medical_3_2021

IRREGULAR VERB LIST Base form Past simple Past participle be was/were been 95 begin began begun break broke broken bring brought brought buy bought bought build built built choose chose chosen come came come cost cost cost cut cut cut do did done draw drew drawn drive drove driven eat ate eaten feel felt felt find found found get got got give gave given go went gone have had had hear heard heard hold held held keep kept kept know knew known leave left left lead led led let let let lie lay lain lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met pay paid paid put put put run ran run say said said see saw seen sell sold sold send sent sent set set set sit sat sat speak spoke spoken spend spent spent stand stood stood take took taken teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought understand understood understood wear wore worn win won won write wrote written

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 1 a revision of verb to be • We use the verb to be to show the status or characteristics of something or someone. It is a stative verb and it works as the other stative verbs do. • The verb to be can be used in different tense forms. See the following tables: present simple past simple future simple present perfect simple I am was have been He /She / It is was has been will be We / You / are were have been They 96 e.g. We are upset today. I was in Chicago last week. Ellen will be twenty next month. I have been a sales manager for years. Practice A) Circle the correct form of the verb to be. 1. My boss was / were very busy last week. 2. He has been / will be to Egypt many times before. 3. I will be / have been at the office around nine o’clock tomorrow morning. 4. Jessica is / was always on time at work. 5. They have been / will be in the Alps next winter. 6. Michael was / is not at work last Friday. 7. My parents have been / are very busy lately. 8. Jack is / will be a good doctor. His patients are happy with his treatments and operations.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 1b tense review A. present simple tense • We use present simple to talk about something that is always /usually true in the present; our habits, routines and schedules. e.g. She works as a personal assistant in an international trade company. I have a big breakfast with my family on weekdays. I go for a drink with my colleagues on Fridays. The last bus to my home leaves at 11 pm. • We also use present simple with stative verbs like be, want, like, etc. e.g. He is a middle-aged man. I want to explain the situation. • See the structure of present simple below: affirmative negative question I study Statistics at university. I don’t study Statistics at university. Do you study Statistics at university? Helen studies Statistics at university. She doesn’t study Statistics at university. Does she study Statistics at 97 university? B. present continuous tense • We use present continuous to talk about the actions happening at the time of speaking; a short-term action that happened recently and changes happening around now (often with the verbs get, become, increase, grow, etc.) e.g. A: Can you help me to carry this furniture, Jan? B: I’m sorry mom. I’m cleaning my room now / at the moment. He is working as a part-time cashier in a supermarket these days. The population of this town is increasing very fast. • See the structure of present continuous below: affirmative negative question I am cooking dinner. I’m not cooking dinner. Am I cooking dinner? He / She / It is cooking dinner. He / She / It isn’t cooking dinner. Is he / she / it cooking dinner? You / We / They are cooking dinner. You / We / They aren’t cooking Are you / we / they cooking dinner? dinner.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE C. future tenses 1. future simple tense (will / won’t) We use future simple tense to talk about predictions, promises and voluntary actions in the future. e.g. It’s freezing cold outside. I think it will snow tonight. I’ll call you when I receive your e-mail. Don’t worry about the exam. I’ll help you to study. • See the structure of future simple below: affirmative negative question I will tell you the truth. I won’t tell you the truth. Will you tell me the truth? 2. be going to future tense We use be going to future tense to talk about our plans and intents in the future. e.g. Franz is going to visit his parents this summer. Affirmative Negative Question 98 I’m going to pay the bills. I’m not going to pay the bills. Am I going to pay the bills? He/ She / It is going to pay the He / She / It isn’t going to pay Is he / she/ it going to pay the bills? bills. the bills. Are we / you / they going to pay the We / You / They are going to pay We / You / They aren’t going to bills? the bills. pay the bills. D. past simple tense • We use simple past to talk about completed actions; a series of completed actions and a duration in the past. e.g. My sister moved to Greece last year. Ted arrived home, took off his jacket and began to study for his exam. I waited at the station for an hour. • See the structure of past simple below: regular affirmative negative question verbs I walked to school I didn’t walk to school yesterday Did you walk to school irregular yesterday morning. morning. yesterday morning? verbs I met my boss at the I didn’t meet my boss at the theatre Did you meet your boss at theatre last week. last week. the theatre last week?

