Articles on Basic Design Theory

misconceptions will be addressed. Unlike Of Grammatology Translated French by G C Spivak Corrected Ed Baltimore The Johns Hopkins University Press Jan Tschichold Typographer London Lund Humphries Deconstruction and Graphic Design History Meets Theory Internet Available at https //www typotheque com/articles/deconstruction_ and_graphic_design_history _meets_theory Accessed / / No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism London Laurence King Pubhow some interpretations make it appear,Post-Structuralism has no inherent style Derrida J McLean R Lupton E Poynor Rbut is rather a questioning approach, analternate method of thinking as a way toprovide a new starting point for philoso-phy, architecture, typography, essentiallyall which require thought. ³ Neither doesit involve dismantling an object, taking itapart nor causing carnage as opposed toorder. ⁴ In truth, it is so much more.Derrida’s theory, in brief, suggests thatdivisions, such as presence/portrayal,original/copy, do not exist. Albeit, theobjects of said divisions exist but thedivision itself does not. Intellectuals ofthe West have long since appreciated oneside of the division above the other,‘allying one side with truth and the otherwith falsehood’, ³ as in original againstcopy, however, Derrida argues that thehierarchy should be inverted in order to 49

Deconstruction & Structuralism:displace the system thus allowing the Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,subject to be interrogated in a new or Symbiotic Coexistence?light. ¹ Therefore, when applied to the opposition of speech and text, Post-Structuralism would argue that cognition, vocal expression and written language are not divided at all but are in fact reliant on each other, one cannot refer to itself without acknowledging another, a concept which Derrida ² designated a gram. ‘Whether in the order of spoken or written discourse, no element can function as a sign without referring to another element which itself is not simply present.’ (p. 26) When this idea is ex- tended to the realms of graphic design it is not as simple as following an ideal or style. Members of Cranbrook University, Chuck Byrne and Martha Witte, defined Deconstruction as the dismantling of an idea so as to allow a new point of view, a new way of interpreting. ³ When applied50

to graphic design, Post-Structuralism, ‘writing obscuresLupton ⁴ suggests, allows ‘designers and language; it is not areaders to share in the spontaneous creation guise for language butof meaning... Rather than view[ing] mean- a disguise.’ing as a matter of private interpretation’ (Saussure 2011 p. 30)In Course in General Linguistics, Saussureasserts that a sign has no implicit mean- On Deconstruction Theory and Criticism After Structuralism th Anniversary Ed London Routledge Positions Translated from French by A Bass Chicago The University of No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism London Laurence King Pub Deconstruction and Graphic Design History Meets Theory Internet Available at https //www typotheque com/articles/deconstruction_ and_graphic_design_history _meets_theory Accessed / /ing on its own, it only gains animus whenin the context of a language system. This Culler J Derrida J Poynor R Lupton Ecan be either phonetic or ideographic Chicago Presslanguage, although the issue with pho-netic writing is that it merely representsthe sound of words, ‘Whereas an ideogramrepresents the concept of a word,’ ⁴ pho-nemes do not give a clear view into thethought/concept that they claim toportray, instead they actively create newideas in the reader that resemble thoseposed by the writer. ⁴ This is furtherundermined by the lack of “tone ofvoice”, with every step away from the 51

Deconstruction & Structuralism:purity of the mind space an idea be- Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,comes more problematic to fully portray. or Symbiotic Coexistence? Additionally, consider the word oiseau (French for bird), pronounced ˈwæzəʊ (or wazo), where none of the spoken sounds are determined by the provided symbols, instead, the pronunciation is decided by the word’s history. This is not limited to French, consider the English words thought (θɔːt or thawt), Wednesday (ˈwɛnzdɪ or wenzdey) and Southwark (ˈsʌðək or suhtherk), ‘Whoever says that a certain letter must be pronounced a certain way is mistaking the written image of a sound for the sound itself.’ ¹ (p. 30) Saus- sure 1 continues by revealing that written language leads to mispronunciation. This occurs in words like template, previously iterated as ˈtemplɪt (templit), yet, due to the a and terminating e, has come to be pronounced as ˈtemplət (templayt). ² ‘spelling influences and52

