Cambridge English: Advanced Result Student's Book

Writing Part 1 An essay WG p154 3 Discuss the three methods mentioned in the 1 How 'green' is your school or workplace? List the exam question and list points you could make about each. Then choose the two you have most measures it has taken to protect the environment, to write about. Which of those two is more e.g. recycling procedures, fitting solar panels. Should important, do you think? Give reasons. any more measures be taken, in your opinion? Describe them. 4 Read the first two paragraphs of the model essay 2 Read the writing task and input text and underline opposite and find examples of the following: the key information. How many methods must you a rhetorical questions include in your essay? How must you compare them? b varied sentence patterns c a direct appeal to the reader You have just taken part in a panel discussion d appropriate linking words on the state of the environment. The discussion e high-level vocabulary including collocations focused on the methods international organisations should use to persuade companies and set phrases in countries around the world to become f a clearly expressed opinion 'greener'. You have made the notes below. 5 Read the third paragraph of the model. What has Me.tho(\\5 inte-rnational booie.n c.ou\\o the writer forgotten to do? u;,e. to ~e.r;,uaoe. c.om~anie.n i~ ,. 6 Rewrite paragraph 3 in an appropriate way. oiffe.re.nt nation;, to be.c.ome. @re.e.ne.r . Consider the features a-f in exercise 4. Would __• \\e.gi;,\\ation any of them be useful for your paragraph? • individual ~rote.;,t;, 7 Now write a concluding paragraph for the essay. • gove.rnme.nt bD'(c.ottn The tip box and the phrases below will help you. ..-~\"\"'\" ' Concluding ~ome opl·ni·Ons eY-pressed in the d· . ISCUSSIOn- To sum up, ... All in all, ... ihere should b . · In conclusion, ... . d e precise laws about all As we have seen above, ... th an they shou Id be strictly enacted IS, The conclusion of an essay usually contains , a brief summary of what has been said, plus a comment that 'rounds off' the essay. Develop 'Ifs up to all of u . · this paragraph in the same way as the preceding bodies t s, not just international paragraphs. Avoid one-sentence conclusions. , o protest if companies d environment.' amage the 8 Now write your own answer to the exam b'Iufsim.nteesrsnawtiiothnal\"bbodd\"·ItS re,cuse to do task in 2, using the ideas you made in 3. maybe th a companies, then ese c:ompan1·es Wl\"11 have to listen.' The how to do it box will help you. Write an essay discussing two of the measures in your notes. You should explain which measure you think is more important for international organisations to consider, giving reasons in support of your answer. You may, if you wish, make use of the opinions expressed in the discussion, but you should use your own words as far as possible. Write your essay in 220-260 words in an appropriate style. 11 Unit 12

• MaKing wmpanien greener I Over tne pant c.entUf\"j we nave int\\ic.ted a nuge amount of damage on our environment. i\\ltnougn nome national wmpanien are doing tneir be5t to 'green up', plen~ are not; inntead tnei wntinue witn prac.tic.e5 tnat are narming our planet. 1hi5 naf> to ntopl 1.. ~0 now c.an international bodie5 forc.e national buninennen and wrporationn to looK after our world? In mi opinion, tneir biggent priori~ 5nould be to introduc.e wider leginlation and tnen enforc.e it far more ntric.tli tnan in tne c.ane witn c.urrent lawn. k, I'm nure iOU agree, too mani wmpanie5 nti\\1 pollute air, land or nea - and get awai witn it. Until international organisations prove tnat tnei mean wnat tnei f>ai, and impose nuge finen or even prinon sentenc.es, tne worst wmpanien will never mend tneir wai\"· \"3 i\\notner wai to enwurage c.nange would be for tnese bodien to boiwtt offending wmpanies. B'{ refuning to deal witn tnese wmpanief> or to offer tnem wntrac.ts, international organisation\" wuld maKe it impossible for tnem to survive. fear of tnin would nureli maKe mont wmpanies tninK twic.e about tneir wais of worKing. !:. ~ OW todo it Don 't just discuss the two methods- compare them • and say which is more important. Give reasons for your opinion. Use your own words. Remember the 'three Ps' - Plan , Paragraph , Punctuate! BUnit12

Review 1 Complete the phrases in sentences a-1 with earth, 3 Write one word which is the opposite of the words world or ground. in a-j. More than one answer may be possible. a That new restaurant was excellent but the place a increase ............ never really got off the ...... ...... . b fertile ............ c shrink b That outfit I bought for the wedding was d broader ............ stunning but it cost the ............ . e fall f retreat ............ c The studio's latest film is uninspiring. It's g appear certainly not going to set the ............ on fire. h permitted ............ ............ d After my illness last month I had a lot of descended ............ ............ to make up at work. frequ ent ·· ·········· e The mountain walks in this area -'ire out of this ............ . You'lllove them. ............ ............ f Everyone had hoped for a huge turnout at the film premiere but fans were thin on the ............ . 4 Write adverbs with the same meaning as phrases g I suffer from vertigo, so nothing on ....... ... .. a-e. Some letters are given to help you. would make me go bungee jumping! a more and more: inc .. . h A few days' rest will do you a ............ of good. pro .. . You haven't been your usual cheerful self lately. I felt on top of the ............ when I got engaged b from time to time: irr .. . but the wedding day was a disaster! ace .. . It's the tennis final this weekend and I wouldn't miss it for the ............ . c hardly ever: ra .. . in .. . k What on ............ have you done to your hair? It looks absolutely dreadful! d every twelve months: an ... What's on your mind? You seem to be in a y ... ............ of your own at the moment. e at the moment: pre ... cur .. . 2 Replace the words in italics in a-h with verbs 1-8 5 Rewrite the information in a and b using as few below in the correct form. words as possible, beginning with the words shown. a Police are hoping the witness will make available more information about the robbery. a It would be a very good idea to try and persuade people to recycle things like old b A radical change of image is needed if we are to mobile phones they do not want any more. help sell the rock band's new tour. People ... c Does anyone know what led to the accident last night? b It would really make a lot of difference to create some parks and it would make the d Thanks to their new advertising campaign, they whole area a much more pleasant place for have produced huge interest in the product. local inhabitants to live in. e Susan's parents made every effort to persuade Creating ... her to go to university. f Will scientists ever really find out how the universe was formed? g What was already a difficult situation was negatively affected by media interference. h We need to produce material to be used by people with different learning styles. 1 cause 4 worsen 7 generate 2 provide 5 promote 8 encourage 3 cater for 6 create 11 Unit12

Appendix nit 1What are you like? Lead in Add up your points for each separate section: a= 1, b = 2, c = 3. Then look below to see which category you are in. Head or Heart: If you got 3-5 points you're Head; 6-9 points you're Heart. Extrovert or Introvert: 3-5 points you're Introvert; 6-9 points you're Extrovert. Facts or Ideas: 3-5 points you're Facts; 6-9 points you're Ideas. Now find your combination of answers in the table (e.g. Head, Introvert, Ideas) to see what it says about your personality and the careers that might suit you. Combination Personality type Possible careers Heart, Introvert, Facts methodical, conscientious, friendly and sensitive nurse, teacher, doctor, librarian Heart, Extrovert, Facts energetic, fun-loving, sociable and caring teacher, designer, child-care worker, office manager Heart, Introvert, Ideas committed, faithful, sceptical and inventive psychiatrist, writer, artist, entertainer Heart, Extrovert, Ideas fun -loving, optimistic, passionate and facilitative writer, musician, editor, designer Head, Introvert, Facts dependable, practical, realistic and analytical accountant, computer programmer, engineer, mechanic Head, Extrovert, Facts adventurous, high-energy, tough , ambitious marketing manager, supervisor, purchasing agent Head, Introvert, Ideas independent, clear-thinking, logical and insightful architect, lawyer, judge, manager Head, Extrovert, Ideas flexible, innovative, decisive, energetic photographer, journalist, doctor, administrator Unit 6 Would you believe it? Lead in 1a T b F The word simply comes from 'new'. cT d F It takes no longer to digest than -anything else, i.e. a few hours. e F The number of people alive today is estimated at 7 billion. 6.5 billion are estimated to have lived since the building of the Pyramids, and probably about 60 billion)n total in the 40 - 45,000 years humans have been around. f T A 20-cm stalk contains about six calories. J-1ore are burnt off during digestion - not chewing - but you would have to eat a lot of celery to make any real difference to your weight. 11Appendix

Writing Guide Essays You have just listened to a local radio discussion programme about ways in which your town could be improved. You have made the notes below. \\'1\\J1c\\1 facilitieS s\\'loula t\\'le tO'.'lfl GOUfiCil M ·f tl'le~ are to im~rove our to'.'lf\\7. su~~o 1 - • wltural vwues '5ome op·no ns ey.pressed in the dI·SGUSSI.O n: • s11o~~ifl9 cwtres , I • s~orts clubs ,Not everyone likes theatre· ballet or opera., '5hops are c.ruc.ial if we are . to the town.' gomg to bring prosperity 'keeping fit should be a top pr·o ·t c 1 n Y10r everyone.' Write an essay discussing two of the facilities in your notes. You should explain which facility is more important for the town council to support, giving reasons for your answer. You may, if you wish, make use of the opinions expressed in the discussion, but you should use your own words as far as possible. Write your essay in 220-260 words in an appropriate style. 1 Make a plan before you start by listing your points and putting them in a logical order. 2 Summarise the subject clearly in the introductory paragraph. 3 Organise your ideas into paragraphs. 4 Use linkers to make your writing flow. 5 Use a variety of sentence structures. 6 Reword phrases from the input text where possible. 7 Express your opinions clearly and give reasons to justify choosing one option above the other. 8 Use appropriate phrases to compare and contrast ideas. 11 Writing Guide