GRAMMAR REFERENCE E. past continuous tense • We use past continuous tense to talk about continuing past actions at a specific time and actions that were happening at the same time. It is frequently used with simple past to express interrupted actions in the past. e.g. We were running in the forest at 7 am yesterday. Wilma was setting the table while her sisters were decorating the room. When Denis noticed and waved at me, I was driving to work. • See the structure of past continuous below: affirmative negative question I / He / She / It was playing board I / He / She / It wasn’t playing board Was I / he / she / it playing board games. games. games? You / We / They were playing You / We / They weren’t playing Were you / we / they playing board board games. board games games? F. present perfect simple tense 99 • We use present perfect tense to talk about our experiences that happened before now without telling their exact time; recent actions, situations or giving news using the time expressions ‘just, already, yet’; and the actions or situations that started in a particular time in the past and are still going on at this time. e.g. I have been to Istanbul more than ten times. She has just left the classroom. His brother has lived in India for six weeks. • See the structure of present perfect simple below: regular affirmative negative question verbs I’ve /She’s talked to the I haven’t /She hasn’t talked to the Have you / Has she irregular customers. customers. verbs I haven’t / She hasn’t seen Alicia talked to the customers? I’ve / She’s seen Alicia before. before. Have you / Has she seen Alicia before? Practice A) Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. 1. Caroline _____ (be) very angry when she _________ (see) that her sister had worn her favorite shoes. 2. Captain Cook _________ (discover) New Zealand over 300 years ago. 3. Steve _________ (catch) the same subway every morning. 4. I _________(walk) along quietly when our neighbor’s dog _________ (attack) me. 5. My sister _________(depart) by train to Istanbul today. 6. I _________ (write) to my parents every Sunday night. 7. Josh _________ (save) some money because he _________ (travel) to London for the weekend. . 8. At last, our school team _________ (win) the match against our most important rival. 9. Her father _________ (wait) for her when she _________ (arrive) home late. 10. Ashley is angry because her fiancé _________ (show) up yet and she has been waiting for an hour.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 2a question types • Subject and object questions are two main question forms in English. • When we want to know who / what does the action, we use the subject question form. To make a subject question, we just use ‘who’ or ‘what’ instead of the subject of the sentence. We don’t need any auxiliary verb and the word order is not changed. e.g. question answer Who cooks at your home? My mom cooked at our home. What made you sad? The exam results made me sad. • Object questions are more common and familiar question forms. An object question asks about the object of the sentence. We need auxiliary verbs and we have to change the word order of the question. e.g. Question Answer What did you cook at home? I cooked chicken and rice. Who / Whom have you met? I met the manager. Where does she come from? She come from Seattle. 100 Note: When a question word is the object of a preposition, the preposition is usually at the end of the sentence. e.g. Who are you talking to? - I’m talking to Jerry. What is he looking for? - He is looking for his eyeglasses. Which movie are they talking about? - They are talking about Hugo. Practice A) Read the questions and write S for subject questions or O for the object questions. 1. Who gave you that necklace for your birthday? 2. What disturbed you when you were taking the exam? 3. Who did you write a letter of complaint to? 4. Who called you at 5 am last week? 5. What did you dream about last night? 6. What happened during the party last night? 7. What did you buy this morning?

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 2b present modal revision We use modals/ modal verbs with a main verb in the sentence to express ability, obligation, request, etc. Modal verbs don’t work like other verbs. They don’t change their forms according to the subject of the sentence and they usually remain unchanged in all tenses. However, must and can need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in the different tenses (can – be able to; must- have to). Here are the usages and examples: Modal Usage Example *Be able to Ability / possibility (means man- I’m able to drive long hours in the sun due to these age to) glasses. (in different verb tenses) Alice was able to find a well-paid job after many disappointing attempts. Can / can’t Ability / possibility Inability / impossibility They can help us to rent an affordable apartment. Asking for permission I’ll call a mechanic because you can’t repair this ma- Deduction chine. Can I park in front of your store? Could/ couldn’t Asking for permission She can’t be Lucy over there. She’s gone to France. *Have to Request Could I use your charger, please? Ability in the past Could you repeat that, please? I could write poems when I was at high school. Exterior obligation, necessity You have to hand in your paper by next Friday. Norman has to travel a lot as part of his job. Past obligation / necessity (both Ellie had to change her blouse when she spilt some 101 past forms of must and have to) sauce on it. Had to Not necessity You don’t have to pay for the internet; it is free for Don’t / doesn’t students. have to (need to) Possibility /asking permission May Possibility /deduction May I ask a question? Might Necessity / obligation I haven’t seen Michelle recently. She might be on leave. Strong advice Must Deduction I must leave in a few minutes. Prohibition You must read this book.You‘ll love it. Mustn’t Necessity He must be the new director. *Need to Offer   You mustn’t use calculators in the exam. Shall Do I need to *Ought to / Advice / Recommending action  Shall I help you with the cleaning? ought not to They ought to be at the station before 10 am. Should /shouldn’t You should see an optician as soon as possible. (I think) we should change the topic. Will Spontaneous decisions /request / Wait a minute! I’ll answer the phone. promise Will you tell me the shortest way? /prediction / willingness I’ll send an email when I arrive the office. Our team will be the winner tonight. Would Asking for permission /request Offers and invitations (as would Would you hold my suitcase for a second? you like…) Would you like to have some more coffee?