modifies language.’ ¹ (p. 31) Structuralism ‘Writing begins at thefinally asserts that speech is the utmost point where speechdirect link to the subconscious as ‘(it is becomes impossible’not by chance that psychoanalysis is linkedto speech and not writing: dreams are (Barthes 1977 p. 190)spoken not written).’ ³ (p. 191) Course in General Linguistics Translated from French by W Baskin New York Words Whose Pronunciation Has Changed Over Time Internet #view notes Accessed / / Image Music Text Translated from French by S Heath Fontana Press Positions Translated from French by A Bass Chicago The University of The Truth In Painting Translated from French by G Bennington & I McLeodNonetheless, Derrida ⁴ disputes this,affirming that pure phonetic writing Saussure F Columbia University Press Vocabulary com Available at http //www vocabulary com/lists/ Barthes R Derrida J Derrida J Chicago The University of Chicago Pressdoes not exist, as demonstrated by Chicago Presspunctuation, spacing as well as formssuch as italics and bold, uppercase andlowercase. These are known as graph-emes. In The Truth In Painting Derrida ⁵continues; justifying that text (phonemesand graphemes) work as a frame, as onemight frame a work of art, he poses aquestion regarding someone announcing,in a completely bland tone of voice andstanding motionless, the words ‘I aminterested in the idiom in painting.’ ⁵ (p. 1)How can another understand what is 53

Deconstruction & Structuralism:being said exactly? This is where writ- Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,ten glyphs take flight, they work as or Symbiotic Coexistence?parerga (working outside or around the form) revealing how the proclaimed completeness of thought or speech is, in fact, empty. ¹ Moreover, Barthes ² develops upon this by maintaining that writing can give a new dimension to language. He expresses that text allows an unbiased, inactive ground where every link to the figure of the narrator is severed. ‘writ- ing is the destruction of every voice, of every point of origin… where all identity is lost,’ (p. 142) this is the basis of the concept of Death of the Author. Whereas the understanding of the work is usu- ally sought after in the elusive Author, Mallarmé believed it prudent to substi- tute this figure with the writing itself, ‘it is language which speaks, not the author;’ (p. 143) as this allows precon-54

ceptions about the work to melt away. Deconstruction and Graphic Design History Meets Theory Internet Available at https //www typotheque com/articles/deconstruction_ and_graphic_design_history _meets_theory Accessed / / Image Music Text Translated from French by S Heath Fontana PressDestruction of the Author allows thetext complete freedom; whilst still, in Lupton E Barthes Ractuality, the author imposes a limita-tion upon the range of possible conno-tations. Without the narrator, there isno final assertion or judgment allowingany interpretation to be a correctinterpretation. ‘When the Author hasbeen found, the text is ‘explained’—victoryto the critic.’ (p. 147) Barthes ² also makes note that thewriting should, in fact, take precedenceover speech! Whilst writing can becarefully considered and crafted, deliber-ated and pondered over, rewritten andeven erased, speech is irrevocable. ‘a wordcannot be retracted, except precisely bysaying that one retracts it.’ (p. 190) Heproceeds to report that the only way thatspoken words can be improved upon issimply by speaking further, weaving a 55

‘However beautiful a convoluted web of tangled utterance if piece of modern one is not careful. This, nonetheless, typography may be, contradicts all other evidence inferring that writing should be Structuralist and it is not “new” if it causing spoken word to appear Decon- sacrifices the purpose structed. However, the aforementioned of its form for this’ descriptions of both theories shall be sustained for the following arguments. (Tschichold 1930 p. 315) Although Structuralism relates to lan- Deconstruction & Structuralism: guage, technically speaking, it manifests Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech, itself in the form of Constructivist typog- or Symbiotic Coexistence? raphy (or the New Typography) a Mod- ernist movement pioneered by Jan Tschichold. Following along similar lines to its language based counterpart, Tsch- ichold ¹ believed that typography should be used in order to convey information via the most clear and concise means possible. Due to writing’s tenacity to obscure the essence of the original ideation New Typographers deemed it54

more appropriate to remove all forms of What Is New Typography And What Are Its Aims? Translated from German Active Literature Jan Tschichold And New Typography Jan Tschichold Typographer London Lund Humphries Tschichold J The Placing of Type In A Given Space McLean R ed Janornamentation, all serifs, all facti- Tschichold Typographer London Lund Humphriestious/artificial shapes, all nonessentials, ² Tschichold J by R Kinross Burke C ed London Hyphen Press McLean Rthus allowing absolute understanding ofthe original concept, actively creatingnew ideas in the reader that resemblethose posed by the writer, as closely aspossible. ¹ No distraction should comebetween the message and the observer.This includes, and is highly reliant on,aspects such as alignment and position-ing within given spaces. Tschichold ³firmly contends against the use ofcentral alignment affirming that typeshould be set asymmetrically, construct-ing an overall, “rhythmically unequal”balance. ‘it is usually better to move thetype area from the centre to the right’(p. 123) This idea of the importance of claritybecomes all the more apparent whencomparing Modernist and non-Modern- 55