Our town used to be a thriving place but over the past decade it has become very run down. lt is therefore (4) important that we think carefully about how to prioritise any planned improvements. (2) (3) One of the major problems in the town is our lack of good sports amenities. (6) The presr::nt gymnasium is very small and the equipment is out of date and very unreliabl e. As I am sure most people would agree, fitness plays an essential role (6) in the health and happiness of all the inhabitants of our town and that is why I believe (7) it should be our top priority. (3) Of almost equal importance (8) is the need for adequate cultural venues in our town. Although (4) the town boasts a well-established theatre, a new art gallery or cultural centre would make a significant contribution to the educational opportunities available to local people, as well as (4) offering another place of entertainment and recreation. Nevertheless, (4) it is likely fewer people will take advantage of these facilities than will use the sports club and for that reason (7) I believe they should take second place. (8) To sum up, to enhance our town we eventually need both the new sports facilities and the cultural venues. Given the need to prioritise, however, (4) it seems clear that sport should come first. Having attend ed to that area , we can later turn our minds to the cultural venues we so desperately need. (3) phrase bank •• Sequencing points in an argument justifying opinions Th e reason I think thi s is beca use Take, for exa mpl e .. . . .. and that is wh y I believe ... In th e first pla ce/To start with , . . .. and for th at reason I think Secondly, . Conclusions Finally, . In sum /To sum up, . In co nclusion, . • Prioritisi ng/compa ring I beli eve X should be our top pri ority. lt is my opinion th at X should ta ke seco nd place. lt seems to me th at X mu-st com e first. Writing Guide l1!iJ

Informal letters and emails You have received a letter from an English friend, Steve. Read part of the letter and then write your letter to Steve. Gue.55 what? I've. pa55e.d all m~ e.'f.amf> with top grade.f>l Af> ~ou know, I didn't n pe.c.t to do 50 we.\\\\, 50 inf>te.ad of e-nrolling at unive.r5i~, I de.c.ide.d to bac.kpac.k round the. world ne.'f.t ~e.ar. Nowm~ fam il~ are. urging me. to re.think and go to uni afte.r all. I'd re.all~ li ke. ~our advic.e. ple.a5e.. What are. the. prOD and c.onf> of e.ac.h, and whic.h f>hould I c.hoo5e.? Or ma~be. ~ou think it'f> po55ible. to do both? Write. 5oon. '0te.ve. Write your letter in 220-260 words in an appropriate style. 1 Begin informal emailsjletters with 'Dear ... ' or 'Hi'. 2 Finish with 'Best wishes' (or 'Love' for very close family or friends) . 3 Use an informal style that is in keeping with the relationship you have with the reader of your letter. 4 Group similar ideas together and develop them to form paragraphs. 5 Use linking phrases where appropriate. 6 Start a new paragraph when you change topic. 7 Close your letter with a set phrase. llJ Writing Guide

Dear ~tcvc, (1) Congratu\\ationf:> on paf:>f:>ing iOUr C'f.amf:>, iOU dcvcr tl'ling\\ You muf:>t nave been ac\\ig\\1tca w\\1cn iOU got t\\1c ncwf:>. r\\opc iOU,VC been Gt\\cbrating \\1ara\\ Now, about iour two optionf:> for nnt icar. (?) Thci bot\\1 f:>ouna great f:>O I'm not wrprif:>ca iou'rc 11aving troub\\c acc.iaing wl'lat to ao . The iaca of travc\\\\ing rouna t\\1c wor\\a if:> rca\\\\i C'f.Giting ana of GOUrf:>C WC probab\\i nee-a to ao t\\1Cf:>C t\\1ingf:> w\\1i\\c we're f:>ti\\\\ iOung. r\\aving f:>aia t\\1at, (?) I t\\1in'K iOU nee-a to bear in mina tl'lat going to univcrf:>iti wu\\a c.l'langc iour wl'lo\\c future. :.fuf:>t tl'lin'K - wit\\1 tl'lc graacf:> iou'vc juflt got, iou wu\\a f:>tuai f:>omctl'ling bri\\\\iant, \\i'KC mcaic.inc. Do iOU want to jwparaif:>C iOUr c.l'lanGCf:> of aoing tl'lat? ~omcl'low I aon't t\\1in'K f:>O. (4) If iou rca\\\\i nave to c.l'loof:>c one option over tl'lc otl'lcr, univcrf:>iti l'lafl to GOmC firflt - it'f:> a no- braincr, af:> far af:> I Gan f:>CC. tJUt I ao nave an a\\tcrnatiVC- f:>Uggcf:>tion. Wl'li aon't iOU app\\i for uni but af:>'K for a icar off before ta~M_g it up?-- lhat wai iOU c.an nave tl'lc bcf:>t of bot\\1 wor\\af:> - travc\\ ana univcrf:>iti . Wl'lat ao - i1O\\nUiWt\\1aiin,'K~?tCVC, I \\'lope mi f:>uggcf:>tionf:> ma'Kc f:>Wf:>C to iOU ana t\\1at t\\1ci \\1c\\p wit\\1 iOUr aCGifliOn . tJCf:>t of \\uG'K wit\\1 (1) iOUr ai\\cmma ana aon't forget to write ana tc\\\\ me t\\1c outwmc. Love, (!.) L.aura phrase bank • Opening and ending your letter/email Dea r john/Ma ria Giving advice •• Hi john/Maria I thin k you need to bear in mind that .. . Love = (very inform al) Wh y don 't you ... ? That way, you could ... Best wishes= (neutral) Have you thou ght about ... 7 Regards = (neutral/a little more formal) ju st think .. . ! Do you rea lly want to .. . 7 Som ehow I don't think so. First lines Final lines •• Congratul ati ons on ... ! I hope my suggestion s help you to ... lt was great to hea r from you and get all your news. Don 't forget to write and tell me .. . I was really pl eased to get your rece nt letter/em ail. Best of lu ck with ... Keep in touch. Hope to hea r from you soon. Looking forwa rd to hea rin g from you . mJWriting Guide

Formal letters and emails You have seen the following announcement on the 'Young World' website: Wanted : TV presenter We are an intern ation al TV company planning to make a seri es of programm es, in English, abou t issues of interest to yo ung peopl e around the world . Could yo u help to present th e show? If you think you are th e ri ght person for th e job, write to me, John Fin ch, giving reason s for thi s. You should also expl ain whi ch issue you think we should highlight in our first programme, and why. Write your letter in 220-260 words in an appropriate style. 1 Use formal language when writing to a person in authority such as the head of a company, the editor of a newspaper, or a college principal. 2 Open with 'Dear ... ' and use the person's name if known, otherwise use 'Dear Sir/Madam'. 3 Start by giving your reason for writing. 4 Group similar ideas together and develop them to form paragraphs . 5 Link sentences and paragraphs carefully using appropriate linking phrases. 6 Start a new paragraph when you change topic. 7 Use a good range of vocabulary and structures. 8 Make sure your grammar and punctuation are correct. 9 Close your letter with a set phrase. 10 End with 'Yours faithfully' if you don't know the person 's name, or 'Yours sincerely' if you do. IIJ Writing Guid

Dear Sir or Madam (2) I have seen your announcement on the 'Young World' website and am writing to apply for the post of presenter for your forthcoming series. (3) (4) I am twenty years old and, as you will see, I have a great deal of appropriate experience. (5) First, I am a trainee journalist and have been taking care of the 'Young People Today' section of my local newspaper for the past few months. In this role, I spend a lot of time interviewing young people on issues they find important, which ties in well with the post you are offering. (5) Secondly, I belong to an amateur drama group. Having played many acting roles, I would be very much at ease in front of an audience. (5) Last but not ltast, I am well able to present the series in English since my mother comes from the United Kingdom and I am bilingual. (6) The issue I suggest we focus on, given the age of our target audience, (7) is emotional relationships.Young people have many difficulties in this area, whether it be in forming new friendships, boy-girl relationships, dealing with break-ups or coping with family upheavals. (7) A programme that illustrated typical problems and offered advice on dealing with each of these would , I am sure, be seen as extremely helpful and could even become essential viewing. (7) I hope I have shown that I would be an ideal presenter and that you like my ideas for the programmes. I look forward to hearing from you . (9) Yours faithfully (10) Mirand.a :Jimenez. phrase bank Making suggestions • Starting your letter The issue I suggest we focus on is .... This is because ... Dear Sir/Madam, 1propose we begin with ··· . The reason for this is that My first suggestion would be to .... Let me explain why: .. • Dear Mr/M rs Reason for writing Concluding remarks • I am writing to apply for ... I hope my application will meet with your approval. I am writing to you about/with regard to ... I hope I have shown that ... I hope you will find this information of use. I am writing in response to ... I trust you will look into this matter fully. I am writing to enquire /co mplain about ... I hope you understand my concern about this matter. I would be very grateful for your help in this matter. ••• I would like to apologise for ... I look forward to hearing from you . Giving personal information Signing off I've been studying ... for the past two years. Yours faithfully, I currently work as a ... so 1am used to ... Yours sincerely, 11Writing Guide

