Ispectrum magazine #09

ISPECTRUMIssue 09/September-October 2014 MAGAZINEThe GreatVa r n a C u lt u r eSTRANGE FACTSABOUT PLACEBOSWhy we believewhat we want to believe

CONTENTS Features 19 31 03 The Great Varna Culture3 and the Dawn of 42 Civilization in Europe 07 The Rise of the Varna Culture 12 Grave 43 16 The End of the Varna Culture 19 Teenager Invents Ocean Cleaning Device INTERVIEW WITH bOYAN sLAT 23 The Ocean Cleanup project 26 How to clean up the Great Pacific Garbage Patch 31 Why we believe what we want to believe 32 Wason’s experiment 34 Information bias 39 Confirmation bias 42 STRANGE FACTS ABOUT PLACEBOS THAT WILL SURPRISE YOU INTERVIEW WITH DR. IRVING KIRSCH 44 Response Expectancy Theory 48 Nocebo effect 49 49 Pollinators and pesticides:How can we improve the bleak situation of our bees? 53 The risk of neonics on pollinators 55 Spider-venom biopesticide 1

editorial Mado Martinez Varna Culture is thought to be one Editorial Director of the most advanced civilizations of ancient Europe. Older than the empires Ispectrum of Mesopotamia and Egypt, Varna has the largest prehistoric necropolis in South- magazine eastern Europe and, as far as we know, was the first to craft golden artifacts. Published Bimonthly ISSN 2053-1869 April Holloway introduces us to its cul- tural practices, complex funerary rites, Editorial Director belief systems, and more. Mado Martinez, [email protected] Boyan Slat was only 17 when he solved a problem that most said was insoluble, Art Director and had thus never been attempted: Rayna Petrova cleaning the floating plastic from the [email protected] oceans. He then launched The Ocean Cleanup Project and has so far raised $2 Contributing Editors million to make his idea reality. Jacquelyn Matt Loveday Keun has interviewed this teenager who [email protected] is amazing the world and leading a unique environmental initiative. Jennifer James Rob Hutchinson returns in this issue Ravinder Dhindsa with surprising psychological phenomena. Have you ever wondered why you believe Contributing Writers in determined things? Let’s change the April Holloway question to explain the trick: why do we Jacquelyn Keun believe what we want to believe? Rob’s Rob Hutchinson wonderful article answers this question. Declan Perry We have also interviewed Dr. Irving Images Kirsch, Associated Director in the Placebo Cover : Zoomorphous applications, gold, Studies Program at Harvard Medical Eneolithic necropolis – Varna School, about his research and findings Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History on placebos. This article reveals some commons.wikimeadia.org , surprising and bizarre facts about pla- morguefile.com , cebo effects. freeimages.com And to close the issue we address the www.ispectrummagazine.com problem of the extinction of the bees, which is strictly linked to their lack of [email protected] food. Declan Perry teaches us how the discovery of new non-toxic biopesticides +44 7938 707 164 (UK) could improve the bleak situation of our bees. Follow Us 2

“Grave 43, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0 E verybody has heard of the great But few of heard of the mysteri- civilizations of Mesopotamia, ous civilization that emerged on Egypt and the Indus Valley, the shores of lakes near the Black which are all noted for being Sea some 7,000 years ago – not far the earliest known civilizations to fea- from the modern-day city of Varna ture urbanization, organized adminis- in Bulgaria. tration, and cultural innovation. 3

The Great Varna Cultureand theDawn of Civilization in Europe by April Holloway website www.Ancient-Origins.net 4

“Grave 4, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0 Grave 4, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna The Varna culture, advanced civilization eastern Europe, which as it has come to be that was more ancient reflects a richness in known, was not a small than the empires of cultural practices, com- and inconsequential Mesopotamia and plex funerary rites, an society that emerged Egypt, and the first ancient belief system, in a little corner of known culture to craft and the capacity to Bulgaria and disap- golden artifacts. Varna produce exquisite and peared quickly into the is also now home to expertly-crafted goods. pages of history. Rather, the largest prehistor- it was an amazingly ic necropolis in south- 5

Sceptre, bone and gold, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna, “Sceptre, bone and gold, Eneolithic necropolis –Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0 grave 4 - late Eneolithic period The earliest evidence a new stage of devel- a once advanced andof human presence in opment. As archaeolo- highly-developed soci-the Varna region can gists undertook more ety that existed frombe traced back to the and more excavations at least the 5th millen-Early Palaeolithic Age, in the region, they nium BC. It has comesome 100,000 years began to see evidence to be known as theago. But it was during of mastery of metallur- cradle of civilization inthe Chalcolithic period, gy, skilled craftsman- Europe.typically defined as a ship, extensive trade,transition between the social differentiation, “The Black Sea is theNeolithic and the Bronze agriculture, and reli- earliest center of civi-Age, that the inhabit- gion. It became clear lization in human his-ants on the shores of that they were look- tory,” said Prof. Dr.the Black Sea entered ing at the remnants of 6

Henrieta Todorova, who has ledexcavations in the region. “Manypeople are reluctant to believe thatbut it is true. It is obvious fromthe social structure in 5,000 BCwhich is adequate to the scientificrequirements for the creation of acivilization.”The Rise of the VarnaCulture According to Dr Vladimir Slavchev,curator at the Varna RegionalMuseum of History, the Varna cul-ture can be attributed to a numberof important factors. Its emergence was the result for the concentration of power inof “new elements in social and the hands of a restricted group ofeconomic development – min- significant and respected commu-ing, metallurgy and the related nity members,” he added.increase in long-distance trade andexchange,” Dr Slavchev told iSpec- Evidence suggests that it wastrum Magazine. “The separation of between 4600 and 4200 BC, whencrafts and proto-trade from farming gold smithing first started in Varna.and agriculture provided conditions 7