Deconstruction & Structuralism:ist commercial layout of the same era. Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,Consider The Comprehensive, [left over- or Symbiotic Coexistence?leaf] by May, an example of non-Mod- ernist layout, packed with information that the eye does not want to read, primarily due to the lack of an efficient hierarchy of information. Whilst the line does direct the eye across the page, from one area to another, it is not only unclear where to start but also what is most important and, moreover, what the page is even for, at a quick glance. On the contrary, Modernism is the very antithe- sis of ambiguity. Recognise Design For A Poster, [right overleaf] by Tschichold, once again packed with information, notwithstanding it is abundantly appar- ent what information should be pro- cessed foremost, where the eye should subsequently alight to and finally, possi- bly most importantly, gives directive as to what is most important on the page.58

Thus, the Structuralist ideals of clear No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernismfunctionality hold true; less distractionallows closer understanding of the Poynor R London Laurence King Publishinginformation, the designer controls whatis communicated to the observer. In the Byrne and Wittefast paced world of the 1930s this break-through was revolutionary, and therewere many who believed it could changethe world; clearer lines of communica-tion means less misreckoning ergominimal chance of hostility or war. Butis this always the most appropriateapproach to layout design?When regarding Deconstruction there isno true design centric counterpart,however Byrne and Witte ¹ (p. 49)propose that typographic design is asuitable extension with its strong basisin language, and more pointedlyPost-Modern typography. Students, underByrne and Witte, pioneered the critically 59

60 May D The Comprehensive illustration p May D Roughs Chicago Frederick J Drake & Co

Tschichold J Design For A Poster print p McLean R Jan Tschichold Typographer London Lund Humphries61

‘The intention was to aware form of Post-Structuralism at highlight the physical- Cranbrook Academy of Art circa 1990. ity of the printed Whilst early critics dismissed the use of word’s presentation “excessive” intricacy as complexity for the and to establish new sake of complexity, Byrne and Witte non-linear connec- advocated its devices with the view that tions between words, they can develop upon ‘aspects of a commu- opening the possibil- nication that uniform, modernist treatments ity of alternative sometimes obscure.’ ¹ (p.50) This idea stems ways of reading’ from Derrida’s theory of the parerga being used to qualify the strength of the text, (Poynor 2003 p. 53) adding depth and new meaning, giving the text a “tone of voice”. ¹ Likewise, the Deconstruction & Structuralism: inclusion of the Death of the Author con- Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech, cept allows ideas to broaden, deepen and or Symbiotic Coexistence? live on in facets unconceived by the creator. ² When ‘designers and readers share in the spontaneous creation of meaning’ the work is left open and available to all. This is expressed in much of the material produced by Cranbrook circa 1990, not limited to Cranbrook Design:62

The New Discourse. [overleaf] a combined No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism London Laurence King Pub Deconstruction and Graphic Design History Meets Theory Internet Available at https //www typotheque com/articles/deconstruction_ and_graphic_design_history _meets_theory Accessed / /effort of McCoy, Makela and Kroh. Onceagain, this page is swarming with infor- Poynor R Lupton Emation and again it is not directly clearas to where the eye should focus first,albeit more lucid focal points than in TheComprehensive. [see page 60] In additionthe cardinally conceived chaos, uponcloser scrutiny, is more of a disciplineddiscord. By simply observing the pagepreconceptions of what the text may saycan already be fancied by the reader, notonly notifying them as to whether theydeem it necessary to read but simultane-ously preparing them for it. In effect ittransfers information instantaneouslywithout the need to even read a word oftext, a prime goal Modernist visualcommunication set out to achieve. Yetdeeper than that it demonstrates aspectsof freedom. The designers know that byDeconstructing layout, as they have, 63



they reduce the readability of it, but they ‘the single mostare not setting out to transmit their significant fact aboutinformation with point to point accu-racy. Their intention, as with the inten- postmodernism as antion of a good deal of Post-Modern intellectual phenome-artists, is to allow their ideas to take on non in the year twonew life in the imaginations of every thousand is this: it is inobserver, hence by obscuring the part of a state of decline!’the picture they set it free. (López, J. & Potter, G.Both theories have had their time and 2001 p. 4)place, but, in the year 2015, has theepoch of the Post-Structuralist run its Cranbrook Design The New Discourse No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism On Deconstruction Theory and Criticism After Structuralism th Anniversarycourse? Culler 1 accounts that certainDerridean courses of reasoning argue Facing Page McCoy K Makela P S & Kroh M Poynor R London Laurence King Publishing Ed London Routledgethat ‘all readings are misreading,’ (p. 180)which consequently leads to stalemate, a book page p Culler Jnullifying of good or bad until neithercan be determined. This reciprocateswithin the design world, with no morerules, no differentiation between what isacceptable and what is blasphemous, how 65