Reviews The editor of a local newspaper has asked you to write a review of two quite different places where young people can meet up for a drink or a meal in your town. Write your review in 220-260 words in an appropriate style. 1 Remember that reviews can include criticism as well as praise. 2 Divide your review into paragraphs with a clear introduction and conclusion. 3 Give a clear, concise description of t e place you are reviewing. 4 Start each paragraph with a topic sentence. 5 Keep your opinions/recommendations for the final paragraph. 11 Writing Guide

revi•ew_ _ _ __ There are many places for young My second visit was to Gigi's, a people to eat together and riverside cafe in the student quarter. socialise in our town, but two have (4) This is a very cosmopolitan venue, become very popular. Keen to discover attracting students from all over the whether they live up to their world. In good weather, customers can reputations, I went along this week to eat outside and enjoy the marvellous sample what was on offer. (2) river views. The menu is limited (1), with an emphasis on seafood, but it is The first on my list was Hollywood Rock. reasonably priced and the quality is (4) Step inside this restaurant and you good. There is live music at weekends, feel as if you've been transported into but noise levels are kept low. the past. The interior is a series of small rooms, each dedicated to So which of the two restaurants should legendary rock performers like Elvis or you choose? (4) While Hollywood Rock is the Beatles. The walls are decorated original and will appeal to certain with rock guitars and record covers music fans, it is noisy, which makes and other memorabilia. (3) As you eat, conversation difficult. (1) If you prefer rock music booms out around you. to socialise outdoors or in a slightly The menu is predictable (1) - the usual quieter setting, I suggest you try Gigi's. choice of pizzas, burgers and fries -but (5) But go early- tables fill up quickly, it offers good value for money. especially at weekends. phrase bank • Making positive points lt offers good value for money. Comparing and contrasting/Weighing up the pros • lt is reasonably priced. and cons • The quality is good/excellent. While .. . , sadly ... Its facilities are impressive/styl ish. Taking into account .. . , I suggest ... lt will appea l to ... Either of these wou ld be a good choice, but ... Making negative points Giving advice Go early! Unfortunately, the ... is a bit predictable. lt is probably best to go early. If you would rather ... , I recommend that you Disappointingly, the menu/range/service is limited. • lt is noisy/disappointing/ not up to standard. IJWriting Guide

Reports You are on the student committee at your college. This year you helped the English Department organise a three-week study trip to the UK. The principal of the college has asked you to write a report on the trip . You should explain what was successful about the trip, describe any problems, and suggest improvements for future trips. Write your report in 220-260 words in an appropriate style. 'Possib\\e p\\an ' lntro: aim of thif> re.port Aaommoc\\ation: hof>t fami\\ie.f> he.\\pfu\\ but e.\\c\\e.r\\i - iounge.r one.;, ne.~t time.? 'Sport;,/DOc.ia\\ programme.;,: v. good (give. c\\e.tai\\f>) - \\::e.e.p ne.r-t ie.ar Language. c.\\aMe.f>: te.ac.he.rf> frie.nc\\\\i but we. ne.e.c\\ more. ;,pe.a\\::ing ana \\i;,te.ning prac.tic.e. ne.~t time. C.Onc.\\uf>ion: re.c.omme.nc\\ re.pe.at the. trip with improve.me.ntf> 1 Use appropriate linking words. 2 Use appropriate phrases to make suggestions and recommendations if appropriate (also see page 165) . 3 Organise your report into sections with headings. 4 Include a clear introduction and conclusion. 5 Write clear and concise sentences 6 Use a formal style. 11 Writing Guide

Introduction (4) able to visit art galleries and museums and the The aim of thi s report is to assess the success programme included a hit show and some rock of this year's study trip to the UK and to and pop events. I propose that (2) we repeat this recommend any changes. type of programme next year. Accommodation (3) Language classes (3) Students appreciated the hospitality c,ffered While (1) most students got on well with the to them by their host families and the help teachers, they would have liked more chance they gave them with their language practice. to improve their speaking and listening skills. I However, (1) some of the host families were suggest we request that more class time is spent rather elderly. lt would be preferable (2) if on communicative skills next year. younger host families could be found for our next trip. Conclusion (4) To sum up, (1) this year's trip appears to have Sports and social programme (3) been enjoyed by most students despite the Students were highly enthusiastic about this reservations mentioned above. If the suggested side of the trip, which offered them the chance changes are implemented, I have no hesitation to compete against British students in various in recommending (2) that we send other sports and also learn about British culture students on the trip next year. while mixing with British students. They were phrase bank • Introduction The aim of this report is to . • This report describes/outlines/deals with This report is based on ... • Making recommendations lt would be a good idea to lt might be advisable to .. . lt would be preferable to .. . I suggest/propose/recommend that we (shou Id) • Conclusion To sum up, . • In conclusion, ... I have no hesitation in recommending .. . IJWriting Guide

Proposals Your college has been awarded a large sum of money. The college principal has asked the student committee to write a proposal explaining which areas most need improving and why, and how the money should be spent. Write your proposal in 220- 260 words in an appropriate style. 'Possible plan too r,m.a\\\\ - wrrent oneu break aown - bui\\a new one? get new oner,? ( new inter.ac.tive whitebo.arc\\r,? ar.am.a r,tuaio ( c.omputerr, /dewration/lighting bui\\aingu r,h.abb~ - reaec.or.ate? better \\ighting? 1 Use appropriate language for making suggestions and recommendations (also see page 163). 2 Use linkers to sequence points. 3 Set out your text so that it looks like a proposal and not a letter. 4 Divide your proposal into sections with headings. 5 Include a separate introduct~'i?n and conclusion. 6 Be clear and concise. 7 Use an impersonal tone. Ill Writing Guide

Introduction (5) The purpose of this proposal is to outline areas which need improving and to make recommendations as to where money should be spent. Equipment (4) Many stud ents pointed out that the computers currently in use are becoming dated and are apt to break down quite frequently. I would therefore recommend (1) that we buy new, state-of-the-art computers. Additionally, (2) it was felt that the existing basic whiteboards were outdated . I therefore propose that we invest in interactive wh iteboa rds. Buildings (4) Many students are unhappy with the size of the drama stud io, which is too small to house major productions. I suggest (1) we consider a new building as this would allow us to provide much better facilities and to stage much bigger shows. Decoration and lighting (4) Several students pointed out the fact that the college is badly in need of redecoration . Others were worried about their personal safety due to the fact that the college is poorly lit. My recommendation is (1) that we redecorate the entire premises, inside and out, and that we install effective lighting in the college grounds. Conclusion (5) In conclusion, (2) I believe that the areas identified in this proposal are the ones that are most in need of improvement. If the recommendations above are followed , I believe they would have the support of all our students. phrase bank •••• Introduction Conclusion The aim/purpose of this proposal is to This proposal relates to ... To sum up, I believe that ... This proposal describes/outlines ... In conclusion , I would say that On balance, we are of the opinion that ... Suggestions and recommendations I recommend/propose/suggest/ believe {that) we (should) ... We could also .. . • If we ... , we could ... 11Writing Guide

Grammar Reference Present and past tenses Present simple The action can either last for a period of time in the Use the present simple: past or finish at a fixed time in the past: 1 to talk about habitual events and fixed truths: Henry ran 15 kilometres every day for 60 years. Most authors write about 1,000 word~ a day. He gave up running in June and died in July. Violins have four strings. 2 to talk about how often you do something. Past continuous Frequency adverbs (always, usually, often, sometimes, never) are often used: Use the past continuous : Carla checks her text messages every few minutes. 1 to talk about things that were in progress in the 3 for states that imply permanence or for those that are true for a long time: past. They may or may not be finished: The President of the United States works in the Last week, the police were watching the house on White House. the corner. 2 to talk about a background activity: Present continuous We were lying on our backs looking at the stars. Use the present continuous : 1 for temporary states: A single past event often interrupts the background activity, so the past continuous and the past simple are He is acting as manager while his boss is away. used together: 2 to talk about an activity that is taking place when We were lying on our backs looking at the stars you speak or around the time of speaking: when a comet flew across the sky. Listen! This computer is making a strange noise. He's studying at evening class at the moment. But when two or more past events happen consecutively, the past simple is used for both: Past simple The Titanic hit an iceberg and sank a few hours later. Use the past simple to express an event that took place at a definite past time. Past time words are often used Note: Don't use the past continuous to talk about past to fix the action or state in the past. For example, habits or to say how often something happened in the when, yesterday, last week, three months ago, etc: past. Use the past simple : - When did you last write a letter by hand? They phoned the zoo three times yesterday. - I think it was about a year ago. (Not: They were phoning .. .) When there are no past time words, the context often places the action or event in the past (either the recent Present perfect simple past or the more remote past) : Where did you learn to do tho-se magic tricks? Use the present perfect simple: Karl ~enz invented the first motor car. 1 when there is a connection between the past and 11 Grammar Reference the present. The connection can either be implied or obvious. The exact timing is not important: The explorers have just reached the North Pole. He's lost a lot of weight in the last few months. 2 for things that have just happened or when the event is still relevant or is still 'news': Oh, no! The wheel has fallen off!