Varna culture had trade relations with distant lands (pos-sibly including the lower Volga region and the Cyclades),perhaps exporting metal goods and salt from the Provadiyarock salt mine.The copper ore used in the artifacts originated from aSredna Gora mine near Stara Zagora, and Mediterraneanspondylus shells found in the graves may have served asprimitive currency. Source: Wikipedia.com 8

“Zoomorphous applications,gold” Photo credit:Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0 Zoomorphous applications, gold, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna,grave 36 - late Eneolithic Period As advances were Sea and Mediterranean time trade was highly made, and craftsmen region, which was of developed. The deep mastered metallurgy of great importance for bay, along which the copper and gold, the the development of the settlements of Varna, inhabitants now had society. Archaeological provided a comfortable something extreme- evidence, such as clay harbor for ships sail- ly valuable to trade. models of boats found ing across the Black Increased contacts with in the region, suggest Sea and Varna became neighbours both north that ship building was a prosperous trading and south eventually already very advanced center. opened up trade rela- in the Late Chalcolithic tions within the Black Period, and that mari- 9

Increased trading Discovering ancientactivity allowed the Varnametallurgists to accu-mulate wealth and very The first evidence ofquickly, a societal gap Varna’s ancient civ-developed with metal- ilization came in thelurgists at the top, fol- form of tools, vessels,lowed by merchants in utensils, and figurinesthe middle, and farm- made from stone, flint,ers making up the bone, and clay. Then anlower class. Incredible incredible chance dis-discoveries made at a covery came to light,nearby cemetery also that made headlinessuggest that Varna had around the world. Inpowerful rulers or kings October, 1972, exca-– but we will come back vator operator Raychoto that. Marinov stumbled upon a vast Copper Age And so, the foun- necropolis containingdations had been laid the oldest gold artifactsfor the emergence of ever discovered. It wasa powerful and flour- to become one of theishing culture, whose most important archae-influence permeated ological discoveriesthe whole of Europe ever made in Bulgaria.for thousands of years Extensive excavationsto come. were launched under 10

the direction of Mihail highly structured soci- the material status ofLazarov (1972–1976) ety – elite members the deceased,” said Drand Ivan Ivanov (1972– of society were buried Slavchev. “This distinc-1991), revealing for in shrouds with gold tion is proof of socialthe first time the mag- ornaments sewn into stratification in the Latenificent civilization of the cloth wrappings and Chalcolithic period inVarna. their graves were laden the Balkans –the Varna with treasures, includ- cemetery illustrates More than 300 graves ing gold ornaments, the early stage of thewere uncovered in heavy copper axes, ele- emergence of a class-the necropolis, and gant finery, and rich- separated society.”between them over ly decorated ceramics,22,000 exquisite arti- while others had simple Dr Vladimir Slavchev,facts were recovered, burials a curator at the Varnaincluding 3,000+ items withmade from gold with a few Regional Museumtotal weight of 6 kilo- grave of Historygrams. Other precious goods.relics found within thegraves included copper, “Therehigh-quality flint, stone is atools, jewellery, shells clearof Mediterranean mol- distinc-lusks, pottery, obsidian tionblades, and beads. in the type Analysis of the graves and therevealed that the quality of the grave giftsVarna culture had a which is determined by the social rather than 11

Grave 43 “Grave 43, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0 While there were Grave 43, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna,many elite burials late Eneolithic perioduncovered, there wasone in particular that 12stood out amongst therest – grave 43. Insidegrave 43, archaeolo-gists uncovered theremains of a high sta-tus male who appearsto have been a ruler/leader of some kind –more gold was foundwithin this burial thanin the entire rest ofthe world in that peri-od. The male was bur-ied with a scepter – asymbol of high rank orspiritual power – andwore a sheath of solidgold over his penis.The burial is incred-ibly significant as it isthe first known elitemale burial in Europe.Prior to this, it was the

“Grave 2, Eneolithic necropolis – Varna” Photo credit: Varna Regional Museum of History is licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0 women and children who received the most elaborate burials. Marija Gimbutas, a Lithuanian-American archaeologist, who was well-known for her claims that Neolithic sites across Europe provided evidence for matriarchal pre-Indo-European societies, suggested that it was the end of the 5th millennium BC when the transition to male dominance began in Europe. Indeed, in the Varna culture, it was observed that around this time, men started to get the better posthumous treat- ment. Complex Funerary Rites The burials in the Varna necropo- Grave 2, Symbolical Burial lis have also offered a lot more than Eneolithic necropolis – Varna the precious artifacts found within them and discoveries relating to and complex funerary practices of social hierarchies; the features of this ancient civilization. the graves have also provided key insights into the religious beliefs 13

that some graves contained no skeleton at all, and these ‘symbolic graves’ were the richest of them all in terms of the amount of gold and other treasures found within them. Some of these symbolic graves, or cenotaphs, also contained human- sized masks made of unbaked clay placed in the position where the head would have been. It became apparent to research- “These cenotaphs usually areers that the males and females were interpreted as symbolic graves oflaid out in different positions within community members who perishedthe graves – males were laid out far away from the community,”on their backs, while females were said Dr Slavchev. “It seems prob-placed in a foetal position. But most able that the religious beliefs insurprising of all, was the discovery the Chalcolithic period demanded a ritual burial for the soul of the deceased in the community ceme- tery, strictly observing all funerary rituals aimed at sending the soul to the underworld, where it was sup- posed to meet the members of its family.” The graves containing the clay masks were also found to con- tain gold amulets in the shape of women placed in the position 14