GRAMMAR REFERENCE * ‘Need to, ought to and have to’ are semi- modals. It means that they behave similarly to modal verbs but also share some characteristics with main verbs. 3a articles: a / an, the, zero article a. a /an (indefinite article) We use a /an • to describe a singular noun. There’s a tree in the middle of the field. • before professions. I’m an architect. • when something is mentioned for the first time. I’ve bought a roll and a lemonade. b. the (definite article) We use the • when we are thinking of a specific thing. 102 I want to rent an apartment. (It might be one of many apartments) I want to rent the apartment near the park. (a specific apartment) • before the usual places the speaker goes to. (i.e. bank, market, doctor, etc.) I have to go to the market today. (the market that the speaker usually goes to) I have a terrible toothache. I need to go to the dentist. (my usual dentist) • when something has been mentioned before. (I’ve bought a roll and a lemonade.)The roll is terrible but the lemonade is delicious. • before the systems and services. Should I call the police now? • with adjectives like rich, poor, unemployed, etc. which are used to talk about groups of people. Do you think the rich (people) should help the poor (people)? • when there is only one of something. The Earth revolves around the Sun. • with the superlative form of an adjective. It is the most beautiful scene I’ve ever seen. • well known buildings or works of art. The British Museum

GRAMMAR REFERENCE • with rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges and country names if the country has a political title in its name, or if it refers to a group of states / islands. the Amazon, the Mediterranean Sea, the Arctic Ocean, the Himalayas (not the Everest), the United Arab Emirates • in some fixed expressions. in the morning, the sky, the sea, the same, the radio, the cinema, in the end, etc. • before ordinal numbers. the fifth of June, on the second floor, in the twentieth century • before (plural) family names (refer to the whole family) the Simpsons • before musical instruments. Could you play the violin when you were at high school? c. Zero article 103 We use no article • with proper names (person, city, country, etc.) Helen, New York, Denmark • to talk about general things or groups of people. Whales are mammals. Students can have discount tickets. • before plural nouns when they are mentioned for the first time. We need three more chairs. • before meals, days, seasons, months have breakfast, on Sunday, in winter, in February Practice A) Fill in the gaps with a / an / the / -. 1. Caroline always makes ___ bed before she leaves for work. 2. We went to ___ cafe after ___ theatre and had ___ coffee. 3. He needs ___ new shoes. These ones are old and they have holes in them. 4. Unfortunately, she doesn’t like ___ Mexican food. 5. I don’t know why they are building ___ hospital in ___ city centre. There are already four hospitals. 6. Could you pass me ___ salt please? 7. Mathew is nervous because he has got to go to ___ dentist for his toothache. 8. Ashley, your classmate is on ___ phone. She wants to ask you ___ question about tomorrow’s exam. 9. When Susan was ___ child, she went to school in ___ Wellington. 10. Over $75,000 worth of ___ jewellery was taken during ___ robbery.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 3b be used to / get used to • The usage of ‘be / get used to’ is often mistaken for ‘used to’ (refers past habits). However, they are all different in both structure and in meaning. a. be used to • ‘be used to’ something means be accustomed to it. That is, you don’t find it unfamiliar. A noun, noun phrase or gerund can follow ‘be used to’. e.g. I wasn’t used to driving on the left in the past, but now I am. I’m used to it / driving on the left. It was quite difficult to travel by plane for me, but now I’m used to it. b. get used to • ‘get used to’ something means becoming accustomed to it. That is, you are becoming familiar to it. A noun, noun phrase or gerund can follow ‘get used to’. e.g. They’ve just had a baby, so they are getting used to staying up late. F: What about your current job? Do you like it? G: I’m not sure, but I’m getting used to it. 104 • Both ‘be used to’ and ‘get used to’ can be used with past, present and future tenses. e.g. You will definitely get used to working with Jane, she is a very cute girl. I got used to wearing thick clothes when I moved to Norway. Practice A) Make sentences about past and present habits or situations with the given information. 1. Richard / play / hockey / ice hockey Richard use to play hockey. Now he plays ice hockey. 2. My brother / study / French / English - __________________________________________________. 3. Brian / read a lot / novel / always TV - __________________________________________________. 4. My father / work / factory / company - __________________________________________________. 5. Anthony / prefer to drink / coffee / tea - __________________________________________________. 6. Mary / be / secretary / hairdresser - __________________________________________________.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 7. My sister / live / Paris / Spain - __________________________________________________. 8. Linda / have / cats / dogs - __________________________________________________. 9. My uncle / lots of girlfriend / married - __________________________________________________. 4a quantifiers We use quantifiers to give information about the number / amount of something. e.g. A: How many cans of coke do you drink a day? B: Well, sometimes more than six. C: How much salt should I add to this meal? D: Just a little. Quantifiers can be used with countable, uncountable, singular or plural nouns. See the following tables and examples: -1- only countable nouns -2- only uncountable -3- both countable and uncountable 105 a couple of, (a) few, fewer, nouns nouns several a bit of, (a) little, (not) All, any, a lot of, lots of, more, most, plenty much, less, a great deal of, some of -1- e.g. I’ve found several old books in the attic. Few students took the final exam in science class. We have to repeat it tomorrow. (‘a few’ means ‘some / not many’ but enough; ‘few’ means ‘almost zero’- not enough) -2- e.g. Eve has little money with her, so I’ll lend her some. (‘a little’ means ‘some / not much’, but enough; ‘little’ means ‘almost no’- not enough) We have a great deal of time, don’t worry. -3- e.g. More students should apply to the program this semester. All of your shirts are in the wardrobe.