You must use the present perfect simple form when Used to and would ·you mention the number of times: Use used to ( + infinitive) to talk about past habits: That train has broken down three times so far this Believe it or not, but people used to write letters week. by hand and send them to their friends . The event might have started at some time in the To ask questions, use did + name/pronoun + use to past and still continues: (not used to): I have known about the problem for a long time, Did your parents use to allow you to ride a but I haven't done anything about it yet. motorbike? 3 to give general news or information. This is The negative form is didn't use to (not didn't used to) : followed by more detail using the past simple: Policemen didn't use to carry firearms . A new zoo for endangered species has opened in the It is sometimes possible to use would instead of used to when talking about past personal habits, but usually Lake District. It took five years to build and runs only in the positive. Would is quite a literary style and is often found in continuous narrative: entirely on solar energy. • When we were young we would go to the river Present perfect continuous and throw stones in the stream, then go to a little teashop and buy some cakes. Use the present perfect continuous: Use used to for past situations and states that no longer 1 for events that began in the past and continue into exist or are no longer true (would cannot be used). the present. Like the present perfect simple, it is often used with since ( + starting point), for In the 1930s that bar used to be a very famous ( + period of time) and how long: little theatre. Did Shakespeare use to live in London? They have been going out with each other since Christmas. Note: Don't use used to to say how long something lasted in the past. Use the past simple: That dog has been chasing its tail for about ten minutes. I did the national lottery for a long time, but I didn't have any luck. (Not: I used to do ... ) 2 to talk about long or repeated actions that have just finished, but where the consequence is still clear: - You're late for the meeting! - Sorry! I've been trying to park my car. Past perfect simple Future forms Use the past perfect to talk about what happened Present simple before a certain point in the past: Use the present simple to express future events that are The robber had run away by the time the police timetabled or part of a calendar: arrived. The directors' meeting starts at 3 o'clock on Friday. Past perfect continuous Hurry up. The plane leaves in half an hour. Use the past perfect continuous to emphasise a longer The present simple is used when the timetabling or action. This action continues up to the time of the arrangement is impersonal (someone else has made main action (expressed by the verb in the past simple): them or they are part of a natural law): I wasn't surprised that Dave and Amy emigrated. The next college term starts on 8th September. They had been thinking about it for years. For personal arrangements, where the speaker or But use the past perfect simple to say ·~ow many another person has made the decision, the present times ' : continuous is usually used: By the time he was 25, he had already been I'm starting a new course in biology next term. married twice. Grammar Reference II!iJ

Present continuous But when there is clear evidence about what is going to happen, use going to : The present continuous is used to express the future when definite plans or arrangements have been made: The builder looked at the old house and said, 'I'm sorry, but it's going to fall down.' - What are you doing next Saturday? - I'm taking my driving test. Future continuous You can use the present continuous tense with verbs of Use the future continuous to talk about an event that motion, even if no fixed arrangements have been made: will be in progress at a certain time in the future: You had better hurry up and get ready, because This time next week I'll be lying on a beach. we're leaving very soon. Future time phrases are common with this tense: Going to and will In a few months' time Use going to: Before long we'll be travelling •1 when you have made a decision to do something: This time next year around South America. Could you please let me know if you are going to accept the job? By December 2 when you have made some basic plans: I'm going to buy an old barn and do it up. The question form of the future continuous is often used for polite requests as it avoids the urgency of But when more definite plans are in place, use the other tenses: present continuous: Will you be checking out of your room by noon? We've signed the contracts and we're moving into the building on Monday. Future perfect simple 3 to say what someone is just about to do: I won't be a minute. I'm just going to say goodbye to Use the future perfect to talk about things that will my colleague. have happened by a certain time in the future. It is 4 for predictions when there is clear evidence that an often used with a phrase starting with by to emphasise event is about to take place: completion before a certain future time: Based on the first page, I think I'm going to enjoy reading this book. By Monday For 'neutral' predictions that are based on personal By lunchtime he will have finished belief, rather than clear evidence, see will below: By this time next year his report. Use will and won't: 1 to ask for and give information about the future, By the time you read this which is often a simple matter of fact: Future perfect continuous The train standing at platform 3 will stop at Oxford. 'The work won't take long,' the builder said. Use the future perfect continuous to talk about how 2 to express the near future when there has been no long things will have been happening by a certain time conscious planning or premeditation. For example, in the future (and perhaps beyond that time). It is on-the-spot decisions: often used with a phrase starting with for to emphasise I'll have a mushroom omelette and a green salad. duration: - Will you marry me? -No, I won't. Next month he will have been working at the factory 3 to predict what you think will·happen in the future, for 25 years. based on what you believe or guess will happen: Soon; we will all pay our bills by mobile phone. Video machines won't be available in a few years. 11 Grammar Reference

The future in the past Non-continuous verbs Use the following 'future in the past' structures when Many English verbs express a state rather than an you are talking about the past and want to say that activity, so they are not normally used in any of the something was still in the future at that time: continuous tenses. These verbs fall into several groups: 1 past continuous or wasjwere going to ( + infinitive): 1 Verbs that describe wants and likes and preferences, e.g. want, like, prefer, hope, wish. Danny waited outside the station. He was meeting his daughter at 2 o'clock and they were going to 2 Verbs that describe thought processes and opinions, watch the Cup Final. e.g. think, believe, know, remind, understand. The planned or expected future action often doesn't 3 Verbs for the senses, e.g. hear, see, taste, smell, happen: touch, feel. But 'sense' verbs that describe an active, deliberate use of the senses are used in the He was planning to sell the house, until it caught continuous tenses, e.g. watch, look, stare, listen. fire. 4 Verbs for belonging and containing, e.g. own, 2 would ( + infinitive): • possess, belong. None of us thought the exam would be so easy. Many of the verbs above and other 'stative' verbs can sometimes describe 'actions', with a change of 3 was/were to ( + infinitive): meaning. With the new meaning it is usually possible to use continuous forms. Remember that continuous A politician was to give a speech, but she didn't forms imply a temporary action: turn up. She is usually quite honest. (a permanent Use was/were just about to in the same way: characteristic) They were just about to disappear round the corner She isn't being very honest. (a temporary condition) when they saw me waving. I think you're unreliable and over-ambitious. Time clauses in the future ( = have the opinion) Use the present tense in many future subordinate I'm thinking of changing my solicitor. ( = consider) clauses. Use a future form in the main clause: He appears to be quite mature, but he's actually He is going to Barcelona, when he gets a ticket. quite the opposite. ( = seem) (Not: when he will get ... ) Several comedy acts will be appearing at The Palace As soon as he arrives he's going to buy a weekly Theatre during the summer. ( = take part in) travel ticket. (Not: As soon as he will arrive ... ) I don't expect you'll like this, but I'm leaving the Conjunctions that introduce these clauses include: company. ( = think) as soon as when once by the time I've been expecting you to arrive since 8 o'clock this morning. ( = anticipate) Use the present perfect after as soon as or when to express completion: I don't have much experience of negotiating prices. ( = possess) lames is going to have a party as soon as his parents have gone away. I'm having dinner with the Prime Minister after the I'll check your work for you when you have finished. meeting. ( = eat) Use the present continuous after while to show that the This is how you should present your CV Do you see action still continues: what I mean? ( = understand) I'll stop drilling while you are trying to work. How long have you been seeing a psychiatrist? ( = consult) 11Grammar Reference

Passives Use have + past participle in the past: The ringleader of the gang is thought to have fled Form and structures to Spain. Plans for the new sports centre are said to have Most active sentences have a corresponding passive. been shelved. All transitive verbs (verbs that take a direct object) can have a passive form. Intransitive verbs like Use to + infinitive in the passive structure after the die, arrive, sleep, etc. cannot have a passive form. verbs see, hear, make and allow: The object of an active sentence is the subject of the Three very suspicious men were seen to leave the corresponding passive sentence: building carrying black sacks. A young boy at the back of the hall was heard to Active: We have counted all the votes, and we can laugh during the Prime Minister's speech. now announce the winners. (all the votes and the One thing he hated about prison life was being winners are the objects) made to peel potatoes. The passengers were not allowed to get off the plane. Passive: All the votes have been count! d and the winners can be announced. (all the votes and the Note: When the verb let is used in an active sentence, winners are the subjects) allow must be used in the equivalent passive sentence: You can form passives from all tenses, future forms, Active: The police didn 't let him phone his lawyer. and also modals such as can, must, etc. A passive is Passive: He wasn't allowed to phone his lawyer. formed with the appropriate tense of be + the past participle: When more than one verb is used in the passive, the auxiliary verb be does not have to be repeated: Present simple: People who want a visa are required to complete long application forms. Forensic evidence will be collected, sent to a laboratory and analysed. Present continuous: The plane is being prepared for take-off. You can change the subject of a passive sentence midway through the sentence. Again, the verb be does Present perfect: I can't phone you. My phone has not have to be repeated: been stolen. Fingerprints are taken and the results (are) fed into Past simple/past perfect: The man wasn't a computer. allowed to see his solicitor until after he had been interviewed by the police. When to use the passive Past continuous: The children were being taught Passive structures are used when the action is more how to use a computer. important than who did it (the 'agent') . The most important information in English often comes at the The future: You are going to be taken to prison, beginning of a sentence, and new information or more where you will be given a haircut and overalls. details come at the end. Modals: Credit cards can be used to confirm the The passive is often used: hotel booking. 1 in advertising, because the product becomes the The evidence mustn't be touched after it has been focus of attention: put into the plastic bags. Our sportswear is tested by robots and worn by world champions. The prisoners should be allowed to make a phone 2 in formal, impersonal texts: call to their solicitors. Your application has been received and you will be informed of our decision in due course. All the rules here have to be obeyed. 3 in scientific texts, official writing and newspaper headlines: There are various passive structures that use the Many breakthroughs in the fight against cancer have infinitive and are often used in news reporting. For been made over the past few years. example: The ringleader of the gang is th!]ught to be Spanish. Plans for the new sports centre are said to be under threat. Negotiations are believed/rumoured to be coming to a conclusion. ID!J Grammar Reference

