 72, 96, 98, 106, 118, 132, 133, infections, 60, 96, 138 infectious, 41, 60 160, 165, 166, 224 infectious disease, 41, 60 hysteria, 24 inferences, 167, 178 infertility, 130 I infinite, 234 inflammation, 24, 26, 40, 41, 64, 70, 98 ICD, 132 inflammatory, 31, 71, 95, 98, 112 idealism, 234, 239, 240, 241 inflammatory disease, 71, 98 identification, 105, 162, 188, 214, 219 inflammatory response, 95 identity, 78, 116, 122, 150 inflation, 137 ideology, 214, 218 influenza, 59 idiographic approach, 108 informed consent, 142, 162 imagery, 128 inhibition, 5, 37, 69, 217 images, 216 inhibitory, 38 imagination, 25, 38, 53 inhibitory effect, 38 imbalances, 29 initial state, 101 immigrants, 154 injury, iv, 36, 159, 170 immigration, 135 insecurity, 56, 96, 240 immune cells, 39, 40 insomnia, 96 immune function, 96, 97 inspection, 163, 165, 200 immune response, 39, 97 instability, ii, 135 immune system, 23, 26, 39, 40, 41, 44, 72, 97, 117, 130 institutions, 188 immunity, 63, 72 instruction, 51, 53 immunocompetence, 74 instructors, 48 immunoglobulin, 39, 40, 71 instruments, iv, 19, 106, 122, 169 immunology, 72 insurance, 34 impairments, 43, 44, 171, 178 insurance companies, 34 impulsivity, 102 integration, iii, 58, 79, 89, 93, 98, 158, 191, 215, 232 in situ, 3, 13, 103 integrity, 78, 81, 122, 232 in vitro, 39, 130 intellectual flexibility, 110 in vitro fertilization, 130 intelligence, 80, 103, 108, 172 incidence, 43, 60, 68, 69, 95, 111 intensity, 234 inclusion, 105, 234 intentionality, 83 income, 87, 91, 92, 110, 136, 137, 139, 189, 216 intentions, 83, 159, 169, 178 income distribution, 137 interaction, 41, 42, 52, 58, 59, 64, 93, 96, 103, 134, 145, incongruity, 61, 150, 174, 176 independence, 68, 79, 89, 95, 111, 166, 232, 238, 241 146, 172, 174, 175, 178, 182, 193 independent variable, 119, 124, 127, 148 interaction effect, 145 indication, 17, 22, 177, 193 interdependence, 216, 218 indicators, 19, 21, 43, 57, 73, 80, 82, 91, 105, 106, 108, interference, 130 interleukin, 61, 69, 95, 98, 109 137, 140, 149, 150, 166, 167, 196, 198, 215, 236 interleukin-6, 61, 69, 95, 98, 109 indices, iii, iv, 95, 155, 157, 160, 216, 223, 228, 232 internal consistency, iv, 86, 122, 162, 163, 164, 237 Indigenous, 220 internalization, 143 individual characteristics, 92 internet, 5, 8, 44 individual differences, 68, 78, 159, 235, 241 interpersonal conflict, 240 individual perception, 163 interpersonal relations, 92, 117, 150, 151, 152, 174, 179, individualism, 93, 137, 218, 220 induction, 56, 71, 118 183, 187 industrial, 189, 216

Index 253 interpersonal relationships, 92, 150, 151, 152, 174, 179, language impairment, 172 183 later life, 68, 109, 111 laterality, 69 interrelations, 24, 91 Latino, 107 interval, 80, 84, 206 laughing, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 27, 42, 45, 46, 49, intervention, 15, 19, 20, 35, 38, 43, 53, 56, 57, 59, 68, 69, 52, 54, 67 111, 154, 180, 181 laughter, i, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 32, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, interview, 19, 99, 129 intimacy, 64, 82, 116, 129 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 54, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, intoxication, 6 71, 73, 177, 183 intrinsic, v, 161, 169, 170, 198, 231, 232, 235, 236, 237, law, 142, 217 leadership, 207 240, 241, 242 learning, 54, 235 intrinsic motivation, v, 161, 169, 170, 198, 231, 232, 235, legislation, 200 leisure, 105, 224, 229, 230 236, 240, 241, 242 lens, 216 inventions, 176 liberal, 138 investment, 136, 151 libido, 129 investment model, 136, 151 LIFE, 237 iron, 37 life changes, 95 irritability, 5, 172 life course, 66 irritable bowel syndrome, 68 life cycle, 109 ischemia, 32 life expectancy, 44, 87, 92, 105, 138, 139, 140, 150 isolation, 44, 92, 171 life experiences, 81, 106 