Deconstruction & Structuralism:can new boundaries be pushed. ‘Invention Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,and revolution come from tactical aggres- or Symbiotic Coexistence?sions against this grid of possibilities’ ¹ however with Post-Modernism having removed all regulations, all definition of any grid, how can anything advance? Although it was useful for breaking away from the conformity of Modernism it has subsequently caused the Post-Modern Crisis. López and Potter ² make comment that much of current Post-Modern material struggles to clarify it’s concepts due to their multiplex views and so, alternatively, merely reflects or becomes complexity in its place, leaving readers lost in the midst of vast expanses or theoretical hypothesis. They go on to suggest that Post-Modernism is meagre and weak in the extant intellectual times we live in and whatever follows must be better. They suggest Critical Realism. They advise it as a sensible scion to66

the phenomenon on the grounds that it ‘Postmodernist writinggives an auspicious relief from the thick celebrates ambiguityobscurity of that which it would replace. and complexity whileCritical Realism, as a philosophy, strives realism struggles forfor precision and lucidity wherever clarity and simplicity’possible, though not always possible,‘However, where the reader perhaps finds the (López, J. & Potter, G.ideas difficult to grasp they can at least rest 2001 p. 5)assured that it is the ideas themselves thatare complex rather than merely their mode Deconstruction and Graphic Design History Meets Theory Internet Available at https //www typotheque com/articles/deconstruction_ and_graphic_design_history _meets_theory Accessed / / After Postmodernism An Introduction to Critical Realismof expression.’ ² (p. 5) Although it does nothave as wide a diversity as Post-Modern- Lupton E López J & Potter G edsism, it still has varying definitions de- London The Athelone Presspendant on the scholar questioned. Sohow does this effect typography, thelanguage or written speech? López and Potter ² advance thatCritical Realism proposes the view ofscientific caution, under the ethos thathumans divine knowledge, and humanscan be mistaken ¹ (p. 9), therefore, scienceis not pure. Continuing, science is deeply 67

Deconstruction & Structuralism:embedded in language and, as formerly Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,stated, language has a trend of mislead- or Symbiotic Coexistence?ing. What Critical Realism presents is ‘the possibility of... refinement.’ ¹ (p. 9) When applied to the realms of typogra- phy, as has been done with the two preceding theories, one could see, not a set of rules nor a way of analysing, but a forging ahead in creative ideas. Con- cepts and ideals would not be fixed as rules but would instead be liquid, changing and growing, refining and improving. A continuing cycle of pro- gression and revision. So where does this leave typography? Of course there are situations in which the Structuralist approach will be vital, as seen in examples of medical information, road signs, even the majority of reference material; book, essays. The information must be produced with simplicity and68

clinical clarity in order to enable the After Postmodernism An Introduction to Critical Realismtransmission of facts either at high speedor in great detail. In said situations a López J & Potter G edsdistraction, or convoluted flourish, has London The Athelone Pressthe chance of causing anything from thepassing on of misinformation to thedeath of one or many. Likewise there willbe many a situation where a Decon-structed approach should be takenallowing for a more emphatic outcome.These styles of design may not make thedifference between life and death on aregular occurrence but they certainlyallow for a more exciting environment,forcing the layman to think about his/hersituation in greater depth, giving colourto a potentially repetitive industry. In thesame manner some would say it is timefor Critical Realism to take centre stage,pushing philosophy, architecture, typog-raphy, essentially all which requirethought to new vistas. 69