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE Practice A) Choose the correct words in italics. 1. My father gave me a few / a little dollars to spend at school. 2. Most / Most of men do not like to shop for hours. 3. Do you have enough / much sugar to bake a cake? 4. I wish I could spend a few / a little time with my parents this week. 5. She is having a lot of / much trouble passing her history exam. 6. There is little / a little doubt that my father will get a promotion. 7. I used to stay in this apartment much / many years ago. 4b verb patterns: gerund / infinitive When we need to use two verbs together in a sentence, there are two certain forms we can use: a) gerunds: Gerunds are verb forms that function as nouns. Gerund verbs end in – ing. • They are used as a subject or an object in the sentence. e.g. Smoking harms your health. (subject) I like walking. (object) 106 • They are used after certain verbs. e.g. We enjoy dancing. I love sleeping on rainy days. • You can see the list of some certain verbs used before gerunds below: avoid can’t discuss dislike enjoy finish keep mind practice recommend suggest stand • They are used after prepositions. e.g. She is good at swimming. I’m afraid of flying. b) infinitive: Infinitives are the dictionary forms of the verbs (to V1). When a bare verb is used with the particle ‘to’, it is called ‘full infinitive’. When we don’t use to, then we call it ‘bare infinitive’. i. full infinitives: • They can be used after certain verbs. e.g. I need to see her. Greg has decided to leave the school.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE • You can see the list of some certain verbs used before full infinitives below: agree ask decide help* plan hope learn offer want I would promise like *help’ can be used with both full and bare infinitives. • They are used after certain adjectives. e.g. It is hard to work at night. It is nice to see you here. • We use them to express purpose. e.g. We are travelling to Norway to live a better life. Someone has sent you a card to invite you to a conference. ii. bare infinitives: • We use bare infinitives after modal verbs. e.g. You should see a consultant. I can fix your computer. • After some certain verbs, we also use bare infinitives (let, make, -sometimes help) e.g. 107 Will your parents let you go out with your friends? I help my little brother (to) do his homework. Note 1: After some verbs, we can use both gerunds and also full infinitives. There is little difference in meaning. e.g. I like getting up early I like to get up early. Note 2: Some verbs (suggest, ask, offer, help, etc.) can be followed by object pronouns / objects before the gerund or infinitive formed verbs. Practice A) Complete the sentences with gerund or infinitive with ‘to’. 1. I need ______________ (study) well before my tests. 2. She is afraid of ______________ (swim). 3. We want _____________ (earn) a better salary so I’m working harder now. 4. My sister really enjoys _______________ (watch) American movies from the past. 5. I don’t know how _____________ (fix) this broken computer.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 6. Are you serious about _____________ (go) on a vacation during the busiest time of work? 7. Linda doesn’t mind ______________ (be) late to work because her boss is very understanding. 8. Those two sisters have always been good at _____________ (cook) delicious and different meals. 5a passive forms in simple present / simple past: is done/ was done • active voice When the subject performs the action in a sentence with an action verb, it is called active voice. That is, we know the subject who/ what acts or does the verb in the sentence. e.g. The children visit public library every week. (It is clear who visits the library) subject verb object My mother made a delicious cake for my birthday party. (We know who made the cake) subject verb object • passive voice We use passive voice when we focus on the action, not the subject. It is not important or not known who or what performs the action. 108 e.g. The Public library is visited every week. (We don’t know who visit the library) subject verb The Public library is visited (by the children) every week. (We don’t spealy who visits the library) A delicious cake was made for my birthday. (It is not clear who made the cake) subject verb Note 1: In the second example above, we have used ‘children ‘with the preposition by. It means that we know and wants to emphasize the person who performs the action. This part of speech is called the ‘agent’. Note 2: Remember that the ‘direct object’ in an active sentence turns to the ‘subject’ of the passive sen- tence. a) passive form in simple present: is done Passive sentences have affirmative, negative and question forms in simple present tense, and they are formed as the following: affirmative and negative forms subject verb to be verb past participle (v3) agent complement She is invited - to all the ceremonies at the college. Dinner is cooked by my wife at our home. Olives aren’t grown - in places have cold climate.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE question form verb to be subject verb past participle (v3) agent complement every weekend? Are the rooms cleaned by Carol e.g. Mandarin is spoken in most parts of China. The roof is repaired by my uncle every winter. Fences in my garden are painted twice a year. a) passive form in simple past: was done Passive sentences have affirmative, negative and question forms in simple past tense, and they are formed as the following: affirmative and negative forms subject verb to be verb past participle (v3) agent complement She was invited - to the ceremonies when she was at the college. cooked Dinner was typed by my yesterday. daughter Documents weren’t - on computer in the 1980s.. 109 question form verb to be subject verb past participle (v3) agent complement Were the rooms cleaned by Nina last weekend? e.g. My wallet was stolen at the bazaar yesterday. This oil painting was completed in five years by Mrs. Ayuki. Many impressive novels were written by the great author Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy. Practice A) Rewrite the sentences in passive voice. 1. The postman delivered the letters. ________________________________________ 2. People speak English all around the world. ________________________________________