life quality, 106 J life satisfaction, ii, 4, 13, 19, 49, 60, 72, 101, 108, 112, 115, 118, 119, 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 188, JAMA, 132 190, 194, 197, 215, 232 Japanese, 218, 220, 226 life-cycle, 128 job performance, 113 lifespan, 78, 186, 221, 233, 243 job satisfaction, 113, 201, 207, 210 lifestyle, 91, 101 jobs, 16, 137 life-threatening, 28 journalists, 2, 47, 139, 142 lifetime, 44, 88 JSS, 119, 121, 126, 127, 134 likelihood, 14, 21, 23, 25, 32, 34, 41, 54, 159 judge, 43, 47 Likert scale, 143, 161, 236, 237 judgment, 178 limitations, 82, 85, 101, 167, 195, 214 justice, 234 linear, 123, 124, 127 linear regression, 123, 124, 127 K linguistic, 175, 179 links, 73, 95, 116, 189 key indicators, 80 listening, 52 kidney, 33 living conditions, 92 killer cells, 39 location, 201, 225 killing, 206, 217 locus, 159, 235 knees, 5 loneliness, 44, 92, 96, 143, 148, 151, 153, 225 Korean, 233 long work, 209 longevity, 29, 60, 95, 97, 104, 117, 133 L longitudinal study, 100, 155 losses, 214 laboratory studies, 40, 110 LOT, 119, 121, 124, 126 labour, 217 love, 78, 79, 81, 82, 116, 129, 242 lack of control, 83 lung, 6 language, v, 41, 150, 171, 172, 176, 180, 183, 217, 223, lung function, 6 lymph, 40 228 language development, 171, 180

254 Index lymph node, 40 messages, 8, 174, 176 meta-analysis, 68, 72, 89, 98, 101, 107, 108, 111, 172, M 182, 189, 196 mainstream, 218 metabolic, 70, 129 maintenance, 36, 37, 43, 44, 63, 170 metabolic syndrome, 70 major depression, 20, 104, 129, 172 Mexican, 101, 220 major depressive disorder, 70 Mexican Americans, 220 maladaptive, 13 middle-aged, 67, 68, 70, 88, 133 males, 130, 132, 142, 188, 204 midlife, 131, 197 malnutrition, 26 midwives, 217 management, 38, 81, 204, 205, 206, 207 military, 153 marital status, 89, 90, 201 milk, 18, 57 market, 52, 89, 137, 138 mimicry, 63 market economy, 138 mind-body, 67, 72 marketplace, 200 minors, 155 marriage, 79, 218 misconceptions, i, 1, 2 married couples, 132 model specification, 166 married women, 117 models, ii, iii, iv, 97, 107, 108, 136, 152, 157, 158, 160, masking, 217 mastery, ii, 77, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87, 91, 93, 98, 99, 100, 103, 162, 164, 166, 185, 190, 205, 213, 216 moderators, 65 150, 159, 165, 179, 189, 215, 235 modernisation, 217 maternal, 217, 221 modernity, 133 matrix, 163, 164, 219 modulation, 61, 64, 73 maturation, 79, 131 molecules, 39 meanings, 174, 176, 187, 216, 219 mood change, 120 measurement, 22, 39, 57, 59, 61, 71, 112, 121, 133, 143, mood states, 36, 42, 43, 50 mood swings, 41, 48 146, 169, 226, 229 moral code, 234 meat, 36 moral standards, 150 media, i, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 21, 23, 39, 44, 139, 209 morale, 80 mediation, 44 morbidity, 30, 44, 95, 98, 101, 104 mediators, 67, 73, 195 mortality, 33, 58, 59, 62, 64, 66, 67, 94, 97, 98, 101, 107, medical care, 58 medication, 36, 38, 71, 117 109, 112, 116, 117, 130, 133, 139, 140, 150, 217, 221 medicine, i, 1, 2, 5, 24, 25, 34, 64, 65, 67, 68, 72, 103, mortality rate, 139, 140, 217 mortality risk, 58, 59, 66, 116, 117, 133 139, 209 MOS, 111 meditation, 5 mothers, 137, 154 membership, 21 motion, 12, 19, 30 memory, 14, 27, 87 motivation, v, 111, 128, 132, 158, 159, 161, 168, 169, men, ii, 64, 68, 77, 89, 90, 93, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 170, 198, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 138, 242 195 motives, v, 231, 234, 235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242 menopause, 90 motor area, 55 mental arithmetic, 71 motor function, 25 mental disorder, 24, 180 movement, 48 mental health, i, iv, 78, 79, 83, 85, 90, 96, 99, 104, 107, mucus, 5 109, 111, 136, 138, 152, 153, 186, 188, 190, 196, 197, multidimensional, 81, 84, 88, 105, 109, 186, 188 199, 201, 206, 207, 210, 213, 214, 215, 218, 219, 229, multiple regression, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 192, 205, 230 208 mental health professionals, 214 multiple regression analysis, 163, 164, 166, 192, 205, 208 mental illness, 20, 79, 214, 218 multiple sclerosis, 104 mental imagery, 63 muscle, 5, 34 mental state, 83, 173, 178 muscle relaxation, 5