Deconstruction & Structuralism: Finally, in regard to the hierarchy of Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,language, there is no true answer. It can or Symbiotic Coexistence?be said that writing itself cannot fully transmit information as intended in every situation and therefore it should be presented in as clear a fashion as possible, therefore writing is obviously the subordinate of speech. On the contrary, writing could be said to inhabit speech, one does not simply consider the ring without thinking of the written “ring”, the spoken rɪŋ (ring) and the object of the ring itself, and more importantly a disrupted layout can give the written word a tone of voice, thus synchronicity. If the theory of Critical Realism does come to take antecedence perhaps it will con- cede a new way to view the divide of the spoken and the written, but this is still to be realised. As with all things, there is a time for68

everything and a place for all, it is up tothe thinker, designer, creator to decidethe most apt approach and solve theproblems he/she comes against. 69







that can be judged separately from any The Power of Comics History Form and Culture London and Reading Comics How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean Da Capo Press “Work of Art ” Dictionary com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary Internet Available at dictionary reference com/browse/work% of% art?s t “Work of Art ” Collins English Dictionary Online online Collins English Dictionary Internet Available at www collinsdictionary com/dictionary/ english/work of art Accessed / /utilitarian considerations.’ ³ Alternatively,a work of art could mean fine art, such Duncan R & Smith M J Wolk D Dictionary com Accessed / / Collins English Dictionaryas paintings or sculptures of a high New York Continuumquality. ⁴ If a work of art merely consti-tutes an object which need not have ause aside from providing aestheticpleasure, then a comic book of anystandard would fit into this category.The more favourable concept is that a“work of art” has an aura. That is to say,it has a history, the value is raised bywho, when, where and why it was cre-ated. Super-hero pamphlets, produceden-mass by machines as quickly andcheaply as possible have very little aura.On the other hand, the argument couldbe put forward that literature, producedin a similar way, can be considered awork of art. It is immensely difficult todefine what art is so the conclusion willbe drawn that a work of art, in the 73

Can Graphic Novels Ever context of this essay, is an object that Be Considered Works of Art? has been created with great skill for a non-commercial purpose, although one could also argue that the industry of fine art is extremely commercial. However, the question remains, does that include graphic novels? When considering the opinion that graphic novels can have a cultural standing as art, we must turn to Maus (1980), by Art Spiegelman. The moving, emotive narrative of a survivor of the Nazi Holocaust is certainly not a chil- dren’s story and yet it is portrayed in comic format, expressing the characters as animals. Maus was further the first graphic novel to achieve the honour of a Special Pulitzer Prize, a previously un- thinkable notion. ¹ The comic was recognised alongside the year’s best work in literature and journalism for its74

depiction of the era, exploring complex The Power of Comics History Form and Culture London and Art Spiegelman Conversations Mississippi Jackson The Power of Comics History Form and Art Spiegelman Conversations Mississippi Jacksonaesthetic, moral and cultural themes. ²The majority of observers would cite Duncan R & Smith M J Langer L n d Duncan R & Smith M J Witek J edMaus as the moment comics emerged as New York Continuum Culture London and New York Contuuma serious art form and claim that no one Witek J ed Hess Ehas done more to bring comics to thispoint than Art Spiegelman. 2 The argu-ment put out by critics as to why it wonsuch a prize was that ‘Art Spiegelmandoesn’t draw comics’ ³ (p. 1) and that itcould not be a comic because it wasgood. ‘After all comics are for kids’. ⁴(p. xiii) Although the vast majority ofcommercial comics could be thought ofas low quality, simply made for profit,there are many excellent works that arevirtually unknown that can be as pro-found, moving and enduring as any ofthe more culturally accepted vehicles ofhuman expression. ¹ Nevertheless, there is a strongaffiliation of comics with low culture. 75

Can Graphic Novels Ever Known for links with people of low Be Considered Works of Art? intelligence they cater towards children and others of low literacy. ¹ On top of that is the commercial aspect of the medium. Produced quickly, in huge quantities, with little care, they are inescapably outside the concept of artistic tenability. ² For an object to be considered a “work of art” it must have an aura, even graphic novels that had care and passion put into them become intrinsically less valuable when they lose their uniqueness in reproduction. However, this is not always the case. The following is a postmodern stance and would suggest that graphic novels can indeed be considered works of art, nonetheless, it is merely one point of view. The idea of aura has been highly debated at great length, in the region of eighty years, and is technically and76

philosophically complex. Discussed here Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative Principles and Practices from the Legendary Cartoonist New York Norton Comics Comix and Graphic Novels A History of Comic Art London Phaidon The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction Translated from Greman by H Zohn Proofed and Corrected Ed Internet Available at www marxists org/ reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin htm Accessed / /is a very brief overview of the notion.Walter Benjamin ³ argues that the Eisner W Sabin R Press Limited Benjamin Wreproduction of an artwork allows theoriginal into situations which wouldusually be out of reach. ‘The cathedralleaves its locale to be received in the studioby a lover of art’. ³ Some would say thatmechanically produced artwork, as inwoodcuts, photographs and digitalprints, do have an aura due to the factthat it is not drawn from the object butrather the subject. The aura comes fromthe structure of perception, that is itderives from the creator’s ability toperceive the object rather than theability to create a high-quality image.‘Aura is best understood as a predicatepertaining to the subject rather than theobject of perception; it describes how thesubject is capable of encountering itsobjects, whatever they may be’. ¹ (p. 167) 77