where the neck would The End of the Varnahave been. These amu- Culturelets, associated withpregnancy and child- By the end of the time were flooded, thebirth, indicate that the fifth millennium BC, water table increased‘burials’ were those of the once strong and and large areas of ara-females. Further evi- powerful Varna culture ble land turned intodence of this is the began to disintegrate. marshes and swamps,fact that there were Many hypotheses have all of which may haveno battle-axes found in been put forward to contributed to thethese cenotaphs, but explain the fall of this decline of the Varnaeach of them had a great civilization, from civilization.copper pin, a flint knife climate change to aand a spindle whorl. Dr sudden catastrophe,Slavchev has explained epidemics, or destruc-that these findings, tion from invading war-taken together, suggest riors, but not enoughthat these graves were evidence exists to datethose of females – real to conclude one way oror deified. “A guess was the other.made that effigies ofthe deities worshiped Dr Slavchev explainedby the local population that global warm-were buried in these ing during that periodsymbolic graves,” said increased sea levels.Dr Slavchev. The settlements situ- ated along the coast of the Varna Lake at that 15

In addition, there is without reoccupation ment might not haveevidence of the incur- around 4200–4000 BC, appeared as a result ofsion of horse-riding which in some regions an invasion. In recentwarriors. “The concept continued for up to years there has beenof an invasion of tribes 800 years,” said Dr an increase in the num-coming from the steppes Slavchev. ber of researchers con-into the Balkans at the sidering the idea of aend of the Late Copper “Concrete evidence peaceful penetration ofAge is based on sev- for an external military groups of people fromeral pieces of evidence. invasion into the ter- the steppes and theirOne is the stratigraphic ritory of present-day gradual cultural infil-and chronological rup- Romania and Bulgaria tration.”ture between the Late is scarce and ratherCopper Age and the uncertain, consisting Nevertheless, it mayEarly Bronze Age in of secondary evidence not have been one rea-the eastern Balkans, rather than direct son or the other, butreflected in the aban- proofs. The steppe ele- rather a combination ofdonment of settlements 16

factors that caused the downfall of discovered by archaeologists sixthe Varna civilization. thousand years later.” “Most probably a combination of The Legacy of thefactors such as hostile neighbours Varna Cultureand climatic changes were the prin-cipal causes that forced the inhab- Although the Varna civilization diditants of the Northeast Balkans to not leave any direct descendants,abandon their homes. They migrat- the members of this ancient cultureed at first to the south of the did leave behind many lasting lega-Balkans, where settlements, slight- cies and set the stage for the emer-ly later than the Varna cemetery gence of subsequent civilizations(ca. 4000 BC), were found. These throughout Europe. Their skills insites witnessed the last attempts metallurgy were unprecedented inof the bearers of this bright culture Europe and indeed throughout theto retain their old customs on the world, and their society demon-peninsula. But the ongoing climate strated many features of a highlydeterioration forced them either to advanced and developed civiliza-migrate or to change their way of tion.life completely,” said Dr Slavchev. “Even more than six thousand He added: “The beginning of years ago in the Varna culturethe fourth millennium BC brought people started to switch to differ-an end to a sophisticated soci- ent professions in which variousety that had briefly achieved alevel of political and aesthetic bril-liance unrivaled elsewhere. It dis-appeared from the historical stageand remained unknown until it was17

individuals had varying degrees of institution to monitor and ensureskill - mining and metalworking, the proper functioning of the soci-pottery, weaving, spinning, pro- ety. All the fundamental principlesduction of stone and flint tools and of modern society had been foundmore,” said Dr Slavchev. A second – a model of civilization that wekey feature that was present was still follow to this day.centralized authority – a person orREFERENCES Linehan, C. (2012). The victorious Varna cul- ture. The History of Europe Podcast. AvailableAvramova, M. 2000. Myth, ritual and gold of from: http://thehistoryofeuropepodcast.a “civilization that did not take place”. – In: blogspot.com.au/2012/05/victorious-varna-Varna Necropolis. Varna, Agató, 15-24. culture.htmlChapman, J., T. Higham, B. Gaydarska, V. Norman A. (2003). The Oldest Gold in theSlavchev, N. Honch. 2006. The social context World in a Varna Cemetery. ANISTORITON:of the emergence, development and aban- ArtHistory Volume 7, September 2003:donment of the Varna Cemetery, Bulgaria. Available from: http://www.anistor.gr/eng-European Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 9, No. lish/enback/o033.htm2-3, 159-183. Varna Museum of Archaeogy. Available from:Dimitrov, D. & Georgiev, G. (2011). Black Sea http://www.archaeo.museumvarna.com/en/coast as cradle of first civilizations. Current categoryArchaeology Research in Bulgaria. Availablefrom: http://berberian11.tripod.com/dimi-trov_postprocession.htm18

I nterview with B o yan S lat Teenager Invents Ocean Cleaning DevicebyJacquelyn KeunB oyan Slat is the dynamic wun- in his TED talk in October 2012 when derkind behind The Ocean he was just 17. At the age of just 19 Cleanup Project – a project that he has left behind the beginnings of not only asks the audacious an aerospace engineering degree toquestion, “Can we clean the oceans of fully concentrate on turning what hadall the plastic floating in it?” but also been a school project into a spec-answered it with a resounding “Yes!” tacular social enterprise, which hasPhoto:Boyan Slat,The Ocean Cleanup 19

used crowdfunding to raise over $1.8 together an international group of sci-million; not far off its goal of raising entists and engineers and they have$2 million by the 14th September. On researched a problem that most havehis website, www.theoceancleanup. said was impossible to solve, and thatcom, contributors can donate as little had never before been attempted.as 4.50Euros or can make donationsin the thousands. He has brought20