Index 255 muscle weakness, 5 O muscles, 5, 47 musculoskeletal, 58, 62, 95 obedience, 218 musculoskeletal pain, 58, 62 obesity, 100, 113 music, 4, 46, 79 objectification, 79 Muslim, 196, 217 objective criteria, 41 myocardial infarction, 58, 59, 62, 66, 67 observations, iii, 28, 68, 109, 158, 165, 166, 179 myocardial ischemia, 62, 65 obsessive-compulsive, 20 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 20 N occupational, ii, 16, 78, 119, 121, 172, 188, 208, 209, 210 odds ratio, 205, 206 narcissistic, 81 old age, 72, 89, 99, 105, 111, 112 National Academy of Sciences, 71 older adults, 69, 111, 133 natural, 2, 39, 43, 62, 101, 104, 138, 216, 232, 235 older people, 43, 44, 89 natural killer, 39 omnibus, 161, 165, 167 natural killer cell, 39 on-line, 225 natural resources, 138 openness, 103, 116, 189, 191, 194 neck, 35 openness to experience, 189, 191, 194 negative affectivity, 74 operant conditioning, 54 negative consequences, 52 opiates, 72 negative emotions, 48, 62, 65, 84, 94, 102, 104, 175 opioid, 61, 70, 97 negative experiences, 104 oppression, 139 negative mood, 29, 32, 118, 132 optimism, ii, 6, 35, 97, 115, 118, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125, negative outcomes, 208 nerve, 25, 28, 36 126, 128, 138, 158 nerve cells, 36 organ, 23, 25, 26, 28, 33, 64, 68 nervous system, 28, 66, 97 organism, 25, 27, 28, 39, 78, 79, 96 network, 43, 54, 70, 95, 109, 111, 113, 128, 139, 181 organization, 234 neurobiological, 243 orgasm, 117, 118, 121, 123, 124, 127 neurobiology, 67 orientation, 121 neuroendocrine, 59, 95, 96, 97, 112 osteoarthritis, 72 neurons, 23, 26, 28, 36 osteoporosis, 98 neuroscience, 60 outliers, 162 neuroticism, iii, 97, 102, 103, 107, 133, 185, 189, 190, overload, 90 overtime, 209 191, 193, 194, 240 oxytocin, 133 neutralization, 97 next generation, 197 P nodes, 40 non-clinical, 216 Pacific, 113 nonconscious, 60 pain, 19, 24, 25, 26, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 44, 46, 58, 59, 61, nonverbal, 73, 178 normal, 7, 13, 17, 18, 23, 27, 28, 33, 63, 69, 99, 100, 172, 62, 64, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 80, 85, 97, 120, 210 pain management, 38 174, 180, 214, 216, 217, 218 panic attack, 60 normal conditions, 28 panic disorder, 60 norms, iv, 112, 122, 128, 150, 151, 213, 217 paradox, 236 North America, 63, 70, 183, 218, 229 parameter, 39, 88 novelty, 235 parasympathetic, 28 nucleus, 45 Parental Bonding Instrument, 154 nucleus accumbens, 45 parental care, 141, 146, 148, 150 nulliparous, 132 parent-child, 155 nursing, 46 parenting, 136, 144, 150, 151 nutrition, 139

256 Index parents, 79, 105, 136, 137, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, plasma, 95, 98 148, 151, 155, 173, 179, 195, 234, 236 plasma levels, 95, 98 plasticity, 60 particles, 5 platelets, 26 partnership, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 128, 130, 132 plausibility, 6 pathogenic, 59 play, iii, 7, 21, 24, 25, 26, 30, 31, 34, 37, 38, 43, 79, 89, pathophysiology, 61 pathways, 25, 26, 28, 43, 97 93, 96, 97, 166, 181, 185, 187, 208 patients, 5, 17, 20, 24, 25, 30, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 46, 58, pleasure, v, 45, 80, 93, 116, 121, 123, 124, 130, 186, 218, 62, 68, 72, 73, 74, 95, 96, 99, 100, 104, 110, 131, 210 231, 235, 236 Pearson correlations, 238 police, 209 peer group, 200 political stability, ii, 135 peer relationship, 172, 174, 182 politicians, 139 peers, 128, 136, 138, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, poor, iv, 85, 90, 92, 97, 118, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 206, 151, 173, 180 207, 208, 211 pensions, 89 poor health, iv, 85, 92, 97, 118, 199, 200, 211 per capita, 139, 140 poor performance, 200 perceived control, 67, 152, 153 population, iv, 24, 35, 58, 62, 67, 73, 91, 92, 93, 96, 99, perception, iv, 3, 7, 8, 16, 25, 36, 37, 45, 52, 59, 61, 63, 100, 104, 110, 117, 119, 127, 128, 133, 138, 139, 140, 74, 84, 88, 92, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 143, 144, 167, 141, 142, 149, 161, 172, 180, 199, 200, 201, 204, 207, 174, 175, 178, 188, 201, 213 208, 210 periodic, 20 population group, iv, 96, 199, 200, 201, 207, 208 peripheral blood, 98 portfolio, 43 permit, 136, 168 positive correlation, 8, 116, 117 personal control, 16 positive emotions, 62, 63, 68, 73, 94, 102, 103, 104 personal efficacy, 143 positive mood, 4, 13, 41, 42, 49, 50, 53, 57, 63, 93, 101, personal identity, 122 118 personal qualities, 82 positive relation, iii, 82, 88, 89, 92, 93, 98, 99, 100, 102, personal values, 83 105, 117, 157, 187, 215, 216 personality characteristics, 23, 32, 116 positive relationship, iii, 82, 89, 92, 93, 98, 99, 100, 102, personality disorder, 20 105, 117, 157, 216 personality factors, 91, 102, 103, 123, 131 post-traumatic stress, 59 personality research, 198 post-traumatic stress disorder, 60 personality traits, iii, 25, 97, 108, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192, posture, 41 193, 194, 195, 196, 239 poverty, 188 personality type, 130 power, 3, 48, 58, 60, 92, 94, 188, 201, 220, 234, 235, 240, pessimism, 18, 154 241 PET, 64 PPA, 206 philosophers, 186 pragmatic, 180 philosophical, 81, 235 prediction, 66, 148, 160, 169, 193 philosophy, 4, 79, 215, 236 predictor variables, 163, 164 phylogeny, 73 predictors, iii, 13, 58, 60, 87, 110, 113, 116, 117, 130, physical activity, 98, 160, 165, 169, 238, 239, 240, 241 145, 162, 185, 188, 189, 192, 193, 194, 196, 201, 206, physical education, 170 208, 229, 230 physical health, 30, 43, 44, 61, 66, 71, 72, 73, 85, 95, 105, predisposing factors, 31 107, 116, 201, 204, 205, 207, 208, 216 pre-existing, 208 physical well-being, 19, 25, 26, 27, 35, 43, 52, 78 preference, 58, 182, 241 physiological, 3, 5, 6, 7, 12, 15, 25, 27, 30, 54, 59, 61, 73, preferential treatment, 110 78, 79, 94, 96, 97, 104, 117, 118 preschoolers, 137 physiology, 21 presidency, 139 physiotherapy, 38, 218 press freedom, 139 pituitary, 67 pressure, 5, 6, 8, 15, 33, 36, 43, 59, 66, 67, 82, 95, 97, placebo, 17, 72 117, 129, 130, 139 planning, 206 prestige, 79

Index 257 preventive, 31, 32 public, 56, 105, 107, 122, 139, 141, 142, 149, 173, 187, primary care, 33 201, 209, 215, 218, 219 primary school, 210 private, 122, 139, 187, 201, 215 public health, 107, 139, 219 private sector, 201 public schools, 141, 142, 149 probability, 31, 32, 94, 101, 108, 136, 167 public sector, 122, 209 problem behavior, 179, 189 pulse, 67 problem-solving, 174, 175 punishment, 102, 136 production, 60, 75 pupils, 202, 205, 206, 207 productivity, i, iii, 44, 199, 200 purchasing power, 92 professions, 214 putative cause, 22 prognosis, 32, 62 prognostic factors, 106 Q program, 12, 19, 20, 33, 35, 47, 48, 54, 56 proinflammatory, 97 quality of life, i, 34, 44, 73, 86, 93, 94, 101, 104, 105, 108, propagation, 48 116, 188, 197 proposition, 160 prosocial behavior, 188 questioning, 141, 142 prostate, 117, 131, 132 questionnaire, iv, 57, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 131, 132, prostate cancer, 117, 131, 132 protection, 45 143, 144, 174, 195, 199, 200, 201, 225, 236, 237 protective factors, 16 quotas, 141 protein, 39 protocol, 161, 162, 167 R proxy, 161 psychiatric disorder, 138 radiography, 36 psychological distress, 68, 72, 85, 92, 99, 110, 138, 