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 4. Jess didn’t cook lunch. ________________________________________ 5. I arranged the meeting yesterday. ________________________________________ 6. They grow vegetables on their field. ________________________________________ 7. Millions of people visit America every year. ________________________________________ 8. Someone stole my mobile phone from the office yesterday morning. 5b causatives • The causative means that someone other than ourselves does something for us. There- fore, we usually make an arrangement with a professional to do it, or sometimes ask for someo- ne to do a favor for us. • We usually use the verbs ‘have, get, make’ to make causatives. have means give someone (often a professional) the responsibility to do something: e.g. I had motorbike fixed by my mechanic. 110 (I paid my mechanic and he fixed my motorbike.) get means to convince someone to do something: e.g. I got my motorbike fixed by my brother. (I asked my brother to fix my motorbike and he did it for me.) make means to force someone to do something: I made my friend fix my motorbike. (I forced my friend to fix my motorbike.) • Mainly, we use two different ways to form a causative sentence. Compare the examples below: a. have / get + something + V3 (by someone) I have my shirt cleaned. (Someone cleans my shirt for me – the person who cleans is unknown) b. have / make + someone + V1 + something get + someone + to V1 + something I have my mother clean my shirt. (My mother cleans my shirt for me) • When we want to change the tense of the sentence – or use a modal verb- , we make changes on the causative verbs: have, get or make.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE e.g. She has her hair dyed every month. She is having her hair dyed at the moment. She will have her hair dyed tomorrow. She had her hair dyed last week. She has had her hair dyed before. She should have her hair dyed. She used to have her hair died when she was younger. Practice A) Complete the sentences with the correct form of a causative verb. 1. Don’t ___________ me laugh! I need to focus on my work. 2. She ___________ the carpenter to mend her old chair right now. 3. The kids ________ their mother make a cake for them every weekend. 4. His owner __________ the little dog run for more than an hour. 5. My mother never __________ me go out when she needs me to help her at home. 6. I need __________ my broken computer fixed because I need to use it for my job all the time. 7. Jessica _____________ her hairdresser to dye her hair for more than half an hour.  6a conditionals: zero conditional / first conditional 111 • Conditionals (or if clauses) are used when a certain situation is true and then a certain result happens. There are four basic conditional structures in English. Let’s begin with zero conditional. zero conditional • We use zero conditional when we are sure about the result of a condition, such as scientific facts, rules and routines. We need two clauses to form all conditionals. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result. See the following structure: If condition (present simple) result (present simple) This is a fact. No one expects a different result you heat water, it evaporates. after this condition. • As you see above, both condition and main clauses are formed in simple present tense. These two clauses are interchangeable. e.g. If I have cold drink, I get sick = I get sick if I have cold drink

GRAMMAR REFERENCE (Whenever I have cold drink, I get sick) If I am late for work, Mr. Davis warns me = Mr. Davis warns me if I am late for work (When I am late, Mr. Davis always gets angry) If someone eats too much fat, s/he puts on weight = Someone puts on weight if s/he eats too much fat first conditional • We use first conditional to talk about a possible result of a condition. In other words, we are almost certain about a result to happen in the future if the condition happens. See the following structure: If condition (present simple) result (will/won’t + v1) The result is possibly expected after the condition. It is not you don’t study hard, you will fail. certain, but possible • As you see above, the condition sentence is formed in simple present tense and the main clause is formed in ‘simple future’. These two clauses are also interchangeable. • First conditional is used to talk about: possibilities, superstitions, future plans and warnings. e.g. She won’t go shopping if she doesn’t have enough money. (Possibility) If you see a black cat, it will bring you bad luck. (Superstition) If I have enough time, I will visit my family this weekend. (Future plan) 112 If you continue telling lies, no one will believe you again. (Warning) Note 1: We can also use modals and ‘imperatives’ in result (main) clauses. e.g. I can fix your laptop if you aren’t good at computers. If you have a sore throat, you should drink warm herbal tea. It is the best. Practice A) Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb. 1. Their baby boy seldom _________ (cry) if he _________ (be) not hungry. 2. If you _________ (heat) water, it _________ (boil). 3. If the temperature _________ (drop) to minus 30 degrees Celsius, the water _________ (freeze). 4. If you _________ (heat) ice, it _________ (melt). 5. If a person _________ (break into) that building, the alarm _________ (go off).