Can Graphic Novels Ever Benjamin goes even further to say that Be Considered Works of Art? reproduction gives an artwork freedom from a forced aura when it is released from the rituals that bind high art, ‘mechanical reproduction emancipates the work of art from its parasitical dependen- cies on ritual.’ ² Instead of physically visiting the art and being informed how the work should be viewed, through the combination of both written informa- tion and the aesthetics of the location, the art comes to the viewer in the comforts of home with no outside sources imposing opinions. The broader term for comics, sequen- tial art, has been used to include histori- cal works like Grecian urns, stained glass windows, even artefacts such as the Bayeux Tapestry. ³ The Bayeux Tapestry (107?), [facing page] commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux, is a seventy-me- tre long embroidery depicting the story78

of the Norman invasion of England told using a combination of pictorial and linguistic images. Although the design is not separated into panels, in the way comics are, it holds the same principles primarily telling the story pictorially whilst supplementing this with the use of written word, albeit a limited amount. In addition, the figures and landscape are less representational than some current commercial comics as they take abstract angles on a two-dimensional plane. The negative representation of the art form, however, stems mainly from Depicted Commisioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux ? The Bayeux Tapestry section of embroidery Available at www wga hu/art/zzdeco/ tapestr/ bayeux/ bayeux jpg Accessed / / Costello D n d Aura Face Photography Re Reading Benjamin Today Benjamin A ed Walter Benjamin and Art London and New York Continuum Benjamin W The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction Translated from Greman by H Zohn Proofed and Corrected Ed Internet Available at www marxists org/ reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin htm Accessed / / Duncan R & Smith M J The Power of Comics History Form and Culture London and New York Continuum79

Can Graphic Novels Ever the mass of quickly created, lowest-com- Be Considered Works of Art? mon-denominator American pamphlets aimed at eleven-year-olds ¹ stifling the work of smaller, independent creators. Nevertheless, much of the criticism could rely on the cultural prejudices of different social classes. Whaam! (1963), [depicted] by Roy Lichtenstein, for example, is a panel taken from a com- mercial comic. However, by ‘Transferring this to a painting context, Lichtenstein could present powerfully charged scenes in an impersonal manner’ ² raising its cul- tural value so that it could be considered museum worthy.80

In the words of Robert Crumb: ‘“ART” is ‘graphics are respecta-just a racket! A HOAX perpetrated on the ble; novels arepublic by so-called “Artists” who set them- respectable; graphicselves up on a pedestal, and promoted by novels, doublepantywaste (sic) ivory-tower intellectuals respectability.’and sob-sister “critics” who think the world (Spiegelman 1992 p. 132)owes them a living!’ ³ (p. 8) On the otherhand, one could argue that comics and Whaam! Acrylic Paint and Oil Paint on Canvas Accessed / / The Power of Comics History Form and Culture London and Whaam! Display Caption Internet Available at www tate org uk/art/ Comics Comix and Graphic Novels A History of Comic Art Comics Comix and Graphic Novels A History of Comic Art London Phaidon Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative Principles and Practices from thegraphic novels cannot be seen as art dueto the belief that art can only be art if it Available at www tate org uk/art/artworks/lichtenstein whaam t Accessed / / Legendary Cartoonist New York Nortonis unique, which the mass-producedcommercial comics are certainly not and Facing Page Lichtenstein R Duncan R & Smith M J artworks/lichtensteinwhaam t Sabin R London Phaidon Press Limitedit is due to this that they are ‘automati- New York Continuumcally outside the notions of artistic credibil- Tate Crumb R Sabin R Press Limited Eisner Wity’. ⁴ They are known to have limitedusefulness linked with people of lowintellect. For decades creators have beencontent with simple mindless violence. ⁵Furthermore, although one could con-sider the graphic novel as sequentialillustration similar to the Bayeux Tapes-try and others of this nature, in no way 81