154, random, 162 range, 33, 34, 35, 96, 98, 99, 102, 103, 139, 158, 159, 232 psychological functions, 128 161, 172, 178, 189, 205, 206, 210, 216, 224, 237 psychological health, i, iv, v, 29, 98, 158, 200, 201, 205, rat, 68, 70 rating scale, 56, 57 206, 207, 208, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 231, 232, ratings, 56, 57, 154, 179, 207 233 reactivity, 62, 63, 72, 97, 129, 130 psychological problems, ii, 78, 137 reading, 1, 178 psychological processes, 23, 24, 27, 36, 47, 54 reality, 88, 188, 214 psychological resources, 49 receptors, 25, 95, 98, 109 psychological states, 65, 95 reciprocal relationships, 173 psychological stress, ii, 92, 115, 118, 120, 129 reciprocity, 172, 177, 179 psychological variables, ii, 72, 136, 150 recognition, 104, 187 psychologist, 142 recollection, 60 psychology, iv, 4, 70, 71, 78, 104, 106, 107, 112, 135, 153, reconcile, 174 155, 158, 167, 168, 169, 182, 183, 186, 189, 196, 197, recovery, 6, 13, 15, 16, 17, 29, 30, 32, 38, 44, 57, 62, 63, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 243 psychometric approach, 241 64, 68, 69, 129 psychometric properties, v, 106 recovery processes, 38, 44 psychopathology, 120, 152, 155, 218, 242 recreational, 91, 105 psychopathy, 180 refining, 217 psychosocial development, 131 Reform Act, 200 psychosocial factors, 96, 110 reforms, ii, 135 psychosocial stress, 62 regional, 61, 141 psychosocial variables, 229 regression, iii, 119, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 147, 148, psychosomatic, 23, 29, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 131 157, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 169, 192, 193, 194, 201, psychotherapy, 20, 48, 60, 65, 72, 112 205, 206, 207 regression analysis, 119, 123, 126, 127, 163, 164, 166, 192, 193, 194, 206, 207 regression equation, 162

258 Index regular, 22, 57, 78 Russian, v, i, 135, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, regulation, 23, 25, 28, 29, 34, 60, 64, 70, 74, 98, 107, 133, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154 232, 242, 243 S rehabilitation, 20, 33, 68 reinforcement, 37, 55, 68 sadness, 29, 30, 32, 169, 172 rejection, 41, 144, 147, 148 safety, 41, 78, 79 relapse, 129 salary, 234 relationship quality, 129 sales, 119 relationship satisfaction, 240 saliva, 64, 95, 97 relatives, 43 sample, iv, 20, 73, 84, 97, 108, 112, 141, 142, 143, 144, relaxation, 5, 15, 19, 38, 49, 53, 59, 116 relevance, iv, 6, 40, 103, 177, 181, 182, 190, 213, 219 155, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 179, reliability, iv, 84, 86, 104, 106, 122, 162, 164, 213, 216, 188, 190, 191, 194, 195, 201, 203, 204, 233 sarcasm, 178 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 242 SBR, 155 religion, 4, 217 scepticism, 11 religious belief, 8, 93 schizophrenia, 20, 104, 218 REM, 97 school, ii, iv, 4, 16, 44, 119, 128, 135, 136, 137, 141, 142, repetitions, 53 143, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 155, 167, 182, 200, 201, replication, 167 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 218, 221 reputation, 79 school achievement, 137 research design, 239 scientific method, 11, 18, 22, 139 resentment, 96 scores, ii, 27, 72, 77, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 91, 96, 98, residential, 92, 111 101, 123, 124, 126, 137, 143, 145, 146, 149, 161, 162, residuals, 163 163, 164, 169, 190, 191, 195, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, resilience, 60, 62, 68, 73, 75 208, 210, 211, 233 resistance, 2, 41, 58, 59, 71, 97, 99, 100 SDT, 158, 159, 160, 165, 166, 167, 168, 231, 232, 235, resolution, 174, 176 237, 240, 241 resources, 14, 18, 19, 20, 31, 43, 49, 53, 63, 74, 80, 81, search, 105, 108, 109, 128, 188 secular, 226 83, 87, 91, 107, 112, 136, 138, 140, 149, 153, 154, 232 security, 55, 138, 210, 242 