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup The problem is huge, cost- ly both eco- documented to have cleaning, vessel dam- nomically and plastic in or around age, fishing loss etc. ecologically their bodies. At least is estimated to be $13 and apparent- one million seabirds billion a year. ly intractable: and one hundred thou- millions of tons sand marine mammals His concept is simple of plastic have – whales and dolphins but revolutionary. Why entered the – die each year due think that the only way world’s oceans. to plastic pollution. to clean up the oceans is Ocean currents For many species, this to trawl through it with have moved the could mean extinction. ships in the manner of plastics in the Toxic, carcinogenic fishing boats with nets? oceans, concentrating chemicals such as PCBs It would be inefficient, them into five main and DDTs adsorbed by time-consuming, pol- gyres – vast, rotat- the plastic enter the luting and expensive. ing whirlpools of cur- food chain through fish Boyan asks: “Why not rents that dominate but no one yet knows stay still and let the the oceans. A third the full extent of the oceans move through of the oceanic plastic human health impact. you?” To this end, is concentrated in the Furthermore, the eco- he proposes building Great Pacific Garbage nomic cost in beach Patch – a floating mass of chemical sludge and debris ranging in size from microscopic par- ticles to huge fishing nets, trapped in the North Pacific. Why bother cleaning it up? Well, 44% of seabirds and 22% of many sea creatures have been 21

huge static plastic into collection been able to respond to Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanupplatforms areas. This plastic can its detractors and crit-in strate- then be sold for reuse ics with detailed resultsgic places – offsetting the cost of and computer modelswithin the the project. Efficient, of his ground breakinggyres with eco-friendly and cost- concept that conclude:solid float- effective: Boyan Slat’s this is feasible.ing barriers ideas may be crucialor “booms” to an environmental- We caught Boyan forthat will ly sound future. He an interview in the mid-deflect the and his group recently dle of his busy sched-flow of the published a 530-page ule.water and report on the feasibilitydivert the of the project, and have 22

JK: Could you tell us about find out for myself. I finished thethe school project that started school project but I couldn’t stopit all? thinking about it and kept work-Boyan: I went diving on holiday ing on the problem throughout theto Greece (in summer 2011) and first half year of university which II suddenly realised I saw more suppose was also my last half yearplastic bags than fish! That was of university! So then The Oceanthe first time I found out about Cleanup Project began.the plastic pollution problem. Ireturned to the Netherlands and JK: At the start you hadstarted working on it for my a lot of critics to faceschool project. It was - how did you getsupposed to take people to under-about 80 hours stand that youand I ended had a solution?up spend- Boyan: Well, Iing about don’t rely on800 hours. the supportI used of critics butthis time they were actu-to learn ally very help-about the ful: they reallyproblem thought with meand why it is about this and sup-so difficult to plied me with feed-solve. I cameacross all these back, and they under-people saying that lined the questions we set outit’s impossible to clean up to answer were the right ones. Atso we’d better just focus on preven- first I just started contacting peo-tion. But, when I started looking ple myself but that was a reallyinto it, I couldn’t find any serious time-intensive process. So it reallystudies proving that. I decided to 23

took until April/May of 2013, when were able to complete this research Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanupit went viral online and I started for free in a small amount of time,receiving 1500 emails per day with which was great. For the engineer-people offering their help, for me to ing we primarily outsourced that toassemble this team. some offshore companies and to some engineering agencies as wellJK: So you’ve had to cover a lot that collaborated with them. Quiteof different areas of science – a few of them had already offeredhow did you do it all? their help so that made things a lotBoyan: I think we covered several easier. We just worked togethersubjects, mainly marine engineer- and eventually we did about 2 mil-ing and oceanography but we also lion euros research with only aboutdid work on ecology, maritime law 100,000 euros in cash by utilizingand recycling. The smaller topics we the goodwill of people and compa-were able to do in-house. We had nies and organisations doing thea large group of volunteers, many actual work. It’s surprising howdoing this as part of a PhD, so they much work we’ve been able to do for so little money. 24

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup JK: Do you think it’s helped not We aren’t looking at questions that being restricted by traditional don’t really have answers like: funding bodies? “Why is the plastic only at a cer- Boyan: I think it’s helped in two tain depth?” It would be interesting ways. First, the mentality of aca- but it doesn’t get us any closer to demics in general is all focused on our goal of removing 50% of the publications and grants and as you Great Pacific garbage patch in ten need a certain amount of publica- years time. We did look into some tions, you try to split them up into PhD funding but if we went ahead as many as possible. Secondly, our with that the results wouldn’t be efforts are purely applied research. delivered until 2016. By then the 25

first stage of engineering should be example, the platform responsiblecomplete. It’s great that we can for collecting the plastic started offdetermine our own timeline. looking like a speedboat. It’s now more like an oil rig because that’sJK: What was the most original the way things stay afloat duringresearch you’ve undertaken? hurricanes. I couldn’t have knownBoyan: One of the great things we that, especially when I started thisdid was, as there wasn’t any really because I didn’t have any offshoregood data on the vertical distribu- knowledge. Science is a continualtions of plastics, we didn’t really work in progress and every time weknow up to what depth we had to get new results we should be flex-clean up. So we went out and did ible enough to immediately imple-three expeditions to measure it. ment that.Also, the entire engineering pro-cess is new and we successfully JK: The feasibility study sug-applied for patents so that proves gested a cleanup efficiency ofhow new our designs are. 42%. How did you arrive at that figure?JK: What are the main differ- Boyan: In the past there have beenences you’ve found between many computer models that mapwhat you thought you could ocean currents; they throw expen-achieve at the time of your TED sive stuff with GPS into the oceantalk and what you know now? and track them. In 2010, thereBoyan: Interesting question... were 3 scientists that independent-I think it’s important to stress ly started to make models with datathat the basic concept remains on the concentrations of the plasticunchanged and has now been vali- and got pictures showing the fivedated. However, there are some garbage patches in the gyres. Thedetails that weren’t filled in. For garbage is not static; it’s moving around so we use those compu- tational fluid dynamics models to 26