Can Graphic Novels Ever does this immediately put this in the Be Considered Works of Art? same league. It is a strategic manipula- tion of association in hopes of receiving more respectability.¹ In 2006 Gene Luen Yang’s graphic novel American Born Chinese was nominated for a National Book Award in Young People’s Literature. In relation to this, Tony Long, a blogger for Wired News, opinioned that it should not have been nominated. Long makes the point that comics are not the same as the classic style of literature so how can they be awarded in the same way and ‘his point that Yang’s book was the wrong medium for its award was at least debatable.’ ² It is important to consider another aspect of the debate: if graphic novels were ac- cepted into high art, would this help or hinder the medium? The nature of “art” means that people are looking, judging82

the artist through what they create, The Power of Comics History Form and Culture London and Reading Comics How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean Da Capo Press Comics Comix and Graphic Novels A History of Comic Comics Comix and Graphic Novels A History of Comic Art London Phaidonmeanwhile comics fly below the criticalradar. ³ (p. 9) It is a “free medium”, a Sabin R Art London Phaidon Press Limitedplace for writers and artists to “play”away from critical gaze, experimenting Duncan R & Smith M J Wolk D Spiegelman A Sabin R Press Limitedand stretching creative muscles remain- New York Continuuming unrestrained by the status andexpectations of “art”. ⁴ The point ofcomics for both reader and creator isescapism, no matter what genre isconcerned, accompanied by an unlimitedspecial effects budget. ² Alternatively,without recognition from the culturalcommunity, comics are being held back.The graphic novel can easily be consid-ered art, even in its most commercialform, it involves a skill set of imagecreation and storytelling while in itsmore profound moments it indeedreflects the world around us, Maus beinga prime example. On the other hand, 83

Can Graphic Novels Ever calling a graphic novel a work of art is Be Considered Works of Art? debatable, the ease of reproducing a copy makes it commonplace, the medium and content can also often be seen as an issue. In recent years there has been a shift in the way comics are viewed, but there is still not a complete acceptance of the medium yet. The final choice of whether graphic novels can be considered as works of art essentially comes down to personal opinion, affected by experiences and social standards, but with the post- modern climate that is becoming increas- ingly prevalent, ideals and opinions may soon undergo alteration.84



Is a TraditionalTypographicalProficiency StillEssential?

AbstractThis research reviews the historicaldevelopment of typography so as toassess if bygone traditions are stillrelevant to the modern typesetter. Theseprinciples have become well rooted, asthe brief history has indicated, andHendel and Bringhurst both agree thatthere are very good reasons as to why.However, with recent developments intofont systems, the skill behind thesetraditions is becoming less necessary ascomputers take charge of such details.This could lead to standardisation, assought after by Jan Tschichold and themodernists, which could produce amarked improvement in the type of

Is a Traditional Typographical typography produced by the uninitiated. Proficiency Still Essential: However, when compared to the skill Abstract and craft of classical typographers, much would be lost if typesetting were to be truly handed over to the computer. While progress has allowed type to become more expansive, efficient and safe, there is the risk that the skill and intuition of the professional typesetter could be lost in this day and age. It is for this reason that this information has been provided as a point of departure for the graphic designer who wants to handle mass text proficiently. Design principles have altered dramati- cally over the last five hundred years from whichever angle they are observed. From a technical standpoint, the essence of the font has been transfigured from physical moulds of metal and wood, into ethereal concepts defined by complex88

equations. As a career, the acts of com-posing, printing and manual labour haveabbreviated into the individual and theircomputer. Even from an academicviewpoint the specialist knowledge thatwas once essential is less so, as typogra-phy becomes even more proliferated.However, these huge changes are oftennot fully appreciated. With desktoppublishing now available to anyone witha computer it is important that thegraphic designer set a standard, leadingthe way in “good” typography. Yet inmany cases it is, in fact, the designerwho is the culprit, creating type with noregard for well established typographicrules. Without a basic knowledge of thefoundation upon which the designerstands, ignorant outcomes are inevita-ble. In an attempt to highlight thebenefits and detriments of modern typethe following article will explore and 89