respiratory, 5, 60, 69 sedentary, 59 responsibilities, 48, 90, 207, 214 sedentary behavior, 59 responsiveness, 177 self, v, i, v, 77, 81, 86, 107, 116, 130, 132, 137, 143, 146, retention, 164 147, 149, 152, 154, 155, 158, 161, 163, 164, 169, 170, retirement, 90 175, 186, 189, 196, 199, 209, 231, 242 returns, 17, 18, 27 self-actualization, i, 77, 79, 82, 219, 232, 239, 242 rheumatic, 100 self-assessment, 58, 81, 88, 101 rheumatic diseases, 100 self-awareness, 48, 117 rheumatoid arthritis, 73, 98, 100, 112 self-concept, ii, 77, 89, 111, 143, 154, 169 rhythm, 26, 217 self-confidence, 117 risk, iii, iv, 16, 30, 31, 32, 33, 43, 52, 58, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, self-control, 86 self-determination theory, 169, 170, 197, 232, 242, 243 70, 74, 89, 92, 96, 97, 98, 101, 109, 116, 117, 129, 132, self-efficacy, 188 133, 153, 199, 201, 205, 206, 207, 208 self-empowerment, 100 risk factors, iii, iv, 30, 43, 64, 101, 153, 199, 205, 206, self-enhancement, 175 207, 208 self-esteem, i, ii, iii, 77, 79, 80, 81, 89, 100, 108, 128, 138, rolling, 46 143, 146, 148, 150, 153, 155, 157, 158, 162, 163, 164, romantic relationship, 242 165, 167, 188, 195, 224, 225, 232, 240 routines, 128 self-help, 219 Royal Society, 62 self-identity, 116 R-squared, 164 self-knowledge, 84 rubber, 51 self-management, 81 rugby, 169 rumination, 35, 67, 73 rural, 202

Index 259 self-perceptions, 117, 165 social benefits, 12, 43, 138 self-rated health, 63 social capital, 92, 188 self-regard, 81, 165, 167 social class, 88, 92, 210 self-regulation, 107, 232, 242, 243 social cohesion, 95 self-report, iii, 6, 57, 62, 70, 73, 106, 123, 124, 127, 142, social comparison, 109 social competence, iii, 137, 143, 147, 148, 151, 171, 172, 152, 157, 167, 200, 208, 236 self-report data, 167 173, 174, 179, 181 self-worth, 116 social construct, 132 semantic, 176 social context, 62, 133, 168, 218 sensations, 34, 88 social coping, 124, 128 sensitivity, 25, 34, 37, 38, 70, 231, 234, 240, 242 social development, 94, 242 sensitization, 59, 64 social environment, 41, 87, 93, 136, 151, 235 sentences, 179, 237 social exchange, 110 sequelae, 29, 62, 99 social factors, 26, 89 series, ii, 78, 79, 89, 91, 98, 162, 224 social group, 21, 136, 170, 233, 243 services, iv, 30, 85, 96, 105, 136, 201 social impairment, iii, 171, 173 SES, 136, 141 social institutions, 217 severe stress, 20 social integration, 58, 89, 93, 98, 191, 215 severity, 25, 30, 32, 36, 60, 66, 209 social isolation, 44, 92, 171 sex, ii, 4, 8, 45, 47, 73, 77, 80, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, social justice, 234 social learning, 173 124, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 201, 234, 235 social life, 16, 18, 42, 43, 57 sexual activity, 116, 117, 129, 130 social network, 43, 93, 95, 97, 101, 105, 109, 111, 112, sexual behaviour, 117, 130, 131 Sexual dysfunction, 117 166, 181 sexual experiences, 116 social organization, 132 sexual intercourse, 121, 128, 129, 133 social participation, 92, 188 sexual motivation, 128 social perception, 175 sexuality, i, 116, 117, 118, 119, 128, 129, 131, 132 social phenomena, 217, 219 sharing, 173, 174, 177 social problems, 173, 175 shock, 3, 37 social psychology, 219 shortage, 16, 138 social relations, 43, 82, 89, 92, 93, 105, 107, 177, 180, short-term, 5, 7, 23, 27, 38, 40, 45, 46, 48, 97 shoulder, 35 181 siblings, 141, 142 social relationships, 82, 89, 92, 93, 105, 177, 180, 181 sign, 48 social resources, 49 signals, 23, 26, 28, 36, 41, 102 social rules, 87 significance level, 201 social sciences, 189 sinus, 62 social situations, 3, 18, 20, 49, 52, 143, 175, 180 sinus arrhythmia, 62 social skills, 172, 173, 179 sites, 62 social skills training, 179 skills, 69, 80, 83, 101, 172, 173, 178, 179, 183, 187, 208, social standing, 234 social status, 91, 