GRAMMAR REFERENCE B) Rewrite the sentences using if clause type 1. 1. If you (study) hard, you (pass) all your tests. ______________________________________________ . 2. If it (rain) cats and dogs, you (get) soaking wet. ______________________________________________ . 3. If you (mix) blue and red, you (get) purple. ______________________________________________ . 4. If he (work) hard, he (earn) a lot of money. ______________________________________________ . 5. If he (wear) that black suit, he (look) formal. ______________________________________________ . 6b wish clause: present meaning • Wish is used to talk about things that we want to change about the present or the past. a. Talking about the present and future 113 When we talk about present hopes and wishes, wish is followed by the past simple tense. However, it refers to the present time. e.g. I wish I had an umbrella with me. It is raining heavily outside. (I need an umbrella at the moment but I don’t have one) I wish you weren’t at work today. I need your help at home. (I need you at home but you aren’t at home now) Tom wishes he was in Las Vegas. (Tom wants to be in Las Vegas now, but he isn’t) Note: We can use were instead of was with the pronouns ‘I, he, she, it’ when talking about the present wishes. e.g. I wish I was / were a surgeon. • We use wish with ‘would + V’ to say how we want somebody to behave in the future. e.g. I wish you would study harder (I want you to study harder) I wish my brother would quit smoking (I want my brother to quit smoking) Practice A) Rewrite the sentences using wish clauses in present tense. 1. I can’t go to the concert tonight. I wish_______________________________________________ 2. I want to see my boyfriend more often but I can’t. I wish_______________________________________________

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 3. I live in Ankara and I am not happy with this. I wish_______________________________________________ 4. It is a pity Sandra is not in the office. I wish_______________________________________________ 5. My girlfriend doesn’t know how to dance. I wish_______________________________________________ 6. My best friend isn’t coming to my birthday party. I wish ______________________________________________ 7. Why can’t you come to my birthday party? I wish_______________________________________________ 8. I’m not watching my favorite TV show tonight. I wish_______________________________________________ 7a indefinite pronouns: somebody, something, somewhere, anybody, anything, anywhere 114 • When we want to mention people, things or places without saying exactly who, what or where they are, we use indefinite pronouns. They can be used as subjects or objects of the sentence. • To refer people, we use pronouns ending in -body or –one, to refer things, we use pronouns ending in –thing and to refer places, we use pronouns ending in –where. These indefinite pronouns always have singular verbs. • Anybody, anything, anywhere mean a person, thing, place of any kind; or a person, thing, place that we don’t speily. Somebody, something, somewhere mean a person, thing, place is uncertain or unknown. e.g. Somebody/ someone called you a few hours ago. You can buy anything as a present for him. I can’t find my wallet anywhere. • You can see in the table below which pronouns are used in which sentence forms: affirmative negative question somebody , something, some- anybody , anything , anywhere anybody , anything, anywhere where (in requests and offers somebody, something, somewhere) e.g. I should eat something before going out. I haven’t seen anybody/ anyone in this building so far. Did you find anything in the old chest? Note: Indefinite pronouns somebody, something, somewhere, anybody, anything, anywhere have always singular verbs.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE e.g. Someone is standing at the door. not Someone are standing at the door. Practice A) Read the sentences below and circle the correct words in italics. 1. You don’t have something / anything to do. 2. Let’s do something / anything different today. 3. Somebody / Anybody has knocked on the door. 4. We should go somewhere / something interesting this weekend. 5. There wasn’t anybody / anywhere in the lesson so we did not do anything new. 6. Can anyone / someone help me with my heavy luggage please? 7. I need someone / something to help me with my project. I can’t do it on my own. 8. Carrie went anywhere / somewhere historical last weekend. 7a indefinite pronouns: nobody / nothing /nowhere/ everybody / everything / everywhere • We use nobody, nothing, nowhere in affirmative sentences, but they have negative meanings. 115 e.g. There is nobody in the backyard (= There isn’t anybody in the backyard) She has eaten nothing since yesterday (= She hasn’t eaten anything since yesterday.) We went nowhere last summer. (= We didn’t go anywhere last summer.) • Everybody, everything, everywhere mean all the people, things, places. They can be used in all sentence forms. These pronouns have plural meanings but they are used with singular verb forms: e.g. Everybody has to be ready at 10 am. I tried everything I could, but it didn’t work. We have looked everywhere to see Vanessa. Practice A) Complete the sentences with ‘nobody / nothing / nowhere/ everybody / everything / everywhere’. 1. I have tried ____________ but I failed to succeed. 2. ______________ can help me because I am in a very difficult situation. 3. There is ______________ I can tell you about the latest news as it is top secret information. 4. _____________ she has done so far turned out to be wrong.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 5. He told me _________________ about the new boss so I guess I will not have any problems while working for him. 6. There is _______________ special we can go in this town. It’s such a small place! 7. _______________ has acted so strangely that I really don’t know who to trust! 