Photo credit:The Ocean Cleanup count the number of particles of plastic that went through a strip of a certain length for a certain amount of time and that way we were able to cal- culate the speed of cleanup. That doesn’t mean that 42% is the maximum efficiency because if you make the array of floating barriers twice as long, you would collect about 70%. I believe that if you have a 100km long barrier deployed for 20 years the clean up efficiency is 75%, so the 42% is an arbitrary number; this is the efficiency you would get if you deploy the array for 10 years with 100km sides. JK: The feasibility report said be defined as below 5 mm in length that you are unable to remove and people sometimes erroneously the smallest microplastics – refer to all ocean plastics as micro- millimetre sized plastic debris. plastics. Over 90% of the plastics Is that going to be a problem? are larger than microplastics and Boyan: I don’t think so. Of course also removing larger plastics will we would prefer to catch all plastics prevent the increase of microplas- but we also have to be realistic; tics tenfold because a fundamen- we won’t collect every last kilo of tal problem is that large plastics plastic. It’s just about removing as get eroded by the sun and waves much as possible. Microplastics can into smaller bits that get eaten by fish and mammals and birds. We can collect the plastics over 2mm 27

in length so we would collect the impact the project itself willones that get eaten. Importantly, have?there are much larger plastics that Boyan: Of course, if you want tocause entanglement, especially for solve a problem you don’t wantmarine mammals as well as being to create another problem. Therea cause of economic damage for are two categories of sea life: oneships and tourism. is able to just move away from the barrier; then there’s of course planktonic creatures that are not able to resist the current but they are swept under the barrier and are carried away by the current itself. So bycatch isn’t a concern although that’s something we will continue to do research on. Then, there’s the carbon footprint. Because the major part of the project is powered by the ocean and the extraction pro- cess is powered primarily by solar power we calculated they wouldn’t create any significant emissions. The only emissions come from the transport of the plastic back to land by ship and that’s equal to about 400 cars; so it’s still more worth- while to remove the several million kilos of plastic from the oceans.JK: The environment is at the JK: Part of the way you want toheart of The Ocean Cleanup; offset your costs is to sell theso how are you addressing the plastics and possibly turn them into oil, though? 28

Test with a 40 meter size boom in Nieuwe Maas river (Rotterdam)Photo credit:© Bea Nagy (www.beabird.net), The Ocean CleanupBoyan: Interestingly, if you look JK: But if someone went andat the process of getting oil from used that oil for fuel or for mak-ocean plastic, it has lower emis- ing more plastics wouldn’t thatsions than getting new oil from the actually create a carbon foot-ground, so we were actually able to print?account for that as a negative car- Boyan: Of course it does, but thenbon footprint according to the car- it is equal to the carbon foot-bon footprint analysis standards. print created if that person usedIf you don’t include the transport oil derived from crude oil and theprocess the whole cleanup process process required to make oil outis actually carbon negative as we’ll of crude is a lot dirtier than thatactually reduce the amount of car- of making oil out of plastic. And,bon that would be emitted into the there are a lot more valuable waysatmosphere. in which the plastic could be used. Probably 20% will be so degraded that it could only be turned into 29

oil. We will separate that from the JK: So in terms of the projectbetter quality plastic and the rest where are you at right at thiswould be turned into new materi- minute?als. We’ve done tests and we’ve Boyan: So right now we are finish-been able to heat press these bet- ing up the first phase and makingter quality plastics. It’s probably minor improvements to the reporteasier if I just show you... before we consider it completely(He gets up and returns with some done. We’re making preparationssamples of plastic) to start the second phase as soonThis is to give you an idea: this is as possible, ideally by the end ofwhat plastic from the ocean looks September. Then through a serieslike. This was part of a buoy and it of upscaling tests we’re workinglooks like you can’t really do any- towards a large scale operation-thing with it; do you see the cracks al pilot in 3 – 4 years time. Ouron it? crowdfunding campaign is goingJK: Yes. well; we’ve raised over $1.8 millionBoyan: Then we send it out and dollars and we’re looking forward toactually the quality of something achieving the $2 million dollar tar-like this is still good and we can get on the 14th September exactlymake a book cover out of this. We on schedule.also tried injection moulding it. JK: Well I’m sure you’ll be suc-Injection moulding can make any- cessful and I know I hope youthing out of the plastic. The quality will!is good even though it’s made outof this material. The possibilities You can help Boyan Slat to cleanare virtually endless and now we’ve up the oceans. Just check outcalculated that it’s 4.50 Euros/kilo WWW.THEOCEANCLEANUP.COMto get the plastic out of the cen-tre of the ocean to land, it couldat least return a significant part ofcosts. 30