Is a Traditional Typographical inventors to discover an actually effi- Proficiency Still Essential: cient method of supplanting the scribe. A brief history This method was perfected by Johann Gutenberg (c. 1450), and so dawned ‘Typography: The art, craft, or process of composing type and printing from it The selection and planning of type for printed publications’. ¹ While it is debated whether the Gutenberg Press was defini- tively the first of its kind, both Steinberg ² and Dowding ³ agree that the timing was propitious, and whether he was founder or not, Gutenberg was certainly a key figure in optimising it. ‘Gutenberg’s genius lay, if not in inventing, then in perfecting the hand-mould in which types could be cast by… this making possible the production of books in quantities and at speeds undreamt of before his time’. (p. 3) It should be also noted that these early printers had to be their own type found- ers, they invented the profession. This92

lasted, Dowding ³ predicts, up until “Typography ” Collins English Dictionary Available at http //www collinsdictionary com/dictionary/english/typography Accessed / / Five Hundered Years of Printing Edited by John Trevitt rd edn London The British Library Publishing Division An Introduction to the History of Printing Types An Illustrated Summary of the Main Stages in the Development of Type Design from 1440 up to the Present Day An Aid to Type Face Identification London The British Library Publishing Division A History of Printing in Britain London Cassellroughly 1530 and meant that printersunderstood every detail about how their Collins English Dictionary Steinberg S H Dowding G Clair Ctypeface worked. This is a markeddifference when compared to lattertypesetters who merely used fontscreated by others. While typography evolved im-mensely over the succeeding threehundred and fifty years, the next“major” step was the dawn of the ma-chine age. Clair ⁴ describes how therapidly increasing population of Englandbetween 1700 and 1800 necessitated thereplacement of the cumbersome handpress, and by 1790 ‘…a patent for a print-ing machine embodying the cylinder princi-ple’ (p. 205) was taken out by WilliamNicholson. While Nicholson’s inventionnever reached fruition, likely owing to alack of financial backing, many of thespecifications he stipulated were requi- 93

* This is according to site features of the machine’s descend- Clair (1976), Steinberg ants. The biggest barrier for the early (1996) and Wilson inventors, Jennett ¹ explains, ‘…were those (2012), although of justification, the supply of the type to the Bringhurst (2013) and machine, and the recurrent question of Jennet (1964) disagree distribution’, (p. 61) which were all solved slightly about the date. by the watchmaker Ottmar Mergen- thaler with the inauguration of the Is a Traditional Typographical Linotype in 1886.* Soon after, the Linotype Proficiency Still Essential: was followed by the Intertype, a very A brief history similar machine with a system of stand- ardisation. However, these were dwarfed in the shadow of the Monotype, a tremen- dously complicated piece of engineering mastery that allowed a host of attributes including three hundred and six keys for seven alphabets: capitals and lower-case of roman, italic and bold face; together with small capitals, points of punctua- tion, ligatures (fi, ff, fl, ffi, ffl, œ, æ and more), and several spaces for fixed widths. ¹ (p. 67) ‘The printer has emanci-94

pated himself from the founder and has The Making of Books rd edn London Faber & Faber Five Hundred Years of Printing Edited by John Trevitt rd edn London Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works Detail in Typography Paris France B42delivered himself into the hands of themanufacturers of composing machines,’ Jennett S Steinberg S H The British Library Publishing Division Spiekermann E and Ginger E M nd edn Berkeley CA Adobe Press U S Hochuli J(p. 234) As ever though, progress demandsspeed, and Steinberg ² writes of thecompositors brief soirée into phototype-setting in 1944 before the breakthroughof “computer-assisted composition”. It isthis breakthrough that created type as itis known today, where ‘Every PC usertoday knows what a font is, calls at leastsome of them by their first name (e.g.,Helvetica, Verdana, and Times)’, ³ (p. 21)and with the coming of OpenType,“good” typography is becoming evermore accessible to the proletariat oftype. However, there is one particularissue to note that Hochuli ⁴ raises. Withtypefaces in general, simply scaling aglyph (whether it be a hand rendered 95

‘Strictly speaking a font is scaling or digital) is often not wholly a set of characters in one sufficient. Depending on the purpose of size and style—for the font a different version could be example, Garamond needed. ‘Giambattista Bodoni, for in- Roman, 12pts. A typeface stance, designed a large number of type- is a family of related fonts faces… they resemble each other, but also in a rangeof sizes—for vary in many details,’ ¹ (p. 21) So taking example, Garamond that as an example, Bodoni 10pt could Roman, Italic and Bold, in differ significantly from Bodoni 24pt. sizes 8, 10, 12 and 14pts. One must be optimised for readability at However, most typogra- a small size, whilst the other is free to phers use the terms express the whims of the designer at a “font” and “typeface” larger scale. In contemporary design interchangeably.’ though, for most digital fonts there is only one Bodoni typeface and the ability (Cheng 2006 p. 10) to set it any size the designer chooses. This is known as mechanical enlarge- Is a Traditional Typographical ment and it is a tremendous blight to Proficiency Still Essential: digital typography. Although, with A brief history forthcoming developments, it may soon be a thing of the past.96