195 224, 228 social structure, 187 skills training, 179, 183 social support, 18, 21, 26, 42, 43, 52, 60, 68, 92, 93, 95, sleep, 96, 97, 117, 122, 172 smiles, 3, 8, 42, 54, 65, 68, 70, 176 105, 108, 110, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, smoke, 30 150, 151, 152, 188 smokers, 5, 31 social systems, 89, 136 smoking, 26, 30, 31, 32, 59, 62, 70, 101, 122, 201 social work, 69 sociability, 102 socialisation, 218 social acceptance, 189, 215 sociocultural, 87, 153, 155 social activities, 173 sociocultural contexts, 153, 155 social adjustment, 179 socioeconomic, ii, 91, 92, 95, 110, 111, 112, 136, 137, social behavior, iii, 171 139, 140, 149, 150, 151, 152

260 Index socioeconomic conditions, 136, 139, 140, 149, 150, 151, students, iii, iv, 110, 138, 142, 152, 159, 174, 185, 188, 152 189, 190, 191, 193, 195, 196, 223, 225, 226, 229, 230, 236 socioeconomic status, 111, 112, 136 socioemotional, 110, 137 subjective, i, 20, 33, 60, 61, 68, 69, 77, 80, 81, 86, 87, 94, sociological, 93, 215, 219 96, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 118, sociologists, 80 124, 125, 127, 143, 153, 155, 170, 186, 189, 196, 197, sociology, 215 214, 224, 229, 232, 243 software, 201 solitude, 89 subjective experience, 87, 106 somatic complaints, 25, 34, 35, 143, 218 subjective stress, 96, 118, 124, 125, 127 somatic symptoms, 33, 34, 35, 103, 129 subjective well-being, i, 68, 69, 77, 80, 81, 86, 94, 102, somatization, 24, 25 somatization disorder, 24 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 153, 155, 170, 186, sounds, 44, 67 189, 196, 197, 243 South America, 137 substance use, 129, 154 spatial, 178 substances, 39 species, 232, 234 substrates, 64 spectrum, 48, 60, 65, 172, 177, 183 success rate, 118 speech, 19, 27, 67 successful aging, 112 speed, 5, 62, 80, 81 suffering, 10, 38, 89, 101, 175 sperm, 133 suicide, 206 spheres, 87 summer, 17 spills, 57 sunlight, 27 spinal cord, 36 superiority, 3 spiritual, 48, 113, 124, 125, 217 supervision, 168 spirituality, 99, 100, 214, 215 surgery, 32, 58 sports, i, 85, 158, 169, 216, 225, 234 survival, 58, 68, 94, 97, 99, 101, 111, 234 spouse, 96 survival value, 234 SPSS, 123, 201 survivors, 99, 100, 108 stability, ii, 41, 102, 116, 135, 167, 196, 214, 229, 237 susceptibility, 60, 97, 110 stages, 78, 79, 82, 83, 88, 89, 90, 98, 162 sustainable development, 105 standard deviation, 145, 149, 191, 210 switching, 176 standard of living, 139, 140 symbolic, 136 standards, 48, 80, 81, 82, 150, 159, 216, 217 symbolic value, 136 state of shock, 3, 37 symbols, 113 state-owned, 138 sympathetic, 28, 63, 97 statistics, 153, 155, 162, 163, 164, 192, 210 sympathetic nervous system, 28, 63, 97 stigma, 218 sympathy, 49 stimulus, 70, 174, 235 symptom, 20, 25, 34, 70, 143 strain, 6, 7, 14, 18, 27, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37, 44, 49, 50, 51, syndrome, 72, 171, 173, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183 synergistic, 159 53, 55 synergistic effect, 159 strategies, 14, 16, 18, 32, 34, 37, 44, 52, 100, 118, 121, synthesis, 65 systematic desensitization, 73 123, 124, 173, 219 systems, 28, 33, 89, 96, 97, 132, 136, 137, 140, 149, 151, stratified sampling, 141 152, 169, 219 strength, iii, 24, 27, 83, 98, 153, 158, 165, 217, 234, 235, systolic blood pressure, 95 236, 240, 241 T stress reactions, 118, 119, 125, 128 stressful events, 18, 68, 97 talent, 79, 83, 214 stressful life events, 98 target population, 141 stressors, 64, 66, 117, 121, 129, 200, 208 task difficulty, 62 stress-related, 16, 59, 97, 209 taste, 46 stretching, 217 T-cell, 39 stroke, 31, 44, 64, 69, 95, 111