Why we believe whatwe want to believe by Rob Hutchinson website www.ispectrummagazine.comP eople tend to believe or information or interpret new attach more importance information biasly. This is to information that known as confirmation bias, confirms their exist- and plays a strong part ining beliefs or thoughts, and how we assess information inthis is best illustrated when our everyday lives.people selectively remember 31

The discovery and observation numerous observations along theseof confirmation bias was record- lines throughout history would sug-ed even before psychology as we gest that some learned souls wereknow it today existed. Evidence aware of the phenomena, althoughhas been found in the writings they had no ability to discern whyof such varied figures as Dante, it occurred. Confirmation bias wasFrancis Bacon and even as far back termed by Peter Wason in 1960.as Greek historian Thucydides, who Briefly, his experiment focused onwrote in The Peloponnesian War participants identifying a rule that‘....for it is a habit applied to a sequence of threeof mankind to numbers. Participants generatedentrust care-less hope their own set of triple numberswhat they and the experimenter wouldlong for, tell them if the rule appliedand to use to that set or not.sovereign With this information thereason to participant then had tothrust discover the rule. The ruleaside itself was actually stag-what geringly simple - anythey do sequence of numbers thatnot fancy.’ ascended. Despite this par-Although ticipants had a devil of athis is time discovering it.obser- By studying the participantsvation ofwhat could creation of number sequenc-be taken as con- es Wason saw that participantsfirmation bias, appeared to be testing numbers that only fit into their hypothesis of the sequence rule. 32

They tried dogged- experiment was later and not confirmationly to prove their own called into question as bias. However, fromidea about what the it was possible partici- Wason’s experimentrule was, which Wason pants were employing and coining of the termcoined as confirmation something called ‘posi- confirmation bias wentbias - trying to prove tive stress strategy’ - a on to be proven in manytheir own hypothesis by tendency to make tests later experiments.selectively processing that are consistent withinformation. Wason’s a working hypothesis, 33

Biases occur in our proves rather than dis- the countryside theresearch for and interpre- proves the hypothesis. is a greater need fortation of information, This hypothesis can be 4x4’s and thereby theas well as ourmemory of it. worded in a specific way researchersThe search that searches for only are biasingfor informa- the positive or nega- their searchtion bias is tive evidence that they for informa-particular- require. A simple exam- tion. A pref-ly common ple of this would be erence for a(and crucial) someone who wants to positive testin the science investigate if 4x4’s are can also beand business more popular than cars evidenced insector. By by going to the country- hypothesis,looking for side to tally the num- as a posi-the informa- ber of cars and 4x4’s tive questiontion we want they see. Obviously, in favours a pos-and design- itive answer.ing questions biased More peo-towards the answer ple are likely to givewe favour all manner a positive answer toof problems can be the question ‘Are youcaused. Scientists, psy- happy with your child’schologists, researchers education?’ than ‘Areand anybody else who you unhappy with youris looking to prove their child’s education?’. Thispoint (and theirs alone) bias for positive ques-gravitate towards test- tioning often simplifiesing a hypothesis in a complex issues.biased way, search-ing for evidence that 34

As we can see from above, word- individuals were asked to refute aning is critical to a hypothesis, and by argument that contradicted theirmaking small changes the experi- beliefs, those with high confidencementers can skew the research levels searched for the informa-in their favour. By using positive tion that went against their beliefslanguage in a question people will to form an argument against it.look for the positives, but by using However, those with low confidencenegative language then people will levels searched for information thatlook for the negatives. supported their personal point ofIf you’re looking for a negative view, making little effort to addressaspect simply use negative lan- the argument from the other side.guage in the question and you will A confident person is therefore lesshave a better chance of receiving likely to be influenced by searchthe information you want. biases than a low confidence per-For example, by asking ‘Which son. The disasterous results thatof these immigrants should beapproved for a visa?’ people willlook for the positives, whereas byasking ‘Which of these immigrantsshould be declined a visa?’ peoplewill look for negative aspects. Notonly the wording can be a power-ful influence over search biases.Personality traits have been shownto influence search biases too.Selective exposure concerns howwe search for information that isconsistent or inconsistent with ourbeliefs, and those who are influ-enced by selective exposure tendto search for the former.Research has shown that when 35

can be caused by search biases can has been collected or provided.be demonstrated by the invasion Even if the information is free fromof Iraq - with no solid evidence of bias, the way we interpret it canweapons of mass destruction, it is differ widely.quite evident that the politicians Lord et alii (1979) at the Universityand others with vested interests of Stanford experimented on partici-were affected (whether by choice pants who had strong views in favouror not) by confirmation bias, espe- or against capital punishment. Eachcially in searching out proof of the participant read a brief descriptionWMDs existence. of two studies, a comparison of US states with and without the death A more obvious source of bias penalty and the comparison ofis interpreting the information that murder rates before and after the introduction of the death penalty in those states that employed capi- tal punish- ment. They were then asked if their opinions had changed, and were pro- vided with a more in depth account of the studies procedures and to rate them if the research was well conduct- ed and con- 36

vincing. All of this infor- the same thing but for ticipants returned tomation, including the the opposite studies. their original viewpoint.study description they Regardless whether the Participants had pickedfirst read was fiction- participants were for out from the detailedal. Half the participants or against the death information anythingwere told that of the penalty they all slight- that corroborated theirtwo studies they were ly shifted their opinion original viewpoint andbeing presented with, towards the first study used this as evidenceone supported the death they read. However, that they were right,penalty as a deterrent once they had access rating the study thatand the other didn’t. to the more detailed agreed with their view asThe other half was told information all the par- more convincing and as 37