4 when the agent is unknown or is not important or With many verbs, an object comes before to: is obvious from the context: The wheel was invented about 5,000 years ago. The sales director asked the editor to give an outline of the proposal. 5 to avoid the overuse or repetition of personal pronouns or vague words such as people: verb + object + to + infinitive The M25 motorway is being repaired and should be avoided for the next two weeks. The verbs that use this construction fall roughly into two groups: You can mention the agent in a passive structure if it is important. Use by + name or noun: 1 Verbs that convey the idea of asking, telling, compelling, allowing, forcing: The boxer was knocked out in the first round. (The agent is not named, so we assume it wasn't ad vise a llow ask ex pect anything remarkable.) forbid force permit persuade The boxer was knocked out in the first round by teach te ll warn •a rock thrown from the spectator's area. 2 Verbs that convey the idea of wanting, needing, etc: have/get something done wa nt nee d prefe r would like Use the structure have + noun/ pronoun + past Note that 'that clauses' are not possible with the verbs participle when someone else does something for you. in this group: For example, your car needs a service, your eyes need to be tested, etc: I really don't want tlwt art)lone misuntierstantis me. Sorry, I can't talk. I'm just having my hair cut. verb + infinitive You can use this structure to refer to things that are The infinitive without to is used after: done by someone else and are beyond your control: 1 had better and would rather: The boy had his locker broken into and his camera There's a storm coming. We had better go home. stolen. I would rather not sit in the back of the car. 2 the verbs make (meaning 'force') and let (meaning You can often use get with the same structure, but it is 'allow'): often more informal or more urgent: You can't make me do anything that I don't want to do. If you let me borrow your car, will you expect me to I must get those documents signed. pay for the petrol? Note that make in the passive is followed by to + Gerunds and infinitives infinitive: The soldiers were made to stand for hours in the sun. verb + to + infinitive 3 the objects of verbs of perception (see, hear, etc.): When she was walking through the car park, she Certain verbs are often followed by to + infinitive of heard someone call her name. another verb: dese rv e ex pect hope verb + -ing form manage offe r prom1 se refu se thr ea t e n wa nt It's a pity he lost the race, because he deserved to win. Certain verbs are only followed by the -ing form of What did you expect to find when yo11 opened the box? another verb. (That is, the -ing form of the second verb acts as a gerund, the object of the first verb.) Verbs To can stand alone to avoid repeating ·the verb or that take -ing forms often convey likes and dislikes: phrase: ca n't stand detest don 't mind I'm not sure I'm going to pass my driving test first fanc y fee l like enJOY time, but I certainly hope to. IJGrammar Reference

Other verbs convey the idea of saying, thinking, mean: Oh, I meant to tell you something. But I've describing: forgotten what it was. ( = intend) admit consider deny describe Buying this house means paying a higher mortgage. ( = become necessary) imagine suggest Other common, miscellaneous verbs are also followed Relative clauses by an -ing form: avoid deny fin ish miss practise risk Note that verbs that follow prepositions are always in Defining relative clauses the -ing form: Defining relative clauses are a vital part of the meaning Don't apologise for arriving early. It's ~reat to see you. of a sentence. They identify the subject or object or add vital information about them. Therefore you can't He would probably get more done if he was better at leave them out. They define who or what you are working at night. talking about. The vital information can come in the middle of a sentence or at the end: verb+ infinitive/-ing form The children that he knew would succeed were those A few verbs can be followed by an infinitive or an -ing who were motivated. form, with little or no change of meaning. For example: Can you give me a good reason why you need to borrow so much money? begin continue start When the limousine drove past the crowd, some Relative pronouns: when for time people began to throwj began throwing flowers onto where far pIace the roof. who/that for peop le why for reason that/ which for things Some common verbs can be followed by an infinitive whose for possession or an -ing form, but with a change of meaning, e.g.: Who, that, which are often omitted when they refer to remember: I don't care how busy you are, you must the object of the sentence (not the subject). remember to pay your credit card bill. ( = remember to do something in the future) Have you ever had one of those days that starts badly and gets worse? (that refers to the subject: I remember going fishing a lot when I was a boy, but 'one of those days') I don't remember catching many fish. ( = remember The mistake (that) he made was silly. (that refers to doing something in the past) the object: 'the mistake') regret: I regret to inform you that I am resigning You can't omit whose. You can omit when if it refers to as company secretary. ( = be sorry for a present or the object: future action) Sit down and tell me the exact time (when) it Neither of my parents regret getting married when happened. they were so young. ( = regret doing something in the past) You can omit where, but only if you add an appropriate preposition: stop: 'Come on,' said the man in the museum. 'If you stop to look at all the paintings, we'll never get The old fisherman 's hut (where we stayed) we round.' ( = stop one thing to do another) stayed in was small and warm and it smelt of fish. He went to China last month and he hasn't stopped You can omit why when it refers to the object: talking about it since. ( = give up doing something) Tell me the exact reason (why) you want to leave. try: She tried to reach the bo\"ok on the top shelf, but You can omit the relative pronoun and the auxiliary it u;as too high. ( = make an effort) verb, but only when the relative pronoun refers to the subject: Have you ever tried doing a martial art? ( = try out as an experiment) Buildings (that were) constructed before 1960 will be demolished. IJD Grammar Reference

Non-defining relative clauses 'We have been • He said they had been planning the trip planning the trip for a 'Non-defining' relative clauses are quite formal and for a long time.' long time. mostly found in written or literary styles. They add extra information that is not vital to the meaning of a 'I was travelling in • She said she had been sentence. They can usually be omitted without losing Thailand when I heard travelling in Thailand the sense of the main sentence. This extra information the news.' when she heard the can come in the middle of a sentence or at the end: news.' Manatees, which are sometimes called 'sea cows', If you move back the tense, then the speaker's words can be found in the warm waters around Florida. were true when they were spoken but not necessarily true when they were reported. Don't move back tenses The trees were full of large, black birds, all of which if the situation is still true or still relevant: made a tremendous noise. Relative pronoun s: when for time 'Bob and Anna are • He said that Bob and where fo r place learning Russian,' Anna are learning who fo r peo pl e he said. Russian. (they are still which for thi ngs (not that) learning it) whose for possession He said that Bob and Whom is a formal relative pronoun that refers to the Anna were learning object: Russian. (they may have stopped) The young artist, whom we had heard so much about, stumbled onto the stage to collect the prize. A reporting verb can be in the present tense (e.g. says), in which case the speaker's verb tense does not To identify a certain number of people or things from a group use nonejonejtwojmost of whom: change: She walked into a room that was full of teenagers, 'The medicine is • My doctor says the none of whom looked up from their work. working.' medicine is working. You cannot omit relative pronouns in non-defining Modal verbs relative clauses. These modal verbs change for reported speech: will would may might Direct and indirect speech can could Tense changes must had to 'You will feel better When you report what someone said, you often 'move The doctor said I would back' the speaker's verb tense: -by Friday.' feel better by Friday. She said I wouldn't lose -'You won't lose weight 'I feel dreadful.' • He said he felt dreadful. unless you do some -weight unless I did exercise.' some exercise. 'I am swimming about • The girl said she was ten kilometres a week.' swimming about ten 'You must train every He said I had to train day if you want to be every day if I wanted kilometres a week. 'I was the athletics • He said he had been a champion.' to be a champion. captain at school.' the athletics captain at school. These modal verbs do not change for reported speech: 'I have just become • She said_that she had wo uld co uld might should a vegetarian.' just become a vegetarian. ought to used to had better 'You should/ought to • He said I should/ought see a good sports to see a good sports psychologist.' psychologist. I&JGrammar Reference

Other changes Questions When reporting, make logical changes to pronouns and Reported questions are not real questions. The word possessives : order is the same as for statements. They do not have question marks. Verb tenses, modals, etc. change in 'My personal trainer • She said her personal the same way as reported statements. has helped me build trainer had helped her up my confidence.' build up her Yes-No questions are usually introduced by if (or confidence. sometimes whether): 'I sometimes speak • He said that he 'Have you ever worked • He asked me if I had to myself.' sometimes spoke to abroad?' ever worked abroad. himself. (not: He asked me had I ever .. .) Make logical changes to 'place' words: 'I'm coming over there • She said she's coming 'Would you like a • The taxi driver asked hand with your me if I would like a hand to see you.' over her~ to see us. luggage?' with my luggage. (not: The taxi driver The words this, that, these, those are usually reported asked me would I like .. .} as the: 'This diet doesn 't seem • She said the diet didn 't To report wh- questions, use the wh- word followed by the reported clause: to be working.' seem to be working. When this, that, these or those are used as subjects, 'How long have you • He asked me how long they usually change to it or they: been working in the I had been working in sports centre?' the sports centre. (not: He asked me how 'This/ that is an • He said it was an long had I been .. .} incredible amount incredible amount of money.' of money. 'When did you first • The doctor asked me feel a pain in your when I had first felt a 'These/ Those are very • He said they were back?' pain in my back. (not: The doctor asked difficult problems to very difficult problems me when had I ... } solve.' to solve. Make logical changes to 'time' words: an hour ago • an hour before/ previously last year • the previous year Summarising verbs yesterday • the day before There are a large number of verbs which summarise what people say, rather than report the exact words. tomorrow • the following day These verbs are followed by various constructions. Some verbs have more than one construction. in a week's time • a week later For example, suggest is not used with an object (I suggested him to go.), it is followed by an -ing next month • the following month form or a that clause: 'I had a heart attack • He said he had had a He suggested training hard and running the London a couple of years ago.' heart attack a couple marathon. of years before. His coach suggested that she should rest for a couple of days. 'I'm going to take up He said he was going yoga sometime next to take up yoga month.' sometime the following month. verb + that me nti on protest co mpl ain ex plai n suggest admit reali se verb + object + that adv ise warn remin d persuad e tell lfD Grammar Reference