Index 261 tea, 53, 57 tribes, 217 teachers, iii, iv, 15, 43, 47, 64, 105, 119, 136, 144, 146, trust, 19, 79, 92, 129, 152 tumor, 24 147, 148, 151, 173, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210 U teaching, 150, 201, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210 teenagers, 70 undergraduates, iii, 185, 191, 194, 224 telephone, 99, 173 unemployment, 87, 90 television, 224 unhappiness, 103 temperament, 80, 154 UNICEF, 217, 221 temperature, 16, 17, 18, 27 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 139, 149, tension, 5, 15, 19, 51, 57, 97, 120, 129, 175 terminal illness, 99 155 territory, 138, 149 universality, 155 tertiary education, 142 universe, 44 test anxiety, 51 university students, 110, 159, 188, 189, 190 test-retest reliability, 84, 86 unmarried men, 89 theory, v, 231, 232, 234, 235, 239, 240, 242 urinary, 66 therapists, 62 therapy, 5, 21, 38, 44, 53, 62, 72, 129, 130, 133 V thinking, i, 3, 8, 14, 20, 47, 48, 49, 53, 77, 81, 174, 178, 197, 218 vaccination, 70 threat, 118, 136 vagina, 129 threatening, 14, 15, 26, 28, 36, 37, 43, 44, 51, 55, 217 valence, 68 thresholds, 59 validation, v, 86, 109, 131, 134, 155, 169, 243 throat, 5 validity, iv, 85, 86, 87, 105, 111, 113, 158, 161, 167, 179, time frame, 233 tinnitus, 121 207, 209, 213, 224, 228, 229, 230, 237, 242 title, 49 values, iv, 19, 40, 83, 87, 105, 123, 124, 127, 136, 150, tobacco, 26, 138, 153 tobacco smoking, 26 151, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 188, 203, 205, 206, 213, tolerance, 38, 74, 75, 97 216, 217, 218, 219, 233, 236, 243 total cholesterol, 95 variability, 60, 64, 72, 95, 130, 159, 160, 166 toughness, 61 variables, v, 22, 23, 25, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 101, 102, trade, 53 103, 105, 106, 119, 123, 124, 126, 127, 137, 139, 145, tradition, 80, 165, 186 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 159, 162, 163, 164, 194, traditional gender role, 195 195, 216, 231, 236, 241 traffic, 22, 25, 53, 57 variance, iii, 145, 148, 157, 160, 161, 164, 166, 193, 194 training, 2, 12, 15, 19, 20, 35, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, variation, 55, 86, 87, 165, 167, 176, 234, 242 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 62, 63, 66, 69, 172, 179, 183, vehicles, 22 201, 205, 206, 207, 214 vein, 175 training programs, 2 ventricular fibrillation, 32 traits, iii, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, victims, 217 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 51, 53, 79, 97, 185, village, 16, 17 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 217, 239, 242 violent, 104, 153 trajectory, 100 viral infection, 60 transfer, 25, 36, 53, 54, 68, 95 virus, 39, 41, 59 transformation, iv, 164, 213 vision, 78 transition, 90, 108, 131, 138, 154 Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), 120 transition period, 90 visual attention, 74 translation, iv, 49, 191, 223, 226, 227, 228, 229 visualization, 178 transmission, 70 voice, 3, 25, 42, 178 transparency, 155, 226 trauma, 60

262 Index W work activity, 91 work environment, 90, 95, 109 walking, 50 workers, iv, 73, 106, 199, 200, 201 warrants, 167 working conditions, 16, 208 watches, 17 working hours, 122 water, 16, 17, 27 workload, 90, 200 weakness, 5, 218 workplace, 66, 119, 132 weapons, 217 work-related stress, i, iii, iv, 118, 130, 199, 200, 206, 208, welfare, 218 wellness, 27, 188, 197, 210, 217, 219 209 western countries, 33 World Health Organization, 94, 214, 221 Western Europe, 137 worry, 8, 19, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 51, 53, 59, Western philosophy, 242 white blood cells, 39 65, 67, 73, 96, 120, 154, 206 white-collar workers, 110 writing, 8, 53, 175 wind, 27 wine, 8 X winning, 4 winter, 16, 17 x-rays, 33 wisdom, 82, 175 withdrawal, 26 Y wives, 96, 129 women, ii, 63, 66, 67, 70, 75, 77, 89, 90, 93, 96, 97, 98, yield, iv, 213, 217 young adults, 31, 34, 58, 60, 62, 128, 130, 131 109, 110, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 195, 217