8. I am sure ________________ will be alright in the end. 8a future plans: be going to / present continuous / present simple To talk about our plans and intentions about future, we can use several different verb forms. a. be going to future tense To talk about plans decided before the moment of speaking, we use ‘be going to future tense’. e.g. I’ve already booked a table for two. We are going to eat out tonight. Cecile is going to attend the meeting. She has worked for her presentation all week. Note: We can also use ‘will’ to express our plans. It is used to talk about spontaneous, unplanned decisions for the future. A: I’m hungry. Let’s cook something. B: There’s nothing to cook at home. 116 A: Okay. Then, I will go and buy something. (He decides to go at the time of speaking) b. present continuous tense ‘Present continuous tense’ is also used to talk about future arrangements. These arrangements are usually organized by a group of people and the time and place of the arrangement is known by the speaker. Also, we choose this verb form especially when the main verb of the sentence is ‘go’. e.g. I’m seeing my consultant tomorrow morning. Uma and her friends are having a picnic this Sunday. They are going to Georgia next month. Note: It is important to use a future time expression (tomorrow, next…, etc.) with present continuous tense describing future plans. c. present simple tense ‘The present simple’ can be used to talk about scheduled future events. These events happen according to a schedule or timetable. Therefore, we usually express an exact time in the sentence. e.g. The last train to Boston leaves at 1 am. My lessons start at 2 pm. The bank closes earlier tomorrow.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE Practice A) Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. 1. Your exam ______________ (be) on Monday at 9 o’clock, so don’t be late! 2. What ______________ (you / do) after work this evening? 3. This afternoon Ashley ______________ (take) the children to the cinema. 4. ______________ the art exhibition ______________ (finish) on Wednesday or Thursday? 5. We ______________ (meet) Steve at six o’clock this evening at a restaurant near the city center. 6. I ______________ (have) a party next Friday. Would you like to come? 7. Next week, we ______________ (go) camping with a couple of our friends. 8. Blair ______________ (not play) basketball next Friday because he has hurt his leg. 9. This summer we ______________ (rent) an apartment on the coast. 8b future predictions: will / might To talk about future predictions, we can use some certain modals or other expressions. a. will / won’t 117 When we are sure about a prediction about the future, we can use ‘will’ or ‘won’t’. We often use the adverbs such as definitely, probably, possibly, etc. to show how sure we are. e.g. Our team will definitely win the game. They are the best of all. He didn’t study anything last night. He will probably fail the exam / He probably won’t pass the exam. Note: We can also use ‘be going to’ to talk about predictions about the future. ‘Be going to’ means that we have a significant reason for making the prediction. Nancy ate the eggs in the fridge but they had all expired. She’s going to feel sick. reason prediction b. might / might not When we think that something is true, but we aren’t sure about it, we can use ‘might’ or ‘might not’. (It is possible to use ‘could’ or ‘may’ in this situation.) e.g. The players are ambitious and strong. They might win the game. (But I’m not sure) I studied all night, but the course isn’t easy to pass. I might fail it / I might not pass it. c. other expressions for predicting the future • If we are 100 % sure about something, we can use the following expressions: e.g. Marilyn is bound / certain to get a better job. She has a brilliant résumé. (She will certainly get a better job)

GRAMMAR REFERENCE • If we think so, but we aren’t 100 % sure about something we can use the following expressions: e.g. Tony is likely to forgive me. There’s a good chance that Tony will forgive me. (But I’m not sure about it) • If we don’t agree the statement, we can use the following expressions: e.g. Marilyn is unlikely to get a better job because she is unexperienced. There’s no chance that Tony will forgive me. He is still angry at me. Practice A) Fill in the gaps with will / might. 1. Susan likes animals. When she grows up she ______ be a vet. 2. I’m not sure where Caroline is. She ______ be in her office. 3. Adam hasn’t decided yet but he ______ move to Italy for his education. 4. We ______ definitely go to the concert this weekend as we bought the tickets. 5. Jake twisted his ankle yesterday. He ______ probably miss the next match. 6. I’m not sure but we ______ not go to school tomorrow because of the bad weather. 7. I’m sure you ______ have a lot of fun at the party. 8. I think we ______ probably travel with flying cars in the near future. 118 9a relative clauses with who / which / that • We use relative clauses to define a person or a thing by using relative pronouns like who, which or that. When we link two sentences to make a relative clause, we don’t need to use the described person / thing for the second time. Instead, we use the relative pronouns mentioned above. e.g. The girl is Japanese. I met her last night at the club. The girl who I met her last night at the club is Japanese. I saw the photos. They came in with the morning post. I saw the photos which they came in with the morning post. • These pronouns can refer both the subject and the object of the sentence. e.g. The old lady is my neighbor. She has a lot of cats. (the old lady = subject of the sentence) The old lady who has a lot of cats is my neighbur.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 119 I have visited the building. It was built in the 1900s. (the building = object of the sentence) I have visited the building which was built in the 1900s. • We use who to describe people. e.g. A nurse is a person who looks after patients. The man who is wearing glasses is my manager. I have met a man who comes from Mexico. • We use which to describe things or animals. e.g. An oven is a device which bakes, roasts or dries something (especially food). The room which we have cleaned is empty now. Tina rents an apartment which is relatively cheaper. • We can also use that instead of who and which to describe both people and things. e.g. The student that failed the exam became upset. These are the shoes that she bought last week. Practice A) Rewrite the sentences using relative clauses. 1. She worked for a doctor / the doctor used to be a child’s doctor (who) _________________________________________________. 2. They called the police / the police worked nearby (who) _________________________________________________. 3. I sent an e-mail to my father / my father works in Canada (who) _________________________________________________. 4. The new customers liked the sales assistant / the sales assistant was very friendly (who) _________________________________________________. 5. We broke the PC / the PC belonged to my boss (which) _________________________________________________. 6. I dropped the glass / the glass was full of red wine (which) _________________________________________________. 7. She loves reading adventure books / the books have exciting plots (which) _________________________________________________. 