verb + object + to + infinitive Use was able toj were able to for one particular action concerning ability in the past: beg order advise forbid warn ask They had to travel first class because they weren't remind persuade tel l able to get cheap tickets. verb + to + infinitive Use couldn't for specific or general lack of ability in the past: threaten refuse agree promise offer When I asked Professor Smith what his name was, he couldn't remember. verb + -ing form recommend suggest propose Use will be able to for ability in the future: deny After six months of intensive training you will be admit able to fly a helicopter. verb + preposition + -ing form Note: You have to use a form of be able to after verbs or phrases that are followed by the infinitive or -ing apologise (for) insist (on) speak (of) form: boast (about) congratu late (on) I would like to be able to swim every day, but I don't have time. verb + object + preposition + -ing form Permission : can/could accuse (of) blame (for) praise (for) discourage (from ) Use can to ask for and give permission in the present. In formal situations, may can also be used: Modals Can I ask you a personal question? There are ten modal verbs: You may now turn over your examination papers and you may start. can could should ought to must wil l shal l wou ld Could is also a polite way of asking for permission. But may might can is used in replies : These five verbs and expressions act in the same way: - Could I use your dictionary for a moment? - Yes, of course you can. be ab le to have to need to had better used to Could and wasjwere able to are used to talk about permitted activities in the past: Ability: can/could/able to The schoolchildren could/ were able to wear casual Use can to describe an ability in the present: clothes on the last day of term. Professor Smith can speak five languages but he can't remember his name. Will be able to is used for the future : I'll be able to drive without 'L' plates when I pass ' my test. Don't use can to describe ability in the -past or future. Possibility: might/may Use could or a form of be able to for the past and be able to for the future: Use either might or may to express possibility in the future: Use could for general ability only in the past: Max could write before he could read. If we leave before midnight, we mightj may arrive in time for breakfast. Present possibilities can also use might/ may when you are making a deduction based on current knowledge: Due to the heavy defeat in the recent election, some party members mightj may now be unhappy with their leader. 11Grammar Reference

Use might/ may + past participle to talk about a Advice and recommendation: should/ought to possibility in the past. It implies some uncertainty about whether the action happened or not: Use ought to and should for strong advice and recommendations. They are very similar in meaning: I'm not sure, but I might/ may have read this book when I was young. When you go skiing on your own you should/ ought to tell someone where you're going, in case you have Necessity: need (to) an accident. If you're not a strong swimmer you shouldn't/ Although need is often used as a normal verb, it oughtn't to go out of your depth. can also act like a modal verb to express a necessity (usually one that the speaker feels) . In the present Assumptions/Deductions: must be/can't be, must positive use need to + infinitive to express present or have/can't have future necessity: Use must for a logical deduction about the present, You need to apply for a new passport if you've lost when you want to express certainty: yours. You can't simply get a replacement. It must be very boring to live in a small village Use needn'tj don'tj doesn't need to to say that where nothing happens. something is not necessary in the present or future or wasn't necessary in the past: The opposite of must in this case is can't: The letter can't be from your Aunt Harriet. It's got You needn't/ don't need to put your seatbelts on yet. a Chinese stamp on it. We have to wait for one more passenger. Use must have + past participle and can't have + past In the past, there are two negative forms: participle to make logical deductions about the past: didn't need to ( + infinitive) The burglars must have got in through the little I didn't need to send my CV. (Perhaps I did send a kitchen window. CV, but it wasn't necessary, or I didn't send it and Dave can't have played football yesterday. He broke it didn't matter.) his leg last week. needn't have ( + past participle) Use may havej might have/ could have + past participle I needn 't have sent my CV. (I sent it, but it wasn't to make assumptions that you are not entirely sure necessary.) about: Obligation: must/have to I was expecting a package today, but it hasn't arrived. I suppose it mayj mightj could have got Use must or have to to express a positive obligation lost in the post. in the present or future. Must is often used when the speaker feels an obligation himself/ herself: I must lose a bit of weight before I go on holiday. Have to is used when the speaker feels an obligation from outside (a rule, law, regulation) or is just expressing a fact: We have to put the paper to be recycled in the green box. Mustn 't is used to express negative obligation (an obligation not to do something): You mustn't park on the side streets during normal working hours. m!J Grammar Reference

Reduced clauses Sometimes there is an obvious sequence - one action then another action. The reduced clause Use reduced clauses: would normally come at the beginning: 1 to simplify sentences: Taking off his heavy overcoat, he sat down on the When the runner finished the race he was gasping red leather sofa. for breath. 6 to imply a reason: The runner finished the race gasping for breath. Not knowing where he was, he stopped and checked the map. ( = because he didn't know where he was) 2 to reduce two sentences to one sentence: Note: verbs that can't normally be used in continuous He's broken his arm. He'll have to watch the match tenses can have a present participle form . from the sidelines. Prepositions are always followed by the present Having broken his arm, he'll have to watch the participle: match from the sidelines. On hearing the news, they started to celebrate. Sentences with reduced clauses can often' sound quite formal. Some uses would not normally be Before getting on the plane, the President and his used in everyday spoken English: wife waved and smiled at the small crowd. Being the richest person there, Fiona paid for the Participles after a noun give more information about meal. (formal) the noun. They are like shortened relative clauses in which the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb have Fiona was the richest person there, so she paid for been omitted: the meal. (informal and usual) When you use reduced clauses like adverbs they Ruby Stone, smiling and waving to the crowds, give more information about the main verb. For got out of the limousine. (who was smiling and example: they may describe the way someone waving ... ) walked, how someone acted, someone or something's general manner or behaviour, etc. Note that the structure noun + present participle The main clause would normally come first: indicates an activity in progress: The marathon runner came into the stadium waving The man sitting over there wearing ... at the crowds. 3 in written dialogues: If there is no activity in progress, you can't use a reduced clause: 'You're just in time to check in,' he said, looking at the clock on the wall. The scientist irwenting the robotic washing machine will win a prize. 4 to talk about two things happening at the same time: The scientist who invented the robotic washing machine will win a prize. Sam and Millie sat on the jetty talking about their future. With passive relative clauses, use the past participle: If one long action is 'interrupted' by another shorter The meeting, scheduled for 10 o'clock, has been action, the longer action usually comes at the end cancelled. (that was scheduled) of the sentence. The word while (meaning 'when' or 'at the time') can often be used: These can often imply a condition: The aid worker died peacefully in a remote African Watered once a day, the plant will grow really well. village, (while) doing the job he loved most. (if it is watered) 5 to talk about two actions that happen within a short time period: The fire swept through the Australian town, leaving burnt out houses behind it. Often the second action is a direct· consequence or result of the first action: The film has been a runaway success, paving the way for ~ve or six sequels. liiJGrammar Reference

Conditionals Second conditional Zero conditional If-clause Main Clause Past simple would/ wouldn't + infinitive If-clause Main Clause In the second conditional the past tense refers to 'unreal' Present simple Present simple or 'hypothetical' conditions in the present or future: Use the zero conditional to talk about scientific facts , If I had a daughter, I would teach her Russian. constant laws of nature, unchangeable rules, customs (unreal present) and personal routines. Either if or when can be used in the if-clause. If I started my own business, I wouldn't work on Friday afternoons. (hypothetical future) If/ When it is lunchtime in London, it is breakfast time in New York. Don't use would/ wouldn't in the if-clause: • If I would start my own business, I wouldn't work on Friday afternoons. First conditional Use the second conditional to give advice to other people: If-clause Main Clause Present simple willjwon't + infinitive If the solicitor was rude to you, I'd complain to his manager. In the first conditional the present tense usually refers to possible/ probable conditions in the future: You can use the past continuous instead of the past simple: If there is much more rain, the whole village will probably get flooded. If they were looking our way, they would see us. If Real Madrid 's captain doesn't play, they won't win the game. The past tense in second conditionals distances meaning from reality (in the same way that the past Don't use will/ won't in the if- clause: is distanced from the present). Compare first and If there wili-l7e much more rain, the whole village second conditionals: will probably get flooded . First conditional: If I become President, I will Use the first conditional for threats or warnings increase taxes for high earners. (spoken by a involving direct action: Presidential candidate) If you don't go away, I'll call the police. ( = Go Second conditional: If I became President I would away or I'll call the police.) spend more money on after-school clubs. (spoken by a schoolgirl) You can use an imperative in the main clause: If you hear the fire alarm, walk quickly to the Third conditional nearest fire exit. If you are frightened of heights, don 't go up there. If-clause Main Clause Past perfect would have/ wouldn't have You can use the present continuous or the present + past participle perfect instead of the present simple: Use the third conditional for past events that are untrue: If you are doing your violin practice, I'll phone later. If you have read my CV, you will know all about me. If you had listened to the instructions, you would have known what to do . If there hadn't been an earthquake, there wouldn't have been a tsunami. Don't use would have/ wouldn't have in the if-clause: If there wouldn't have been an earthquake, there wouldn't have been a tsunami. You can use the past perfect continuous instead of the past perfect: If they had been looking more carefully, they would have seen the signpost. D1lJ Grammar Reference