Schema theory shows that informa- tion matching expectations will behaving more easily remembered, stored andbet- retrieved than information that goester pro- against prior expectationsceduresthan the thatother. This sur-demonstrates prisingthat even though the informationinformation can be the Schema stands out more andsame when present- theory shows that infor- is therefore more like-ed to two groups with mation matching expec- ly to be remembered.differing opinions, the tations will be more eas- Memory recall can alsogroups interpretation of ily remembered, stored be influenced by chang-this can be skewed in and retrieved than es in our emotional state.favour of their beliefs. information that goes Participants memories against prior expecta- of their emotional reac- tions. A schema is an tions gradually broke organized pattern of down over time whenOf course, it is possi- thought or behaviour asked about how theyble for information to be that categorises infor- felt about O.J Simpsonsearched for and inter- mation and the rela- being acquitted forpreted without bias- tionships between it. murder (Levine et al,es, but it can still be People are more likely 2001). They assessedselectively recalled to to notice things that fit the stability of emo-reinforce prior expecta- in with their schema. tions over time and thetions. Schemas use automat- relationship betweenTwo main theories ic thought to organise current appraisals anddominate psychology new perceptions and memory for emotions. Ain terms of selective categorise them. On the week after Simpson wasrecall, but they have other hand, other theo- acquitted participantsvery different views. ries provide evidence were asked how they 38

felt about their emotional reactions Confirmation bias is a resultand appraisals at the time when of unintentional thought strate-they found out about the verdict. gies rather than deliberate mentalAfter two months, and then a year, actions with the aim of deception.participants recalled their initial There are cognitive and motiva-emotional response and described tional explanations of why thistheir current appraisals of the ver- occurs. Cognitive explanations aredict. After a period of two months based upon the limitations thatthe more the participants apprais- people experience when carryingals of Simpson’s guilt or innocence out complex tasks. People employhad changed the less stable their heuristics, a problem solving andmemories for happiness or anger at learning technique used to speedthe verdict became. After one year up the process of finding a solutionsystematic changes in memories by using mental shortcuts to cutfor happiness, anger and surprise down the cognitive effort requiredwere found to be shifting towards to make a decision. The solutionthe participants current apprais- may not be the optimal one, butals of the event. For example, if it will be satisfactory. An educatedat the time of the verdict a per- guess would be an example of heu-son held the belief that Simpson ristics - not all information is pro-was innocent he may have reacted cessed but the answer is usuallywith happiness at this result. But, thought to be satisfactory.one year later if this person shiftedtheir appraisal of the situation tothinking Simpson was guilty thenthe recall of his emotional reac-tion to the verdict will change - hewould report he was not happy butdisappointed with the verdict atthe time, even though this was nottrue. 39

An availability heuristic may be used standard of evidence for evidenceby people to judge a particular sit- that they do not want to be true.uation based on what information Confirmation bias can involve a dif-easily comes to mind. Motivational ferent thought process called con-explanation for confirmation bias firmatory thought, which seeks evi-focus on wishful thinking - prefer dence to justify an already held pointhappy thoughts or outcomes to of view. Lerner and Tetlock haveunhappy ones. This form of positiv- succeeded in separating two differ-ity bias is known as the Pollyanna ent trains of thought. ExploratoryPrinciple, the tendency for people thought is a neutral process thatto remember a pleasant item more considers all the evidence and pre-than an unpleasant item. At a sub- dicts all possible outcomes, whilstconscious level the mind tends to confirmatory thought attempts tofocus on optimism whilst the con- validate their currently held view.scious err towards negativity. When Interestingly, Lerner and Tetlockapplying this principle to sources claim that people only force them-of information or evidence it sug- selves to use critical thinking whengests why the outcomes we want they know they will have to argueto be true are often considered to their point to those whose opin-be true. People will more readily ion they do not know or are wellbelieve evidence that they prefer to informed on the subject.be true and demand a much higher Confirmation bias can easily dis- rupt our social and work lives. Confirmation bias can lead to over- confidence, causing bad invest- ments and poor decision mak- ing. In the stock market, it has been shown that those who make the most profit resist confirmation bias. We can see from above that 40

scientific research can easily be more likely to remember the person who gives us praise than critique.compromised by searching for the Any emotional issue leads to adesired answer, either consciously stronger confirmation bias, often polarizing existing biases.or unconsciously. Even when two people with dif- ferent views are exposed to theConfirmation bias could prolong same information it can serve to actually make them take an evenscientific theories or experiments more extreme viewpoint than the one they previously had, a themefor years through compromised which has come to be known as attitude polarization. This servesresearch. Peer review - the pro- to entrench our views, making us more stubborn and less likelycess of equally qualified experts to change our beliefs. From the research above we can see how bigassessing the study - hopefully a part confirmation bias plays in our life. And this is only skimmingreduces the effect of confirmation the surface. Think back to the last argument you had - about poli-bias in research. Randomly select- tics, holiday plans or even which restaurant to go to - and there is aing participants has also contrib- good chance confirmation bias was involved. Even if you recognize it,uted in the effort to minimize the and you know it influenced your viewpoint would you change yourbias effect. Biases are also at play mind? Probably not, I wouldn’t!when we assess our own image.Self-verification (upholding beliefson self-image) and self-enhance-ment (the desire to receive positivepraise) are influenced byconfirmation bias.We are less likely to remem- ber feedback that goes against our self- image, and we are 41

by mado martinez website www.madomartinez.comINTERVIEW WITHDR. IRVING KIRSCHSTRANGE FACTS ABOUT PLACEBOSTHAT WILL SURPRISE YOUI rving Kirsch is Associated Director his research on placebo effects, anti- in the Placebo Studies Program depressants, expectancy, and hypnosis. at Harvard Medical School and Kirsch is the creator of the theory of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical response expectancy and studies in thisCenter, and professor of psychology at field regarding antidepressants and pla-the University of Plymouth (UK). He has cebo effect have had a lot of influence onexcelled in the scientific community for treatment protocols in UK. 42