8. They live in a city / the city is in the South of Spain (which) _________________________________________________.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 9b indirect questions and requests • When we prefer asking questions to strangers, or we want to sound more polite, we can use indirect question forms. See the details about the usage and the structure below. • We can use the following expressions to make indirect questions and requests. Do you know…? Can you tell me…? I was wondering… I’d like to know… Would it be possible…? 120 • In indirect questions, verb to be, have / has or modal verbs come after the subject. (it is / she has) e.g. “What time is it?” (direct question) “Can you tell me what time it is?” (indirect question) “How long has she worked here?” “I was wondering how long she has worked here.” • In indirect questions with do / does / did, these helping verbs are omitted and the question is formed like an affirmative one. (live turns to lives) e.g. “Where does Blair live?” (direct question) “Do you know where Blair lives?” (indirect question) • When the direct question is a yes / no question, we make the indirect question / request using if, instead of a question word. e.g. “Are you the new manager?” (direct question) “I’d like to know if you are the new manager.” (indirect question) Practice A) Rewrite the sentences using reported questions. 1. Will: “Do you want to dance?” Will asked me _______________________________________. 2. Elizabeth: “When did you arrive home?” Elisabeth asked me ___________________________________.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 3. Michelle: “Has the teacher arrived, yet?” Michelle asked me ___________________________________. 4. Robbie: “Where does Jessica live?” Robbie asked me ____________________________________. 5. Lily: “Did you watch that film?” Lily asked me _______________________________________. 6. Amanda: “Can I help you with your assignment?” Amanda asked me ___________________________________. 10a present perfect simple vs. present perfect continuous We use present perfect simple to talk about the recently completed actions (and often their results). We don’t mention the exact time but we emphasize the action itself. e.g. I’ve read this book many times. (I started and finished reading the book many times in the past, but I don’t say the time. This doesn’t emphasize the length of time) I’ve been reading this book for two days. (I started reading the book two days ago, and I’m still reading it. This emphasizes the length of time) They’ve done their homework, so they can play on the computer. (action + result) We use present perfect simple and present perfect continuous to talk about an action that started in 121 the past and is still going on. Especially with the verbs, ‘live, study, work, teach, etc.’ there is almost no difference in the meaning. e.g. She’s taught in a high school for ten years. = She’s been teaching in a high school for ten years. Remember that stative verbs are generally used with present perfect simple although we want to talk about the duration of the action. e.g. I’ve known Samantha for five years. not I’ve been knowing Samantha for five years. We also frequently use the time expressions, such as just, already, yet, before, so far, twice, many times, etc. in present perfect simple; however we use for, since, recently, lately, this week, etc. in present perfect continuous. e.g. Francesca has been to Turkey before. Francesca has been flying to Turkey for an hour. Note: It is also possible to use ‘for’ and ‘since’ in present perfect simple; however the difference is that it especially emphasizes the duration of the action in

GRAMMAR REFERENCE Practice A) Circle the correct words in italics. 1. She has bought / has been buying new furniture for her bedroom. 2. The kids have eaten / have been eating candies ever since they came from school. 3. The students have been writing / have written three pages already. 4. How long have you been reading / have you read that book? 5. Charlie has gone / has been going to the gym four times this week. 6. He has worked / has been working on this report since Wednesday and he is only half way through. 7. They have built / have been building that garage themselves and have just begun to use it. 8. My mother has learned / has been learning to drive for three years. 10b conditionals: second conditional • We use second conditional to talk about imaginary situations and their results in the present or future time. See the following structure: Condition (past simple) Result (would / could + V1) The speaker imagines that s/he If is in a bigger city; however s/he I lived in a bigger city , I would find a better paid job. is not. 122 • As you see above, the condition sentence is formed in simple past tense and the main clause is formed as would / could +V1. These two clauses are also interchangeable as they are in other conditional forms. • Second conditional is used to talk about imaginations or dreams. e.g. If I had more money, I would move my house. [But I don’t have more money] • We also use second conditional to talk about improbable situations. e.g. I would help the poor people if I were the President. [But it is improbable for me to be the President] • To give advice or offer an opinion, second conditional can be used. In this usage, if I were you… is frequently used. e.g. If I were you, I wouldn’t call him again. [But I’m not you] If I were the manager, I wouldn’t let Uma be late every morning. [But I’m not the manager] • Question forms are common especially in spoken language. e.g. What would you do if you were a rich person? Would you be happy if you were a professional musician?

GRAMMAR REFERENCE Practice A) Rewrite the sentences using if clause type 2. 1. If we (have) a sailing boat, we (sail) overseas. ___________________________________________________. 2. If he (have) more money, he (buy) a new car. ___________________________________________________. 3. If you (tell) a lie, I (be) very angry. ___________________________________________________. 4. She (study) for a year in New York if it (be) was possible. ___________________________________________________. 5. If I (live) in a small village, I (live) peacefully. ___________________________________________________. 6. We (help) her if we (know) what to do. ___________________________________________________. 7. My brother (buy) a new PC if he (have) enough money. ___________________________________________________. 8. If I (feel) better, I (go) to the cinema with you. ___________________________________________________. 123