You can use could (not) have instead of would have to Mixed conditionals express possibility: Mixed conditional sentences are formed from two If Sally had been a centimetre taller, she could have clauses with different time references. The most become a police officer. common 'mixed' conditionals involve a clause You can use might (not) have instead of would have to express 'perhaps/perhaps not': from a second conditional and a clause from a third conditional. The if- clause can state the 'cause' or If he had known the film wasn't very good, he might not have gone to see it. 'reason' and refers to the past (third conditional), with the 'result' in the main clause referring to the present Formal forms (second conditional): (3rd) (2nd) In first conditionals, you can use should before the 1 If Sally hadn't tuned her violin .. . it wouldn't sound infinitive in the if-clause to add uncertainty or increase very nice. politeness : , (3rd) If he has a problem I'll sort it out for him. 2 If Tom had read the instructions more carefully, ... with his visa, (2nd) If he should have a he would know what to do . problem with his visa, These conditionals answer the question 'why?': If you need any help, I'll be in that office. 1 Why does Sally's violin sound okay? Because she If you should need tuned it. any help, 2 Why doesn't Tom know what to do? Because he In second conditionals, you can use were to like didn't read the instructions very carefully. should, above: Mixed conditionals of this type often express regret If we complained what would you do (or satisfaction) in the present for something that about the lack of about it? happened in the past: clean water, If I hadn't married Tom, I wouldn't be living in If we were to complain Australia. about the lack of clean water, They can express present possibilities based on past events: Alternatives to if If you had kept the receipt, we would give you your money back. You can usually use provided (or providing) and as The modals might or could can be used: long as instead of if: If I had started my own business ten years ago, Jim will land safely on the ground provided/ as long I might be better off by now. as his parachute opens. If she had studied languages at university, she Supposing (or suppose) means 'what if'. It can replace could be a translator. if in questions and comes first in the sentence: The time reference of the clauses can be reversed. The Supposing you missed the plane, what would if- clause (the cause or reason) can refer to the present you do? (second conditional), the main clause (the result) can refer to the past (third conditional) : Unless can be used to mean 'if ... not': You can't join if you can't/ swim 100 metres (2nd) (3rd) the swimming team unless you can in less than If his eyes weren't so bad, he would have seen the Don't sell your {5 seconds. road sign. shares :a.if there isn't/ I sharp fall in (He didn't see the road sign because his eyes are bad.) unless there is pnces. (2nd) (3rd) You can sit in if nobody else/ wants it. If Anna wasn't so clever she wouldn't have known a first-class seat unless someone how to take my blood pressure. else (Anna knew how to take my blood pressure because she is clever.) 11Grammar Reference

In mixed conditionals of this type, the reference to the You can often use if only instead of I wish. But the present makes it clear that the situation exists now. In result is more a thought than a voiced regret: 'pure' third conditionals, the time reference only refers to the past. I didn't have to commute to work every day. (2nd) (3rd) I wish/ I could get a job in advertising. If only English spelling was easier. If Jack wasn't interested in people, he wouldn't have credit card companies wouldn't keep sending me their offers. studied sociology at university. Comparatives and (Jack was and still is interested in people) superlatives (3rd) (3rd) If Jack hadn't been interested in people, he wouldn't have studied sociology at university. (Jack was interested in people, perhaps he still is, but we are not sure) • Wishes and regrets Comparatives Use wish + past simple for situations in the present Use as ... as ... to say that two elements are equal in that you would like to be different: some way. There are several structures you can use. The words just and nearly often come before I wish I didn't get so many unwanted emails. the first as: You can often use were instead of was, particularly in adjective formal English: as adverb as The young man is so unhappy that he often wishes he were somewhere else. much/many + noun Use wish + the past modal could (not would) to He plays tennis nearly as well as his girlfriend. express a regret about a personal lack of ability: I get paid just as much money as you. I wish I could swim further without taking a rest. There are just as many cafes in London as (there Use wish + the past modal didn't have to to express are) in Paris. lack of enthusiasm about an obligation: Object pronouns, nouns and clauses can follow the I wish I didn 't have to carry my identity papers with second as: me everywhere I go. That car is nearly as old as me. You can use wish + would to criticise other people or an aspect of the present situation that you are The food in Le Select is just as good as it was ten unhappy with: years ago. I wish she wouldn't keep talking about her children. Walking in London is often just as fast as taking I wish this computer would stop crashing. a bus. You can also use wish + would to talk about future Use the opposite structure not as ... as ... to talk about situations that you want to change: two elements that are unequal in some way. The words nowhere near, nothing like and not quite often come I wish someone would fix the central heating.. before the first as: You can use wish + past perfect to express regrets The sports car was nowhere near as fast as I had about the past: expected it to be. I wish the advertising agency kad thought of a better I can play the piano, but not quite as well as (I can brand name. play) the guitar. Flying in a hot-air balloon was nothing like as frightening as I thought it would be. I!J Grammar Reference

Use comparatives to compare people, groups and Degree: enough, too, so, such, as, like things. Use a comparative adjective (healthier, more exciting, etc.) or adverb (earlier, more carefully, etc.): enough Use enough (with the meaning of 'sufficient/ You won the silver medal but Emma Dean beat you sufficiently') after adjectives and adverbs: with a much faster time. His exam results were okay, but they weren't good Would you like to have your interview where there is enough to get him his university place. a greater degree of privacy? You're playing well enough to be in the team, but not well enough at the moment to be team captain. Use than to make comparisons between two different things of the same type: You often use to + infinitive after enough: 1 know you're physically fit but are you resilient The weather in many countries is now warmer and enough to keep going? wetter than it used to be. too Fiats are less expensive than Ferraris. Use too (with the meaning 'more than enough') before adjectives and adverbs: You can qualify the comparative with these wa-ds and expressions: Sally auditioned for a part in a Broadway play, but they said she was too small for the part. a bit a little much a great deal He tried to take a photo of the Tour de France cyclists, but they rode past far too quickly. slightly a lot far You often use too ... to + infinitive: Driving in a Mercedes is a great deal more It was 38 degrees in the shade yesterday. Far too hot comfortable than riding a scooter. to sunbathe. Book 2 in the series is slightly longer than Book 1. I ran out of time. I wrote too slowly to finish all the questions. She always does a bit better at English than maths. so and such You can also use the expression no (more) ... than in Use so before adjectives or adverbs, but not when a the same way as just as .. . as: noun follows: The film was no more frightening than the book. There probably are other planets, but they are so far The book was just as frightening as the film. away that astronomers can't see them. The trains are so unreliable (that) it's no wonder You can use the following structure to talk about two commuters get angry. things that happen together: Note that you can use so much or so many with a noun: the + comparative clause + the + comparative clause: 'You've got so many problems,' said the psychologist, The bigger the waves the better it is for surfing. 'I hardly know where to start.' The heavier the boxer the slower he moves round the ring. Use such before a noun (with or without an adjective): I haven't been to the cinema for such a long time Superlatives (that) I can hardly remember the last film I saw. Advertisers always want us to think they have such Use superlatives to compare one member of a wonderful products, whereas most of it is such rubbish. group with the whole group. Always use the with a superlative: as and like Use as as a preposition to mean 'in the role of': the best film the most exciting journey Mr Potter has been working as an accountant for You can qualify a superlative with these words and twenty years. expressions : But use like as a preposition when it means 'similar to': among one of two of Mr Potter doesn't look like an accountant. He's built more like a professional athlete. Shane Walker is among the best young writers in the country. Crossing the icy ridge was one of the most difficult parts of the flxpedition. IlDGrammar Reference

You also use as with adjectives to make comparisons: Emphatic structures with it and what Nothing seems as frightening the second time you You can use it is ... 1 it was ... , etc. to emphasise a do it. particular part of a sentence: Emphasis There were five members of the climbing team, but it was Bill who reached the summit first. Inversion It was very disappointing that I didn't reach the top. Use the word order you use for questions to give Use what is ... 1 what was ... to emphasise the subject emphasis: or object of a sentence: I have never heard such a frightening noise. What they saw when they reached the summit was a Never have I heard such a frightening r!oise. French flag fluttering in the wind. You can use inversion: There are various other expressions that can be added 1 after certain 'negative' adverbials: to the start of a sentence for emphasis: never ha rdly sca rcely The reason I'm here today is to tell you about art. rare ly litt le not for one minute The thing I like most about Harry is his generosity. not sin ce not until never before All he could talk about was his work. Hardly had he sat down when he started to talk. -ing forms as subject of a sentence Scarcely had she got home when the phone rang. You can use an -ing form as the subject of a sentence Little did they expect so many supporters to write to give emphasis: to them. Arguing with traffic wardens is a waste of time. 2 after expressions with only or no: Ph rasa I verbs onl y when not onl y the onl y in no way Adverbial phrasal verbs on no acco unt under no circum sta nces Adverbial phrasal verbs are made from a verb + an at no tim e no soo ne r adverb. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive (they have The only way to get anywhere quickly is to fly. no object): Although the trip wasn't very pleasant, at no time did I feel in any danger. The witness broke down when he was asked about her husband. You can use inversion to replace if in conditional He packed his rucksack and set off. sentences that include should, were or had: Transitive phrasal verbs (those with objects) are If you should need any help with your bags, please 'separable'. If the object is a noun, it can go: let the receptionist know. 1 between the verb and the particle: Should you need ... The police broke the demonstration up. If you were to stop messing around with your mobile Can you set your ideas down in writing? phone, you might learn a bit more. 2 or after the particle: Were you to stop ... The police broke up the demonstration. Can you set down your ideas in writing? If you hadn't tried to do three things at once, this would never have happened. But if the object is a pronoun, you must put it between Had you not tried ... the verb and the particle: The police broke it up. If you have any suggestions, please set them down in writing. II/D Grammar Reference