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M.M. I have the feeling that we sadness, joy). What the placebohave not paid enough atten- effect shows is that these expectan-tion to the placebo effect and cies are self-confirming. Believingwe only consider its importance that we will have a certain experi-for testing new medicaments, ence can produce that experience.but it’s more than that and hasmore to do with healing than M.M. Modern medicine has amany drugs, right? pill for everything, even forI.K. For decades, the placebo effect depression, but you conductedwas only considered as part of the a research that showed the realprocess of testing new medica- effectiveness of antidepressantstions, but that has been changing. is very small, while the placeboMedical researchers are becoming effect in the administration ofmore interested in understanding these antidepressants is muchthe placebo effect and figuring out bigger. Considering that anti-how one can make use of it in clini- depressants are drugs, most ofcal practice. them very addictive and with many undesirable side effects,M.M. You have a very interest- should we consider other alter-ing theory, called the response natives?expectancy theory. What is it I.K. The clinical trials conductedabout? by the drug companies show thatI.K. Response expectancy theo- most of the effectiveness of anti-ry was inspired by study of the depressants is due to the placeboplacebo effect. Expectancies are effect. Many other treatments (foranticipations of what will happen. example, psychotherapy and phys-Response expectancies are antici- ical exercise) are just as effectivepations of what we will experience as antidepressants, but they don’tin various situations (e.g., pain, produce the side effects or other 44

health risks associated with thedrugs. These alternatives should betried first. Antidepressants shouldbe used only as a last resort, afterother, less risky alternatives havefailed.M.M. What does the placeboeffect have in common withhypnosis?I.K. The power of hypnosis andthe placebo effect are both basedon suggestion. One way to thinkof hypnosis is as a non-decep-tive means of producing a placeboeffect.M.M. During my years of experi-ence as a journalist and anthro-pologist, I have encounteredmany cases of people whoassure me that they recoveredfrom a sickness (herpes, can-cer, etc.) with a healer, going toa sacred place or using alterna-tive therapies such as hypnosis,positive thinking, etc. Is thisrelated to the placebo effect?I.K. Probably yes 45

M.M. When is a placebo more effective? In tablets, injections, or some other form? I.K. Placebo capsules are more effective than placebo pills, injec- tions are more effective than either pills or capsules, and sham surgery is the most effective of all. M.M. Can the doctor’s attitude improve the placebo effect? I.K. Yes! When doctors have pos- itive attitudes and expectations, they communicate these to their patients, often without even being aware that they are doing so. This can lead the patient to have greater confidence in the treatment and to show a better response to it. M.M. If you give syrup to a patient suffering from vomits, and this syrup is for provoking more vomits, but you tell the patient that it will cure him...can it cure him? Have you observed this? I.K. The answer is yes. There are classic studies by Stewart Wolf in46

CRAZY THINGS ABOUT PLACEBOS YOU SHOULD KNOWEuropeans react more positively to injections than to pills, butAmericans believe that pills are much more effective than injec-tions.Although lying to the individuals is crucial for placebo effective-ness, even when they are aware of receiving a fake drug, it canstill work.The color, the size and the shape of the pills is very importantand it really affects how well the placebo will work. Yellow pillsare better for treating depression and red ones are more indi-cated for keeping people awake and alert. Green pills lead theratings for treating anxiety while the white ones soothe stomachproblems.Placebo surgery is amazingly effective.When administering morphine, patients react better if they areinformed that they are receiving it than if not.People can inebriate themselves with placebos.Placebos can occur too among some animals.Several high profile studies are showing that placebos basicallyhave the same effect than antidepressants but without sideeffects.The nocebo effect can make individuals experience the sideeffects of a medication after reading the side effects warnings.The nocebo effect can make people sick even if they are receiv-ing treatment for recovering.The nocebo effect can end in psychogenic death. 47

the 1950s, in which people were M.M. Can we consider voodoogiven ipecac, a drug that usually as a result of nocebo?induces nausea and vomiting, and I.K. Anthropologists have studied awere told it would soothe their phenomenon called ‘voodoo death.’stomachs and ease their nausea. This occurs when someone is cursedIt worked. and subsequently dies. We cannot be sure how reliable the accountsM.M. What is nocebo? o f these phenomenaI.K. The nocebo effect is the conse-quence of expecting bad outcomes. are, but the theory isIt has been called ‘the placebo that a person whoeffect’s evil twin.’ Just as positive believes in voodooexpectations can produce can be frightenedpositive results, negative to death when theyexpectations can producenegative outcomes. know they have been cursed.M.M. Are some of usmore predisposed tonocebo than to placebo?Can we change this pre-disposition? How?I.K. The data on this are mixedand very complicated, althoughthere is some indication that opti-mists may be more susceptible toplacebo effects and pessimists tonocebo effects. 48

Pollinatorsand pesticides:How can we improve thebleak situation of ourbees? by declan perryB ees pollinate many of the more commonly known – was rolled fruit, nuts and vegetables out across Europe. On the face of we eat and without them our it this was good news for bees, and supermarket shelves would certainly better than no ban at all. be almost empty. Last year, in an But following the pesticide restric- attempt to protect our pollinating tions, the future of pollinators may insects, the highly controversial ban not be as rosy as you might expect. of a group of pesticides called neo- nicotinoids – or neonics as they are 49