Prepositional phrasal verbs Three-part phrasal verbs Prepositional phrasal verbs are made from verbs A few phrasal verbs have three parts: verb + particle + a preposition. The verb and the preposition are + preposition. You cannot separate the verb from 'inseparable', so all objects whether they are nouns the other parts. All objects must come after the or pronouns must follow the particle: preposition: You should turn off the motorway at junction 2. He's going to do away with all his old mobile We've received your complaint and we'll look into it. phones. Is he going to completely get rid of them? Adverb particles can have several different meanings. For example, off can suggest: I've just run out of time. 1 a beginning of some kind: Go to bed early because we are setting off at dawn. 2 finishing or delaying: We 're going to finish off the lesson with a'quiz. I'm busy. I'll have to put the meeting off until tomorrow. 3 some kind of separation or disconnection: Workmen closed off the road to do maintenance work. Come in and take off your wet jacket. My phone has been cut off because I didn 't pay the bill. The particle in can suggest: 1 some kind of participation: Bob never joins in the fun . 2 some kind of deception: She was too clever to be taken in by the salesman's smooth talk. 3 some kind of collapse/ retirement due to pressure: 'Do you give in?' asked the wrestler, twisting the man's arm. Some phrasal verbs change their meaning when used with or without an object. For example, the particle out can suggest: 1 failure : My old car made a horrible noise and gave out five kilometres from the garage. 2 distribution: She stood in the market and gave out leaflets about her new shop. Grammar Reference I1!D

OXFORD Sources: p.34 www.nasa.gov. p.33 www.bbc.co.uk. p.34 http:lfnews.discovery.com. p.34 www.airspacemag.com. p.64 The Guardian, 18 September 2004. p.83 UNIVERSITY PRESS www.truthinscience.org.uk. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford , ox2 6DP, United Kingdom The publisher would like to thank the following for pennission to reproduce photographs:Alamy pp.14 (Girl with camerafChris LeschinskyfGlasshouse Images), (mosaic/BRYANT Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. NicolasfSAGAPHOTO.COM), 26 (galleryfAlex Segre), 27 (Armistice Parade/Colin ft furthers the University's objective ofexcellence in research, scholarship, Underhill), 28 (Brazilian boys/Sue Cunningham Photographic), 33 (Graph/Paul Gibbs), and education by publishing worldwide. 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Reproduced by permission of Geographical, the Aeneid, by Virgil (70 BC-19 BC), with Servius' commentary, manuscript 493, vellum, the magazine of the Royal Geographical Society (with LBG). p.26 Adapted extract from 1469. France, 15th century. Dijon, Bibliotheque Municipale De Dijon (Library) (Photo \"Lodigenous History: Native Americans get national museum\", http:JJwww.reuters.com , by DeAgostini), 114 (JudgeJMichael Kelley), 117 (auctionfMichael Kelley), 117 (man on 22 September 2004. Reproduced by permission ofReuters Ltd, a Thomson Reuters laptopfMECKY), 129 (Ceramic plate Painting by Tatsuya KodakafKei Uesugi), 130 (Damien Company. p.28 Adapted extract from \"Deep in the heart of the Amazon rainforest, HirstfMark Robert Milan/FilmMagic). 131 (Tate Modern/Justin Lightley), 136 (Frankfurt Geographical discovers ... a particularly painful rite of passage\" by Patrick Cunningham, train station/Robin MacDougall), 141 (polar bearfDavid Trood), 141 (Lightbulbfjml5571), www.geographical.co.uk, April2004. Reproduced by permission ofGeographical, the 146 (hydroelectric damfJohn Moore); Hemera Technologies pp.76, 118, 119 (Handbag), magazine of the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG). p.34 Adapted extract from 119 (Books); Illustration Source p.65 (businesswoman graphic/James Endicott); NASA/JSC \"Investing in Our Future: Does Lovesting in Space Exploration Help or Hinder Progress p.91; Nature Picture Library p.28 (Wasp/Premaphotos); Ogilvy & Mather p.122 (toothpaste/ Towards Prosperity?\" by Richard Garriott de Cayeux, HuffingtonPost, 5 September 2012. Erick Sulistio), (hotwheelsfjavier Cresp); Oxford University Press pp.30 (Sydney Opera Reproduced by permission of Richard Garriott de Cayeux. p.40 Adapted extract from HousefPhotodisc), 31 (UlurufAyers RockfPhotodisc), 33 (storm/Stockbyte), 34 (astronaut/ \"Shh ... your real age is an open secret\" by Saralt-Kate Templeton, The Sunday Times, Photodisc), 39 (playfComstock) 44 (storm/Stockbyte), 117 (clothes sh opfPunchstockf 24 October 2004. Reproduced by permission of News Syndication. p.46 Adapted extract Photodisc green); Press Association Images p.135 (Ronnie O'SullivanfEmpics); Rex from \"More than just a pretty face\" by John Elliott and John Gerritsen, The Sunday Times, Features pp.14 (Singing/Image Source), 14 (Paint ballingJSipa Press), 21 (Cat festival/ 28 November 2004. Reproduced by permission of News Syndication. p.53 Adapted Christophe Potigny), 70 (Superman/Everett Collection), 70 (Spider manfc.Columbia/ extract from \"Will these creatures one day stalk the Earth?\" by John Triggs, Daily Express. Everett), pp.74 (Beyonce/Rex), 82 (Bill BrysonfRay Tang), 9495 (I Robot 2004/Moviestore 26 August 2004. Reproduced by pennission of Express Newspapers. p.57 Adapted extract Collection), 138 (Life of Pi 2012/20th Century FoxfEverett), 139 (Django Unchained 2012/ from \"lOO ways to get fit\" by Andy Darling, The Guardian, 15 January 2005. Copyright WeinsteinfEverett); Science Photo Library pp.64 (mosquitofVolker Steger), 82 (Big Bang Guardian News & Media Ltd 2005. p.59 Adapted extract from \"Is it possible to be too fit?\" artwork/Henning Dalhoff); 124 (Jim SmealfBEI), 148/149 (Tess Peni), 148 (Weee man{fony by David Adam and David Munk, The Guardian, 10 June 2003. Copyright Guardian News Kyriacou), 148 (Elrington sculpture 1/John Wright); Ronald Grant Archive pp.71 (Universal & Media Ltd 2003. p.lOO Adapted extract from \"Revealed - the meaning of life\" by Julian Pictures), 87 (Sydney Street): Science Photo Library p.146 (Nuclear power station/ Baggini, The Guardian, 20 September 2004. Copyright Guardian News & Media Ltd 2004. Colin Cuthbert); The Future is Wild pp.52 (Ocean fish), 52 (Megasquid), 53 (Toraton), p.107 Adapted extract from Writing Crime Fiction by Lesley Grant-Adamson, Teach Yourself 53 (Snowstalker); Shutterstock pp.14 (car restorationfHurst Photo), 16 (cloverfLionel Books , (2003). Copyright© 2003 reprint edition by Lesley Grant-Adamson. Reproduced by B), 33 (geese/Ana Gram). 33 (beesfHan maomin), 35 (MarsJJames Steidl), 39 (researcher/ permission ofHodder and Stoughton Limited. p.112 Adapted extract from \"Is personal PhotoSky), 62 (mature manfauremar). 62 (ophthalmologistflakov Filimonov), 79 (mouse/ freedom a thing of the past?\", The Guardian, 25 September 2004. Copyright Guardian Alexander Kalina), 82 (evolution/Andre Jabali), 89 (dinosaurfRobert Adrian Hillman) News & Media Ltd 2004. p.118 Adapted extract from \"Everything must go\" by Simon O'Hagan, British Airways' Business Life, October 2004. Reproduced by permission ofSimon nlustrations by: Gill Button 13, 49, 72, 100, 102 103 121; Rod Clark/Art Market 93, 104; O'Hagan. p.124 Adapted exn·act from \"bling-bling\" by Ekow Eshun, British Airways' Melvyn Evans p.lOl; Oliver Gaiger 41 96; Stephane Gamain 57, 68; Brian Grimwood pp.9, Business Life, October 2004. Reproduced by pennission ofD~Vid Godwin Associates. p.141 20, 69, 80: Sarah NylerfNB pp.17,29, 42-43; Ali Pellat pp.l5, 25, 36-37,61, 85, 97, 109, 133, Adapted extract from \"The oil under this wilderness will last the US six months. But soon 145; David Tazzyman pp.113, 137. the drilling will begin\" by John Vidal, The Guardian, 18 March 2005. Copyright Guardian News & Media Ltd 2005. p.143 Adapted extract from \"Pressure points\" by !an Sample, The Grammar reference by: Ken Singleton Guardian, 14 October 2004. Copyright Guardian News & Media Ltd 2004. p.149 Adapted extract from \"Cardboard bicycle can change the world, says Israeli inventor\" by Ori Lewis Although every effort has been made to trace and contact copyright holders before publication, this and Lianna Gross, www.reuters.com, 15 October 2012. Reproduced by permission ofPars has not been possible in some cases. We apologise for any apparent infringement ofcopyright and, International. All rights reserved. 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